Vol 461|8 October 2009
NEWS
Fossil rewrites early human evolution
Ethiopian find dates back 4.4 million years.
A 17-year investigation into a fossilized early
human skeleton from Ethiopia culminated last
week with 11 papers published in Science.
Detailed descriptions of the skeleton, of a
fairly complete 4.4-million-year-old female,
show that humans did not evolve from ancient
knuckle-walking chimpanzees, as has long
been believed. The new fossils of Ardipithecus
ramidus — known as ‘Ardi’ — offer the first
substantial view of the biology of a species
close to the time of the last common ances-
tor shared by humans and apes. Like modern
humans, Ardi could walk upright (see depic-
tion, right) and didn’t use her arms for walking,
as chimps do. Still, she retains a primitive big
toe that could grasp a tree like an ape1.
Previously, the oldest near-complete skele-
ton of an early human was the 3.2-million-
year-old Australopithecus afarensis skeleton
known as Lucy, also from Ethiopia. Because
Lucy had many traits in common with modern
humans, she didn’t provide much of a picture of
the earlier lineage between apes and humans,
says Alan Walker, a biological anthropologist
at Pennsylvania State University in University
Park. The new A. ramidus “is so much more
important — and strange”, he says.
The earliest Ardipithecus, A. kadabba, lived
around 5.8 million years ago in Ethiopia2. The
other oldest known hominids are Orrorin tugen-
ensis, from about 6 million years ago in Kenya3,
and Sahelanthropus tchadensis, from at least
6 million years ago in Chad4 (see graphic).
In addition to describing the fossils, the
Science papers provide details about the geol-
KNOWN HUMAN ANCESTORS
Ardipithecus
Ar. kadabba
ethiopia
pia
Orrorin
O. tugenensis
kenya
S
Sahelanthropus
S. tchadensis
chad
7 6
ogy and palaeoenvironment of the discov-
ery site, in the Afar desert 230 kilometres
northeast of Addis Ababa. The research
team, known as the Middle Awash
Project, involves 70 investigators, 47 of
whom are authors on the papers.
In 1992, team member Gen Suwa
found the first specimen of A. ramidus
near the Ethiopian village of Aramis.
Within two years, enough fossils
had been found to produce the first
article that named and sketchily
described the animal, from a total
of 17 fossils5.
Some researchers have complained how
long it has taken to publish work about the
fossils. But Berhane Asfaw, a co-director
of the Middle Awash Project at the Rift
Valley Research Service in Addis Ababa, says:
“We weren’t interested in how many papers
we could publish. Our interest was in the full
chain of information; that produces the power
of the work.”
From more than 135,000 vertebrate bone or
tooth pieces, the team identified 110 as being
from A. ramidus, representing a minimum of
36 individuals. The fossils come from a sedi-
ment layer sandwiched between two layers of
volcanic rock known as tuff — each dated to
4.4 million years ago, says a team led by Giday
WoldeGabriel, of Los Alamos National Labora-
tory in New Mexico. Fossils in the sediments
include plants, pollen, invertebrates and birds,
which helped to pinpoint the woodland envi-
ronment where Ardi lived.
Ar. ramidus
Ardi skeleton
ethiopia, kenya Kenyanthropus platyops?
kenya
Australopithecus
Au. afarensis
Lucy skeleton
ethiopia, tanzania
Au. africanus
Au. anamensis south africa
kenya, ethiopia
Au. bahrelghazali? Au. aethiopicus
chad eastern africa
5 4 3 2
Million years ago
© 2009 Macmillan Publishers Limited. All rights reserved
Years of field work uncovered Ardi’s
© 2009, J. H. MATTERNES
skull, teeth, arms, hands, pelvis, legs
and feet — all of which had to be
painstakingly prepared. Ardi’s skull
was recovered crushed in more than
60 pieces that were broken and scat-
tered about. The bone was poorly
fossilized — so soft that each piece
had to be moulded in a silicon rub-
ber cast then digitized by computed
tomography scans.
Ardi’s hands and wrists don’t
show several distinctive chimp
characteristics, such as some larger
bones and a tendon ‘shock absorber’
system to withstand bodyweight, says
team member Owen Lovejoy of Kent
State University in Ohio. The foot,
with its big toe sticking out sideways, would
have allowed Ardi to clamber in trees, walk-
ing along branches on her palms. And her
teeth show no tusk-like upper canines, which
most apes have for weapons or display during
conflict. “This is a major feature showing that
Ardi is not in the lineage of modern chimps,”
Suwa says. ■
Rex Dalton
1. White, T. D. et al. Science 326, 75–86 (2009).
2. Haile-Selassie, Y. Nature 412, 178–181 (2001).
3. Senut, B. et al. C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris Ser. IIa 332, 137–144
(2001).
4. Brunet, M. et al. Nature 418, 145–151 (2002).
5. White, T. D., Suwa, G. & Asfaw, B. Nature 371, 306–312
(1994).
For a longer version of this story, see
go.nature.com/gSAuY5
SCIENCE
Homo H. floresiensis
H. heidelbergensis indonesia
europe
H. habilis H. neanderthalensis
sub-saharan
H. erectus
africa and asia europe and asia
africa
H. sapiens
worldwide
Au.
A garhi Au. rudolfensis
ethiopia eastern africa
Au. robustus
south africa
Au. boisei
eastern africa
1 Present
705
 ‫أﺣﻔورة ﺗﻌﯾد ﻛﺗﺎﺑﺔ اﻟﺗطور اﻟﺑﺷري‬
‫أﺣﻔورة أﺛﯾوﺑﯾﺔ وﺟدت وﯾرﺟﻊ زﻣﻧﮭﺎ اﻟﻲ ‪ 4.4‬ﻣﻠﯾون ﺳﻧﺔ‬
‫‪h%ps://www.nature.com/ar4cles/461705a‬‬
‫ﺑﻠﻎ اﻟﺑﺣث اﻟذي دام ‪ 17‬ﻋﺎًﻣﺎ ﻓﻲ اﻟﮭﯾﻛل اﻟﻌظﻣﻲ اﻟﺑﺷري اﻟﻣﺗﺣﺟر اﻟﻣﺑﻛر ﻣن إﺛﯾوﺑﯾﺎ ذروﺗﮫ‬
‫اﻷﺳﺑوع اﻟﻣﺎﺿﻲ ﺑﻧﺷر ‪ 11‬ورﻗﺔ ﺑﺣﺛﯾﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺟﻠﺔ ‪.Science‬‬
‫اﻷوﺻﺎف اﻟﺗﻔﺻﯾﻠﯾﺔ ﻟﻠﮭﯾﻛل اﻟﻌظﻣﻲ ﻷﻧﺛﻰ ﻛﺎﻣﻠﺔ إﻟﻰ ﺣد ﻣﺎ ﺗﺑﻠﻎ ﻣن اﻟﻌﻣر ‪ 4.4‬ﻣﻠﯾون ﺳﻧﺔ‪،‬‬
‫ﺗظﮭر أن اﻟﺑﺷر ﻟم ﯾﺗطوروا ﻣن اﻟﺷﻣﺑﺎﻧزي اﻟﻘدﯾم اﻟذي ﯾﻣﺷﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﻔﺎﺻل اﻷﺻﺎﺑﻊ‪ ،‬ﻛﻣﺎ‬
‫ﻛﺎن ﯾﻌﺗﻘد ﻣﻧذ ﻓﺗرة طوﯾﻠﺔ‪ .‬ﺗﻘدم اﻟﺣﻔرﯾﺎت اﻟﺟدﯾدة ﻷردﯾﺑﯾﺛﯾﻛوس راﻣﯾدوس‬
‫)‪ - (Ardipithecus ramidus‬اﻟﻣﻌروﻓﺔ ﺑﺎﺳم آردي "‪ - "Ardi‬أول رؤﯾﺔ ﺟوھرﯾﺔ‬
‫ﻟﺑﯾوﻟوﺟﯾﺔ ﻧوع ﻗرﯾب ﻣن زﻣن آﺧر ﺳﻠف ﻣﺷﺗرك ﻣﺷﺗرك ﺑﯾن اﻟﺑﺷر واﻟﻘردة‪ .‬ﻣﺛل اﻟﺑﺷر‬
‫اﻟﻣﻌﺎﺻرﯾن‪ ،‬اﺳﺗطﺎﻋت آردي اﻟﻣﺷﻲ ﻣﻧﺗﺻﺑﺔ )اﻧظر اﻟﺻورة‪ ،‬ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﯾﻣﯾن( وﻟم ﺗﺳﺗﺧدم‬
‫ذراﻋﯾﮭﺎ ﻟﻠﻣﺷﻲ‪ ،‬ﻛﻣﺎ ﯾﻔﻌل اﻟﺷﻣﺑﺎﻧزي‪ .‬وﻣﻊ ذﻟك‪ ،‬ﻓﮭﻲ ﺗﺣﺗﻔظ ﺑﺈﺻﺑﻊ ﻗدم ﻛﺑﯾر ﺑداﺋﻲ ﯾﻣﻛﻧﮫ‬
‫اﻹﻣﺳﺎك ﺑﺎﻟﺷﺟرة ﻣﺛل اﻟﻘرد )‪(1‬‬
‫ﻓﻲ اﻟﺳﺎﺑق‪ ،‬ﻛﺎن أﻗدم ھﯾﻛل ﻋظﻣﻲ ﺷﺑﮫ ﻣﻛﺗﻣل ﻟﻺﻧﺳﺎن اﻟﻘدﯾم )‪ (early human‬ھو‬
‫اﻟﮭﯾﻛل اﻟﻌظﻣﻲ ﻷﺳﺗراﻟوﺑﯾﺛﯾﻛوس أﻓﺎرﯾﻧﯾﺳﯾس )‪(Australopithecus afarensis‬‬
‫ﺿﺎ ﻣن إﺛﯾوﺑﯾﺎ‪.‬‬‫اﻟﺑﺎﻟﻎ ﻣن اﻟﻌﻣر ‪ 3.2‬ﻣﻠﯾون ﺳﻧﺔ واﻟﻣﻌروف ﺑﺎﺳم ﻟوﺳﻲ )‪ ،(Lucy‬وھو أﯾ ً‬
‫ﯾﻘول آﻻن ووﻛر )‪ ،(Alan Walker‬ﻋﺎِﻟم اﻷﻧﺛروﺑوﻟوﺟﯾﺎ اﻟﺑﯾوﻟوﺟﯾﺔ ﺑﺟﺎﻣﻌﺔ وﻻﯾﺔ ﺑﻧﺳﻠﻔﺎﻧﯾﺎ‬
‫ﻓﻲ ﯾوﻧﯾﻔﯾرﺳﯾﺗﻲ ﺑﺎرك‪ ،‬إن ﻟوﺳﻲ ﻛﺎﻧت ﺗﻣﺗﻠك اﻟﻌدﯾد ﻣن اﻟﺳﻣﺎت اﻟﻣﺷﺗرﻛﺔ ﻣﻊ اﻹﻧﺳﺎن‬
‫اﻟﺣدﯾث‪ ،‬ﻟﻛﻧﮭﺎ ﻟم ﺗﻘدم ﺻورة واﺿﺣﺔ ﻋن اﻟﺳﻼﻟﺔ اﻟﻣﺑﻛرة ﺑﯾن اﻟﻘرود واﻟﺑﺷر اﻟﺗﻲ‬
‫ﺳﺑﻘﺗﮭﺎ‪ .‬وﯾﻘول إن آردﯾﺑﯾﺛﯾﻛوس راﻣﯾدوس )‪ (A. ramidus‬اﻟﺟدﯾد "ﻏرﯾب وأﻛﺛر أھﻣﯾﺔ‬
‫ﺑﻛﺛﯾر"‪.‬‬
‫أﻗدم )ﻋﺿو ﻣن( اﻷردﯾﺑﯾﺛﯾﻛوس )‪ ،(Ardipithecus‬ھو اﻷردﯾﺑﯾﺛﯾﻛوس ﻛﺎداﺑﺎ ) ‪A.‬‬
‫‪ ،(kadabba‬ﻋﺎش ﻣﻧذ ﺣواﻟﻲ ‪ 5.8‬ﻣﻠﯾون ﺳﻧﺔ ﻓﻲ إﺛﯾوﺑﯾﺎ )‪.(2‬‬
‫أﻗدم اﻟﻛﺎﺋﻧﺎت اﻟﺑﺷرﯾﺔ اﻟﻣﻌروﻓﺔ اﻷﺧرى ھﻲ اﻷورورﯾون ﺗوﺟﯾﻧﯾﻧﺳﯾس ) ‪Orrorin‬‬
‫‪(،tugenensis‬ﻣﻧذ ﺣواﻟﻲ ‪ 6‬ﻣﻼﯾﯾن ﺳﻧﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻛﯾﻧﯾﺎ )‪ (3‬وﺳﺎھﯾﻼﻧﺛروﺑوس ﺗﺷﺎدﯾﻧﺳﯾس‬
‫)‪ ،(Sahelanthropus tchadensis‬ﻣﻧذ ‪ 6‬ﻣﻼﯾﯾن ﺳﻧﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻷﻗل ﻓﻲ ﺗﺷﺎد )‪) (4‬اﻧظر‬
‫اﻟرﺳم اﻟﺑﯾﺎﻧﻲ(‪.‬‬
‫ﺑﺎﻹﺿﺎﻓﺔ إﻟﻰ وﺻف اﻟﺣﻔرﯾﺎت‪ ،‬ﺗوﻓر اﻷوراق اﻟﻌﻠﻣﯾﺔ ﺗﻔﺎﺻﯾل ﺣول اﻟﺟﯾوﻟوﺟﯾﺎ واﻟﺑﯾﺋﺔ‬
‫اﻟﻘدﯾﻣﺔ ﻟﻣوﻗﻊ اﻻﻛﺗﺷﺎف‪ ،‬ﻓﻲ ﺻﺣراء ﻋﻔﺎر‪ ،‬ﻋﻠﻰ ﺑﻌد ‪ 230‬ﻛﯾﻠوﻣﺗًرا ﺷﻣﺎل ﺷرق أدﯾس‬
‫أﺑﺎﺑﺎ‪ .‬ﯾﺿم ﻓرﯾق اﻟﺑﺣث‪ ،‬اﻟﻣﻌروف ﺑﺎﺳم ﻣﺷروع ﻣﯾدل أواش‪ 70 ،‬ﺑﺎﺣﺛ ًﺎ‪ 47 ،‬ﻣﻧﮭم ﻣؤﻟﻔون‬
‫ﻟﻸﺑﺣﺎث‪ .‬ﻓﻲ ﻋﺎم ‪ ،1992‬ﻋﺛر ﻋﺿو اﻟﻔرﯾق اﻟﺟﻧرال ﺳوا ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻌﯾﻧﺔ اﻷوﻟﻰ ﻣن‬
‫أردﯾﺑﯾﺛﯾﻛوس راﻣﯾدوس )‪ (A. ramidus‬ﺑﺎﻟﻘرب ﻣن ﻗرﯾﺔ أراﻣﯾس اﻹﺛﯾوﺑﯾﺔ‪ .‬وﻓﻲ ﻏﺿون‬
‫ﻋﺎﻣﯾن‪ ،‬ﺗم اﻟﻌﺛور ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺎ ﯾﻛﻔﻲ ﻣن اﻟﺣﻔرﯾﺎت ﻹﻧﺗﺎج اﻟﻣﻘﺎﻟﺔ اﻷوﻟﻰ اﻟﺗﻲ ذﻛرت اﺳم‬
‫اﻟﺣﯾوان ووﺻﻔﺗﮫ ﺑﺷﻛل ﺗﺧطﯾطﻲ‪ ،‬ﻣن إﺟﻣﺎﻟﻲ ‪ 17‬ﺣﻔرﯾﺔ )‪.(5‬‬
 ‫وﻗد اﺷﺗﻛﻰ ﺑﻌض اﻟﺑﺎﺣﺛﯾن ﻣن اﻟوﻗت اﻟذي ﯾﺳﺗﻐرﻗﮫ ﻧﺷر اﻟﻌﻣل ﺣول اﻟﺣﻔرﯾﺎت‪ .‬ﻟﻛن‬
‫ﺑرھﺎﻧﻲ أﺳﻔﺎو‪ ،‬اﻟﻣدﯾر اﻟﻣﺷﺎرك ﻟﻣﺷروع ﻣﯾدل أواش ﻓﻲ ﺧدﻣﺔ أﺑﺣﺎث اﻟوادي اﻟﻣﺗﺻدع ﻓﻲ‬
‫أدﯾس أﺑﺎﺑﺎ‪ ،‬ﯾﻘول‪" :‬ﻟم ﻧﻛن ﻣﮭﺗﻣﯾن ﺑﻌدد اﻷوراق اﻟﺑﺣﺛﯾﺔ اﻟﺗﻲ ﯾﻣﻛﻧﻧﺎ ﻧﺷرھﺎ‪ .‬ﻛﺎن اھﺗﻣﺎﻣﻧﺎ‬
‫ﺑﺎﻟﺳﻠﺳﻠﺔ اﻟﻛﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﻟﻠﻣﻌﻠوﻣﺎت؛ اﻟذي ﯾﻧﺗﺞ ﻗوة اﻟﻌﻣل‪".‬‬

‫وﻣن ﺑﯾن أﻛﺛر ﻣن ‪ 135,000‬ﻗطﻌﺔ ﻣن ﻋظﺎم أو أﺳﻧﺎن اﻟﻔﻘﺎرﯾﺎت‪ ،‬ﺣدد اﻟﻔرﯾق ‪ 110‬ﻣﻧﮭﺎ‬
‫ﺗﻧﺗﻣﻲ إﻟﻰ أردﯾﺑﯾﺛﯾﻛوس راﻣﯾدوس )‪ ،(A. ramidus‬وھو ﻣﺎ ﯾﻣﺛل ﻣﺎ ﻻ ﯾﻘل ﻋن ‪ 36‬ﻓردًا‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﺄﺗﻲ اﻟﺣﻔرﯾﺎت ﻣن طﺑﻘﺔ رﺳوﺑﯾﺔ ﻣﺣﺻورة ﺑﯾن طﺑﻘﺗﯾن ﻣن اﻟﺻﺧور اﻟﺑرﻛﺎﻧﯾﺔ اﻟﻣﻌروﻓﺔ‬
‫ﺑﺎﺳم اﻟطﻔﺔ اﻟﺑرﻛﺎﻧﯾﺔ )‪ ،(tuff‬وﯾﻌود ﺗﺎرﯾﺦ ﻛل ﻣﻧﮭﻣﺎ إﻟﻰ ﻣﺎ ﻗﺑل ‪ 4.4‬ﻣﻠﯾون ﺳﻧﺔ‪ ،‬ﺣﺳﺑﻣﺎ‬
‫ﯾﻘول ﻓرﯾق ﺑﻘﯾﺎدة ﺟﯾداي ووﻟد ﻏﺎﺑرﯾﯾل‪ ،‬ﻣن ﻣﺧﺗﺑر ﻟوس أﻻﻣوس اﻟوطﻧﻲ ﻓﻲ ﻧﯾو ﻣﻛﺳﯾﻛو‪.‬‬
‫وﺗﺷﻣل اﻟﺣﻔرﯾﺎت اﻟﻣوﺟودة ﻓﻲ اﻟرواﺳب اﻟﻧﺑﺎﺗﺎت وﺣﺑوب اﻟﻠﻘﺎح واﻟﻼﻓﻘﺎرﯾﺎت واﻟطﯾور‪،‬‬
‫ﻣﻣﺎ ﺳﺎﻋد ﻓﻲ ﺗﺣدﯾد ﺑﯾﺋﺔ اﻟﻐﺎﺑﺎت اﻟﺗﻲ ﻋﺎش ﻓﯾﮭﺎ أردي‪.‬‬

‫ﻛﺷﻔت ﺳﻧوات ﻣن اﻟﻌﻣل اﻟﻣﯾداﻧﻲ ﻋن ﺟﻣﺟﻣﺔ أردي وأﺳﻧﺎﻧﮫ وذراﻋﯾﮫ وﯾدﯾﮫ وﺣوﺿﮫ‬
‫وﺳﺎﻗﯾﮫ وﻗدﻣﯾﮫ‪ ،‬واﻟﺗﻲ ﻛﺎن ﻻ ﺑد ﻣن إﻋدادھﺎ ﺑﻌﻧﺎﯾﺔ ﻓﺎﺋﻘﺔ‪ .‬ﺗم اﻧﺗﺷﺎل ﺟﻣﺟﻣﺔ أردي ﻣﺣطﻣﺔ‬
‫إﻟﻰ أﻛﺛر ﻣن ‪ 60‬ﻗطﻌﺔ ﻛﺎﻧت ﻣﻛﺳورة وﻣﺗﻧﺎﺛرة‪ .‬وﻛﺎن اﻟﻌظم ﻣﺗﺣﺟًرا ﺑﺷﻛل ﺳﯾﺊ‪ ،‬وطرﯾًﺎ‬
‫ﻟدرﺟﺔ أﻧﮫ ﻛﺎن ﻻ ﺑد ﻣن ﻗوﻟﺑﺔ ﻛل ﻗطﻌﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻗﺎﻟب ﻣن ﻣطﺎط اﻟﺳﯾﻠﯾﻛون ﺛم رﻗﻣﻧﺗﮭﺎ ﺑواﺳطﺔ‬
‫ﻋﻣﻠﯾﺎت اﻟﻣﺳﺢ ﺑﺎﻟﺗﺻوﯾر اﻟﻣﻘطﻌﻲ اﻟﻣﺣوﺳب‪.‬‬
‫ﻻ ﺗ ُظﮭر ﯾدي أردي وﻣﻌﺻﻣﯾﮫ اﻟﻌدﯾد ﻣن اﻟﺧﺻﺎﺋص اﻟﻣﻣﯾزة ﻟﻠﺷﻣﺑﺎﻧزي‪ ،‬ﻣﺛل ﺑﻌض اﻟﻌظﺎم‬
‫اﻷﻛﺑر ﺣﺟًﻣﺎ وﻧظﺎم اﻷوﺗﺎر "ﻻﻣﺗﺻﺎص اﻟﺻدﻣﺎت" ﻟﺗﺣﻣل وزن اﻟﺟﺳم‪ ،‬ﻛﻣﺎ ﯾﻘول ﻋﺿو‬
‫اﻟﻔرﯾق أوﯾن ﻟوﻓﺟوي ﻣن ﺟﺎﻣﻌﺔ وﻻﯾﺔ ﻛﯾﻧت ﻓﻲ أوھﺎﯾو‪.‬‬
‫ﻛﺎﻧت اﻟﻘدم‪ ،‬ﻣﻊ إﺻﺑﻊ ﻗدﻣﮭﺎ اﻟﻛﺑﯾر اﻟﺑﺎرز إﻟﻰ اﻟﺧﺎرج‪ ،‬ﺗﺳﻣﺢ ﻷردي ﺑﺗﺳﻠق اﻷﺷﺟﺎر‪،‬‬
‫واﻟﻣﺷﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ طول أﻏﺻﺎن راﺣﺗﯾﮭﺎ )راﺣﺔ اﻟﯾد(‪.‬‬
‫وﻻ ﺗظﮭر أﺳﻧﺎن آردي اﻷﻧﯾﺎب اﻟﻌﻠوﯾﺔ اﻟﺗﻲ ﺗﺷﺑﮫ اﻷﻧﯾﺎب‪ ،‬واﻟﺗﻲ ﺗﻣﺗﻠﻛﮭﺎ ﻣﻌظم اﻟﻘرود‬
‫ﻟﻸﺳﻠﺣﺔ أو ﻟﻠﻌرض أﺛﻧﺎء اﻟﺻراع‪ .‬ﯾﻘول ﺳوا‪" :‬ھذه ﺳﻣﺔ رﺋﯾﺳﯾﺔ ﺗوﺿﺢ أن أردي ﻟﯾس‬
‫ﻣن ﺳﻼﻟﺔ اﻟﺷﻣﺑﺎﻧزي اﻟﺣدﯾث"‪.‬‬