CHAPTER 26

**Chapter 26: Health, Safety, and the Environment**

**WHAT YOU WILL LEARN:**

- The basics of health, safety, and environmental considerations in chemical engineering.

- The categorization of health, safety, and environmental regulations by the U.S. government.

- The focus on risk assessment and reduction in chemical engineering.

- Measures and statistics for assessing risks in different activities.

- The importance of worst-case scenarios and their role in risk management.

- The ethical responsibilities of chemical engineers in communicating risks.

**INTRODUCTION:**

One of the primary objectives of chemical engineering is to contribute to the betterment of human
life by producing goods and services. This includes a commitment to enhancing health, safety, and
environmental standards. This chapter delves into the assessment of potential dangers to health,
safety, and the environment, with a focus on general concepts and strategies that transcend specific
regulations.

**26.1 RISK ASSESSMENT:**

- *26.1.1 Accident Statistics:*

- Chemical engineers aim to quantify risks to provide a rational basis for decision-making.

- Measures like OSHA incidence rate, fatal accident rate (FAR), and fatality rate help assess risks.

- Comparisons of these rates reveal that chemical process industries are relatively safe for workers.

**Table 26.1 Comparison of Three Risk Measurements:**

```

Activity | OSHA Incident Rate | Fatal Accident Rate | Fatality Rate

-------------------------|--------------------|---------------------|---------------

Working in chemical | 1.9 | 2.8 |

industry |
 Staying at home |3 | |

Working in construction | 2.8 | 11.1 |

Traveling by car | 57 | 170 × 10 |

Rock climbing | 4000 | 40 × 10 |

Smoking (1 pack per day) | 5000 × 10 |

Being struck by lightning | 1 × 10 |

```

Source: Crowl, D. A., and J. F. Louvar, Chemical Process Safety: Fundamentals with Applications, 3rd
ed. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2011) [1].

- The statistics are crucial for monitoring improvements in health and safety resulting from process
modifications.

- *26.1.2 Worst-Case Scenarios:*

- Worst-case scenarios involve imagining the most severe consequences of an operation.

- These studies, required by some government agencies, aid in identifying ways to prevent serious
accidents.

- The development of worst-case scenarios is subjective, but guidelines are established by agencies
like the EPA.

- Despite difficulties, worst-case-scenario analyses are valuable for risk management plans.

- *26.1.3 The Role of the Chemical Engineer:*

- Chemical engineers, as experts in the risks associated with chemical processing, have a
responsibility to communicate these risks.

- Communicating risks to various stakeholders, including the public, is challenging but crucial for
ethical reasons and industry integrity.

- Failure to communicate risks transparently can have significant consequences, as seen in the
nuclear power industry's history of public mistrust.

26.2 REGULATIONS AND AGENCIES

Overview:
Rules and regulations are established by governmental and nongovernmental organizations, subject
to constant changes.

The Federal Register (FR) publishes federal government rules, while the Code of Federal Regulations
(CFR) compiles them annually.

Various federal agencies have internet resources, but only ".gov" addresses are official.

Federal Agencies Internet Addresses:

Code of Federal Regulations (CFR): http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys

Federal Register (FR) and U.S. Code: http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys

DOT regulations (FR and 49 CFR): http://www.phmsa.dot.gov/hazmat/regs

EPA regulations (FR and 40 CFR): http://www.epa.gov/lawsregs

MSHA regulations (FR and 30 CFR): http://www.msha.gov/regsinfo.htm

NIOSH databases: http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/database.html

OSHA regulations (FR and 29 CFR): http://www.osha.gov

Private Sources:

Private firms compile federal regulations more quickly and sell their compendia tailored to customer
needs.

State and Local Regulations:

State and local regulations are available in hard copy and online. Direct contact with agencies is
recommended for completeness.

Nongovernmental Organizations:

Contact nongovernmental organizations directly for their rules, but exercise caution with online
information due to potential inaccuracies.

26.2.1 OSHA and NIOSH

Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA):

OSHA regulates worker safety and health, excluding mining (regulated by MSHA).
OSHA Act of 1970 establishes employer responsibility for providing a safe workplace, with a focus on
hazards recognized by the employer.

Search for Chemical Hazards Data:

Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS) and Hazardous Substances Data Bank (HSDB) are useful
databases.

Exposure Limits:

Permissible Exposure Limits (PEL), Threshold Limit Values (TLV), and Recommended Exposure Limits
(REL) are time-weighted averages.

Hazard Communication Standard:

29CFR1910.1200, known as HazCom, mandates employee training on substance hazards and proper
handling.

Safety Data Sheets (SDS):

Required for hazardous chemicals, SDSs provide information on identification, hazards, handling, and
emergency procedures.

26.2.2 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

EPA Role:

EPA protects the environment from human activity effects, primarily focusing on emissions from
plants by air or water.

Emission Classes:

Planned Emissions: Permits required for construction or operation, involving environmental impact
statements.

Fugitive Emissions: Unintended losses, often substantial, requiring ongoing reduction efforts.

Emergency Releases: Catastrophic events necessitate effective emergency plans and community
communication.

Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990:

Focus on volatile organic compounds (VOCs), hazardous air pollutants (HAP), and ozone precursors.
Emergency Planning and Community Right to Know Act (EPCRA) of 1986:

Mandates community information on hazardous materials, collaborative emergency planning, and

public release reporting.

EPA Risk Management Program:

40 CFR 68 requires Risk Management Plans (RMP) for stationary sources with regulated substances,
covering hazard assessment, prevention, and emergency response.

Coordination with OSHA's Process Safety Management (PSM) standard is essential.

Hazard assessment includes worst-case and non-worst-case scenarios, analyzed for air dispersion
effects.

Conclusion:

Regulations by OSHA and EPA aim to ensure workplace safety, minimize environmental impact, and
facilitate community awareness and response. Adherence to standards and collaboration with
agencies is crucial for compliance and overall safety.

**26.2.3 Nongovernmental Organizations:**

- **Overview:**

- Many professional societies and industry associations create voluntary standards.

- These standards are often adopted by government agencies, acquiring the force of law.

- **Examples of Organizations and Standards:**

- **American Petroleum Institute (API):** Recommended Practices 750

- **American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE)**

- **Center for Chemical Process Safety (CCPS)**

- **Design Institute for Emergency Relief Systems (DIERS)**

- **American National Standards Institute (ANSI)**

- **American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)**

- **National Fire Protection Association (NFPA):** Fire Diamond

- **American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH):** TLVs

- **American Chemistry Council:** Responsible Care program

 - **Synthetic Organic Chemicals Manufacturers Association (SOCMA)**

- **American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME):** Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code

- **Responsible Care Program:**

- Chemical industry initiative established in 1988.

- Members (about 160 companies) commit to health, safety, and environmental standards.

- Key areas include environmental impact, safety, energy, security, product stewardship,
accountability, and economic contribution.

**26.3 FIRES AND EXPLOSIONS:**

- **Common Hazards:**

- Fires and explosions are prevalent hazards on chemical plant sites.

- Existence of fuel, oxidizer, and ignition source creates potential hazards.

- **26.3.1 Terminology:**

- **Combustion:** Rapid oxidation of fuel; sustained above auto-ignition temperature.

- **Ignition Energy:** Minimum energy to heat a region to auto-ignition temperature.

- **Flammability Limits:** Lower and upper concentrations supporting combustion.

- **Flash Point:** Temperature at which vapor in equilibrium with liquid is at lower flammability
limit.

- **Explosions:**

- Rapid combustions creating shock waves; accompanied by blast waves.

- Detonations (supersonic) cause more damage than deflagrations (subsonic).

- Vapor cloud explosion (VCE) and boiling-liquid expanding-vapor explosion (BLEVE) are destructive
forces.

- **Runaway Reactions:**

- Exothermic reactions surpassing ignition temperature.

- May lead to catastrophic failure, releasing toxins, causing fire, or resulting in BLEVE/VCE.
- **Preventing Runaway Conditions:**

- Maintain small temperature difference between reacting mixture and cooling medium.

- **Loss of Coolant Accident (LOCA):**

- Common in accidents involving exothermic reactions.

- Considered in vessel and pressure-relief system design.

**26.3.2 Pressure-Relief Systems:**

- **Purpose:**

- Installed to prevent uncontrolled, catastrophic release or vessel destruction during severe process
upsets.

- **Components:**

- Relief valves (safety valves) automatically open at set pressure.

- Rupture disks fail rapidly at a set pressure.

- **Design Challenges:**

- Dynamic simulations required due to unsteady conditions.

- Two-phase flow complicates calculations, considering factors like line orientation.

- **Importance:**

- Critical for preventing worst-case scenarios, such as simultaneous failure of multiple relief systems
(e.g., Bhopal tragedy, 1984).

The provided text discusses various aspects of process hazard analysis and safety measures in the
chemical process industry. Here's a summary of the key points:

### Process Hazard Analysis Techniques:

1. **What-If Technique:**

- Group of engineers considers hypothetical scenarios.

 - Primarily used for simple, small-scale processes.

2. **Checklists:**

- Specific and focused lists for known concerns.

- Often used in combination with the what-if technique.

3. **Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (FMEA):**

- Identifies ways individual components can fail.

- Focus on preventing catastrophic system failure.

4. **Fault-Tree Analysis (FTA):**

- Top-down analysis of system failures.

- Identifies contributing failures of subsystems and components.

5. **Hazards and Operability Study (HAZOP):**

- Widely used and more rigorous technique.

- Outside-the-box brainstorming to identify and resolve process hazards.

- Efficient in identifying human factors contributing to system failures.

### HAZOP Procedure:

1. **Group-based Analysis:**

- Involves a team with expertise in engineering and process operations.

- Focus on identifying possible deviations in the process.

2. **Guide Words:**

- Used to identify possible deviations (e.g., No, More, Less, etc.).

- Example: No coolant flow.

3. **Analysis Steps:**

- Identify normal operating conditions (intention).

 - Apply guide words to identify deviations.

- Note possible causes, consequences, and actions for each deviation.

4. **Result:**

- List of action items for potential changes or improvements.

### Dow Fire & Explosion Index (F&EI):

1. **Material Factor:**

- Measures energy released during a fire or explosion involving a specific material.

- Varies for different materials.

2. **Process Hazards Factor:**

- Considers factors like reactions, facility, and materials handling.

3. **Special Process Hazards Factor:**

- Considers extreme conditions, storage, and other specific factors.

4. **Fire & Explosion Index (F&EI):**

- Calculated based on three hazards indicators.

- Qualitative hazard levels defined (Light, Moderate, Severe).

5. **Probable Damage Estimation:**

- Considers area affected, equipment value, and production loss.

- Mitigating factors and loss control credits are applied.

### Chemical Safety and Hazard Investigation Board:

- Independent agency investigating chemical accidents.

- Focus on determining root causes to prevent future accidents.

- No regulatory or enforcement duties.

### Inherently Safe Design:

- A strategy to eliminate hazards by streamlining the process.

- Hierarchy of approaches: Substitution, Intensification, Attenuation, Containment, Control, Survival.

### Glossary:

- Various acronyms and terms related to safety regulations and standards.

### Summary:

- Overview of health, safety, and environmental activities in the chemical process industries.

- Emphasis on the importance of process safety management and hazard analysis.

- Inherently safe design as an effective strategy for hazard elimination.

### Key Concepts:

- Process Hazard Analysis (PHA)

- HAZOP Technique

- Dow Fire & Explosion Index (F&EI)

- Chemical Safety and Hazard Investigation Board

- Inherently Safe Design