2. 0.

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. The African Catfish

African catfish (Clarias gariepinus) is an important species for aquaculture in sub-Saharan Africa, some

parts of North Africa, South America, Asia and Europe (FAO, 2014b). By volume, it is the second most

cultured species in Africa (FAO, 2017). Its fast growth rate, high fecundity, adaptation to varied culture

environments and conditions, has made it the choice of many fish farmers in sub-Saharan Africa, and a

good species for peri-urban aquaculture, livelihood and sustainable development projects.

Domestication of C. gariepinus started in the 1950s, and in the mid -1970s, it was adopted as the most

ideal catfish for African aquaculture due to its fast growth rate, adaptation to varied culture conditions

and high fecundity (FAO, 2014a).

Its ecology, naturally spanning many countries in Africa, makes it a very popular fish species already. C.

gariepinus is increasingly gaining attention in many African countries beside Nigeria. Uganda, Kenya and

Egypt are examples of countries with special focus on C. gariepinus. In 2010, farmed C. gariepinus in sub-

Saharan Africa accounted for 198,296 tonnes, while the total of farmed tilapia was 60,350 tonnes,

making C. gariepinus the most important commercially f armed fish species in sub-Saharan Africa

(Ondhoro et al., 2015).

2.1.1. Other Catfishes

Among the catfishes the most utilized are Amur catfish (Silurus asotus), Channel catfish (Ictalurus

puncuatus), Stripped catfish (Pangasius hypophthalmus) and African catfish (Clarias gariepinus) and their

respective percentage contribution to total production at the end of 2014 were 0.62%, 0.53%, 0.52%

and 0.33% (FAO, 2014).

2.2 Classification of African Catfish (C. gariepinus)

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Chordata

Sub-phylum: Vertebrata

Class: Actinopterygii

Order: Siluriformes

Family: Clariidae

Genus: Clarias

Species: C. gariepinus

Binomial name: Clarias gariepinus (Haymer, 2022)

Common Name: African Catfish (Belongs to Air-breathing

catfishes).

2.3 Morphology of the Species (C. gariepinus)

The catfish genus can be defined as displaying an eel shape, having an elongated cylindrical

body with dorsal and anal fins being extremely long (nearly reaching or reaching the caudal fin)

with both fins containing only soft fin rays. The outer pectoral ray is in the form of a spine and

the pelvic fin normally has six soft trays. The head is flattened, highly ossified, the skull bones

(above and on the sides) forming a casque

and the body is covered with a smooth, scaleless skin. The skin is generally darkly pigmented on

the dorsal and lateral parts of the body. The colour is uniformly marbled and changes from

greyish olive to blackish according to the substrate. On exposure to light the skin colour

generally becomes lighter. They have four pairs of unbranched barbels, one nasal, one maxillar

(longest and most mobile) on the vomer and two mandibulars (inner and outer) on the jaw.

Tooth plates are present on the jaws as well as on the vomer. The major function of the barbels

is for prey detection. A supra-branchial or accessory respiratory organ, composed of a paired

pear-shaped air-chamber containing two arborescent structures is generally present (FAO,

2023).

They can grow very large with a maximum catch weight of 293 kg. The dorsal fin has 61-80 soft

rays and the anal fin has 45-65 soft rays. They have strong pectoral fins with spines that are

serrated on the outer side (Davies et al., 2013).

2.4. Distribution and Abundance of African Catfishes (C. gariepinus)

Clarias gariepinus, which is generally considered to be one of the most important tropical catfish species

for aquaculture, has an almost Pan-African distribution, ranging from the Nile to West Africa and from

Algeria to Southern Africa. They also occur in Asia Minor (Israel, Syria and South of Turkey). By contrast,

Clarias anguillaris has a more restricted distribution and is found in Mauritania, in most West African

basins and in the Nile. In general C. gariepinus lives in most river basins sympatrically with C. anguillaris.

Catfishes of the Order Siluriformes include 39 families with 498 accepted genera and 4123

species (Fricke et al., 2023). More specifically, members of the Family Pimelodidae, the

longwhiskered catfishes, and the genus Pseudoplatystoma are distributed from South America

to southernmost Mexico. They are a highly distinctive group of catfishes, with three pairs of
barbels, maxillary barbels the length of their bodies, no scales, and well-developed adipose fins.

Many long-whiskered catfishes grow to be over 1 m in total length. The Family Pimelodidae

includes 30 genera and 116 described species (Fricke et al., 2023).

Ama-Abasi et al. (2017) reported that in the Cross River system, C. nigrodigitatus is the most important

single species of commercial significance occurring all year round with peak abundance in the rainy

season, and that Chrysichthys fisheries provide several employments to the teeming population in the

riverine communities of Niger Delta of Nigeria. Uyoh et al. (2020) reported that Chrysichthys

nigrodigitatus of the Cross River has very low genetic diversity and that such low genetic diversity can

lead to population eradication in the face of environmental variability.

African catfish is an important aquaculture species that is cultured in various regions in the world. Нe

top producing country is Nigeria followed by the Netherlands, Brazil, Hungary, Kenya, Syrian Arab

Republic, South African, Cameroon, and Mali (FAO, 2016b). Нe total production of African catfish o

‫ٹ‬ciall\ reported by FAO is 246,476 tonnes during 2015 (FAO, 2017). However, various Asian countries

such as China, Indonesia, Нailand, and Malaysia also produce significant amounts of African catfish, but

statistics are currently unavailable by the FAO. Нerefore, the overall African catfish production could be

substantially under-reported. For instance, production values from the Federal Department of Fisheries

from 2001 to 2012 in Nigeria were much higher compared to the o‫ٹ‬cial FAO statistics (Anetekhai, 2013).

Нis discrepancy was said to be due to farming of African catfish hybrids that occurs not only in Africa but

also in most Asian countries. Нerefore, it was di‫ٹ‬cult to separate the data for pure African catfish and

that of hybrid and FAO did not capture the output under the name African catfish but were reported as

Clarias sp. (Xiaowei Zhou, 2017, Aquaculture statistician, Food and Agriculture Organization of the

United Nations, 2017).

2.5. Ecology of Catfish (C. gariepinus)

Catfishes inhabits calm fresh water ranging from lakes, streams, rivers and swamps many of

which are subject to seasonal drying. The fish has an almost Pan-African distribution, ranging

from the Nile to West Africa and from Algeria to South Africa (Eriegha and Ekokoto, 2017). It

feeds on both living and dead animal matter. Owing to its wide mouth, it is able to swallow

relatively large prey whole. It is also able to crawl on dry ground to escape drying pools and

survive in shallow mud for long periods of time between rainy seasons (Adebayo and

Daramola, 2019).

The Clarias gariepinus (Burchell 1822) is a culturable fish that has a wide range of habitats in

Africa, ranging from deep and shallow lakes to rivers and swamps (Nwani et al., 2014). Its fast

growth rate, strong plasticity to new environments (Barasaab et al., 2014). Although the

farming of C. gariepinus has benefited many people, the expansion of the fish has had a

negative impact on the growth of native species (Popoola et al., 2014). Many studies on its

development, reproduction and physiology have been conducted because of its great economic

worth (Nwani et al., 2014).

In Africa, the biology and ecology of catfish in some Rift valley lakes have been studied by various

researchers Keyombe et al. (2015).

2.6. Biology of Reproduction in Catfish (Clarias gariepinus)

Spawning mostly takes place at night in the shallow inundated areas of the rivers lakes and streams.

Courtship is preceded by highly aggressive encounters between males. Courtship and mating takes place

in shallow waters between isolated pairs of males and females. The mating posture, a form of amplexus
(the male lies in a U-shape curved around the head of the female) is held for several seconds (see figure

4). A batch of milt and eggs is released followed by a vigorous swish of the female's tail to distribute the

eggs over a wide area. The pair usually rest after mating (from seconds upto several minutes) and then

resume mating. There is no parental care for ensuring the survival of the catfish offspring except by the

careful choice of a suitable site. Development of eggs and larvae is rapid and the larvae are capable of

swimming within 48–72 hours after fertilization (FAO, 2023).

2.7. Economic Importance of Cafishes (C. gariepinus)

Catfish, Nigeria's most important fish, is marketed and eaten fresh or processed (dry or smoked). Fish

production and marketing activities contribute to people's livelihoods. It also contributes 4.5% to the

Nigerian GDP (Subasinghe et al., 2021). A unique position in the agricultural sector of the Nigerian

economy is occupied by fisheries. This is evident in the fact that the fishery sub-sector has recorded the

fastest growth rate in the contribution of agriculture to the Nation's GDP, over the time. Ama-Abasi et

al. (2017) reported that in the Cross River system, C. nigrodigitatus is the most important single species

of commercial significance occurring all year round with peak abundance in the rainy season, and that

Chrysichthys fisheries provide several employments to the teeming population in the riverine

communities of Niger Delta of Nigeria, thus enhancing the socioeconomic status of the people. Lately

the species has found its way into the International market thereby making it a source of foreign

exchange earnings in Nigeria.

According to the Federal Department of Fisheries FDF (2013), the fisheries sub-sector has made

significant contributions to Nigeria's economy more importantly, in the face of the ongoing Agricultural

Transformation Agenda About five percent (5%) of Nigerian GDP has been accounted for by the fisheries

sub-sector, significantly through the export of shrimps. Fisheries contribute to national food security,

employment-creation, income-generation, poverty alleviation and foreign exchange earnings among

others. Rahji, F.R. and Rahji M.A.Y. (2014) affirmed that Nigeria's per capital intake of high quality animal

protein is very low.

According to the value chain analysis conducted by FISH4ACP and the Federal Ministry of Agriculture

and Rural Development, Nigeria’s aquaculture production of catfish amounted to an estimated 1 260

000 tons in 2019. Some 80% of that production comes from the ponds of around 2.5 million subsistence

farmers. They use roughly half of it for their own consumption and sell the other half to boost their

family income (FAO, 2023).

Despite the introduction of improved technology to fish farmers and subsequent adoption, a shortfall

still exists between fish supply and fish demand in the country. This is evident in the fact that Nigeria still

imports fish into the country to supplement fish production (Salau et al., 2014). Adoption of Improved

fish farming technologies is expected to translate to improved productivity and increased income

earnings of fish farmers thereby attracting new entrants into fish farming across the country and

bridging the demand-supply gap (Idris et al., 2018).

With an annual fish demand in Nigeria of about 2.66 million tonnes, and a paltry domestic production of

about 780,000 tonnes, the demand supply gap stands at staggering 1.8 million tonnes (Oyinbo and

Rekwot, 2013).

Reports on small-scale catfish farming show rapidly expanding profitable venture with constraints

responsible for low productivity. These constraints included: high cost of inputs (Olaoye et al., 2013;

Oluwasola and Ajayi, 2013), poor extension services (Oluwasola and Ajayi, 2013); lack of trained

personnel, lack of credit facilities (Olaoye et al., 2013; Oluwasola and Ajayi, 2013); water pollution and

epileptic electricity supply; shortage of inputs (fingerlings and feed), lack of knowledge resulting in poor

management practice (Oluwasola and Ajayi, 2013).

A meta-analysis by Zhao et al. (2016) showed that consumption of 60 g of fish daily is associated with a

12% reduction in mortality. Fish consumption in United States of America has also been associated with

long term weight loss (Smith et al., 2015). The benefits of fish are associated in part with high

concentrations of bioavailable minerals, vitamins, essential fatty acids and protein (Bogard et al., 2015;

Wheal et al., 2016).

2.8. Nutritional Values in Catfishes (C. gariepinus)

Fish is one of the most valuable food products, a source of essential amino acids and high-grade protein.

Fish is an essential part of the human diet. According to the WHO standards, consumption of fish by one

person should make 18.2 kg per year (Mann et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2017).

Balanced and complete feeding is one of the main keys to the intensification of production of fish and

fish products. Since catfish meat contains a significant amount of biologically active substances

(polyunsaturated fatty acids, essential amino acids, enzymes, vitamins), this allows referring it to the

group of the most popular food products. This also determines its nutritional and biological value

(Hoseini et al., 2019; Muranova et al., 2019; Stejskal et al., 2019).

Meat of most catfish contains a sufficient amount of unsaturated fatty acids, and therefore it can be

considered as one of the most important natural components of the anti-sclerotic diet. Thus, the use of

fish resources for food, medicinal and other purposes necessitates the study of chemical composition of

fish muscle tissue (Paprzycka et al, 2018; Tie et al., 2019; Qin et al., 2017). The chemical composition of

fish meat differs radically from that of productive animals. The nutritional value of fish meat is

influenced by a set of factors, among which the primary importance is given to breed characteristics. In

addition, lifestyle (pelagic, bottomdwelling, passing, semi-passing), habitat (marine, freshwater),

metabolic and gender-age features, the physiological state of fish and a number of other factors have a

pronounced impact (Limongelli et al., 2015; Volnin et al., 2017).

CatFish is the highest quality source of protein. CatFish meat has a high nutritional and biological value

since its protein contains all essential amino acids. From this viewpoint, catfish can be considered as one

of the most high-quality sources of protein nutrition. Fat content is also one of the most important

indicators of nutritional and energy value of catfish. However, fat content of most fish breeds is subject

to strong fluctuations. The fat content of fish directly depends on age and gender, year season, lifestyle

features, and the length of migrations (Cinar et al., 2018; Kokabi et al., 2019; Szabó, et al., 2020). This

variability is usually conditioned by various factors. For the most part, the primary role is played by

breeds differences and availability of food resources, as well as features of metabolism, physiological

state and other factors. This explains an interesting fact that fish of the same breeds caught in different

habitats are characterized by different fat content, due to the peculiarities of food supply and abiotic

environmental factors, e.g. water temperature. Temperature is one of the important abiotic factors. A

direct relationship between the ambient temperature and the fat content in muscle tissue has been

scientifically proven. The lower the ambient temperature, the higher the fat content in fish muscle tissue

(Kokabi et al., 2019; Atta et al., 2019; Green and Lamming, 2019).

Besides, in most cases, the fat content is directly influenced by the morphometric and age

characteristics of fish. As the fish grows and ages, the amount of fat in the muscle tissue also increases.

Thus, the economic and biological characteristics and chemical composition of fish muscle tissue are

influenced by a complex of factors: habitat, food availability, breeding conditions, season, etc. In this

regard, organization of a complete and balanced feeding ensuring fish with main nutrients, as well as

vitamins and microelements, plays a crucial role in improving the productivity of fish and the quality of

the products obtained. The nutritional and biological value of food products is determined by values of

their constituent substances (Bach et al., 2017; El-Rhilassi et al., 2016)

Currently, the range of market feed for catfish and aquatic organisms is quite diverse. At the same time,

it should be taken into account that complete and balanced nutrition is the key to productivity, safety

and health of the fish. It is preferable that fish feed meets the price-quality criterion. The Russian

technology of feed production must be developed and improved, but this is impossible in the lack of

demand from fish farms. Today, the physical and mechanical properties of most Russian feed for various

fish breeds do not always meet modern requirements, which causes significant economic damage to the

industry. The factors of economic damage include higher feed costs per kilogram of live weight gain and

environmental pollution. This is usually determined by low competitiveness of domestic feed as

compared to Western counterparts and is one of the reasons for purchasing expensive imported feed

from Western companies by Russian fish-breeding enterprises (Liu et al., 2019).

A feeding diet is considered complete if it contains all the substances necessary for normal growth and

development. Protein, fat and carbohydrates are considered to be energy-containing components of fish

diet. However, these components are not sufficient for normal life. The diet should also include the

necessary micro- and macroelements, vitamins, and some other biologically active substances. Protein

surely plays an important role in the metabolism of fish. It consists of protein and non-protein

components. The protein component is broken down to amino acids used for fish growth and

replenishment of protein reserves in the body, as well as performs an energy function. Protein

containing non-protein forms of nitrogen is biologically less valuable. Fish need 2-3 times more protein

than productive animals and poultry. This is due to the fact that the excretory function is performed not

only by kidneys, but also by gills. Thus, fish do not get poisoned by ammonia, which is formed during the

final breakdown of the protein. For example, the optimal protein level for adult fish is 40-45 %, for

juveniles – 50-60%. It is necessary to take into account the fact that the protein must be complete. Such

property as the completeness of protein determines the content of amino acids in it, mainly essential
ones. The absence or insufficient amount of at least one essential amino acid reduces the growth rate of

fish (Dioguardi et al., 2018; Voytsekhivskiy et al., 2016).

2.9. Factors affecting Catfish species Survival

CatFishes are known for their innate potential to bioaccumulate heavy metals in their muscles and

organs. Study have examined the accumulation of metals in the tissues of catfish from aquatic

environments due to increased demand for fish as a protein source. Due to their toxicity and

accumulation in the biota, determination of the levels of heavy metals in fish species has received

increased attention globally (Wariaghli et al., 2013).

The modern societies are faced with serious concerns about some global environmental challenges;

developing countries in particular currently experience growing and complex pollution problems. The

global environmental pollution, water pollution and waste management in particular, have attracted

international public health attention. From the perspective of chemicals or hazardous substances, river

water samples, sediments and some species of fish in Nigeria have been investigated (Unyimadu et al.,

2019; 2018a,b,c; 2017). As an indicator of general environmental pollution and as a route of human

exposure, animals like cattle have been investigated (Nwude et al., 2012). Fish is often used as a

biomarker of quality of water bodies since the quality of the fish depends on the quality of the water

( Olusola and Festus, 2015; Obot et al., 2016; Bawuro et al., 2018). Organic and inorganic chemical

species often constitute the main water pollutants and their levels are some of the measures to

determine the water quality. Apart from the implications for human health human, the presence and/or

the levels of inorganic and organic substances in water bodies pose threats to the health of aquatic

organisms including fish species (Jacquin et al., 2020).

Anthropogenic activities are major sources of heavy metals pollution of rivers (Babayemi et al., 2016).

Agricultural activities, runoffs from industrial areas, sewage effluents from industrial activities (Zhou et
al., 2020) and mining activities (Gabrielyan et al., 2018) contribute to the levels of heavy metals in the

water bodies. Furthermore, inappropriate waste management or disposal is the main source of heavy

metals pollution (Babayemi et al., 2017a). Apart from the fact that catfish may be used as an indicator of

chemical contaminants in rivers, its safety for consumption as being sourced from major rivers in Nigeria

should be assessed. It is a widely consumed aquatic product sourced from major rivers in Nigeria

(Unyimadu et al., 2017; 2018a, b). Therefore, the consumption of catfish of various species may be a

significant contributor to the consumers’ intake of some contaminants. Among other species, Clarias

gariepinus (Catfish), Oreochromis niloticus (Tilapia) and Chrysichthys nigroditatus (Bagrid catfish) are

very common in Nigeria (Iji and Adeogun, 2014); and also, some consumers have a preference for these

(Unyimadu et al., 2018a,b). Investigating these fish species for the levels of heavy metals is therefore

necessary. Common heavy metals assessed in previous studies to assess environmental pollution status

in some parts of Nigeria include Pb, Cd, Cr, Fe and Zn (Azeez and Babayemi, 2020; Bawuro et al., 2018;

Gabrielyan et al., 2018; Babayemi et al., 2017b).

Though previous studies have carried out some assessments to determine the levels of heavy metals in

catfish, water or sediments from some surface waters in Nigeria (Ibrahim et al., 2018; Obot et al.,

2016;Adeosun et al., 2015; Makanjuola and Makanjuola, 2018; Olatunde et al., 2014; Ayanda et al.,

2019), spatial and seasonal changes in the physical and chemical properties of water, and consequently

the health or quality of fish, call for continual monitoring of every other location along this river for

levels of heavy metals (Nwude et al., 2020).

The risk of large marine oil spills, such as the Exxon Valdez oil spill has affected fish population.

Nevertheless, fish stocks may be especially vulnerable to oil spills close to the spawning grounds or egg

and larval drift areas (Rooker et al., 2013). Fish eggs and larvae are typically vulnerable to toxic oil

compounds due to their small size, poorly developed membranes and detoxification systems as well as
their position in the water column. Laboratory study have shown that oil or oil compounds (mainly

polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, PAHs) at low concentrations can kill or cause sub-lethal damage to

fish eggs and larvae (Sørhus et al., 2015)

2.10. Current Demand and Status of Catfish Production in Nigeria.

There are an estimated 1.5 million fish-based livelihoods in Nigeria (FAO 2017; WorldFish,

2017), producing about 1.027 million MT of fish per year, with 710,331 and 316,727 MT coming

from capture fisheries and aquaculture respectively (FAO 2017; NBS, 2017; WorldFish, 2017).

Over 56% of fish species cultured in Nigeria are C. gariepinus (FAO, 2018a). In 2010, the

Nigerian catfish industry was valued at US$ 800 million (Adewumi and Olaleye, 2014).

Consumers’ preferences for catfish, due to its few intramuscular spines, scale-less nature,

relished taste under different processed forms and relatively good storage shelf life when

smoked makes it a very popular fish in the country. Having over 6,000 small scale farmers and

altogether employing over 13,000 people, the Nigerian aquaculture industry, which in 2010 was

valued at USD 800 million (NBS, 2017; FAO, 2017; WorldFish, 2017) has shown an increase in

production from 21,700 tonnes in 1999 to 316,700 tonnes in 2015, contributing 33% of the

0.5% GDP contributed by the fisheries sub-sector, equivalent to 0.166% of the nation’s GDP,

hence, prompting increased governmental attention and investment in aquaculture to about

30% of the total investment in agriculture (FAO, 2019).

Despite this growth, consumption is currently at 1.63 million tonnes, averaging a per capital

consumption at 13.3 kg of fish per annum (WorldFish, 2017). This is due to the growing income
level and very high and fast growing population of the country, estimated at 186 million people,

growing at a rate of 17% between 2010 and 2016 (World Bank, 2016).

Current demand for fish is estimated at 3.32 million tonnes per year, while annual importation

is over 1 million tonnes/year, valued at over USD 1.2 billion/year (IgoniEqweke, 2018; FAO,

2019).

Very accurate data on production levels of C. gariepinus from aquaculture alone is limited, and

this is largely due to inefficient mechanisms for proper inventory of total number of catfish

farmers at the state, zonal and country levels. Secondly, the fact that hybrids of C. gariepinus

and Heterobranchus spp. are produced but not separately accounted for due to their relatively

low volume/year makes accurate estimates difficult. Insecurity in the NorthEast, where a

substantial amount of the wild fish comes from e.g. Baga area along Lake Chad in Borno State

(which accounts for 30% of the artisanal fisheries production and parts of the R. Benue in

Adamawa State makes fishing or accurate record of landings per year impossible due to

inaccessibility resulting from the unrest. In 2010 for instance, the total fish production in

Nigeria was estimated at 616,981 metric tonnes per annum, with aquaculture accounting for

200,535 metric tonnes of this total (FAO, 2018a).

Studies show that artisanal fisheries have between years 2000 - 2010 contributed just about

400,000 tonnes (Grema, et al., 2013; Oladimeji, et al.,2013; NBS, 2017; FAO, 2018a). The

sudden jump in artisanal fisheries production from 400,000 to over 700,000 (NBS, 2017;

WorldFish, 2017; FAO, 2018a) tonnes in 2016 could therefore be attributed to increased access
to the Lake Chad area following increased security and as a result of unintended closed

seasons, the fisheries became richer.

Furthermore, over exaggerated or underestimated figures reported by some farmers for

some reasons, unreported account of quantities consumed or gifted by farmers, quantities

smoked and added to those from the wild due to unavailability of the wild stock, and

preference for wild smoked fish in some areas etc., makes it more difficult to make accurate

estimations and predictions.

Estimated global consumption of fish has continued to increase over the years, reaching 19

kg/capital/year in 2011 from 9 kg/capita/year in 1961 (FAOSTAT, 2015). It is expected to increase to 22

kg/capita/year in 2024 (FAO, 2015; OECD, 2015).

2.11. Infectious Pathological Diseases in Catfish (Clarias gariepinus)

Pathogens cause infectious diseases, either acting alone or in coinfections. Co-infections usually

occur when two or more different pathogens cause disease in the same susceptible species,

either as a simultaneous infection or a secondary infection. This potentiates their pathogenic

effects and results in severe consequences for the host. Numerous studies on bacterial,

parasitic, fungal, and viral co-infections have been conducted in different fish species (Assis et

al., 2017, Walakira et al., 2014, Peatman et al., 2018).

Diseases of freshwater fishes, including catfish, can be caused by different environmental

factors such as exposure to pollutants, change in physicochemical parameters of water, or

nutritional disorders.
(a) Diseases caused by carbon dioxide

Carbon dioxide (CO2) results from the respiration of aerobic organisms, including plants, during

which the consumption of 1 g of oxygen produces 1.375 g of carbon dioxide. The direct harmful

effects of carbon dioxide are apathy and loss of balance and responsiveness, which can lead to

unconsciousness and death if the presence of carbon dioxide is maintained. In the open

environment, disorders due to direct carbon dioxide toxicity are unusual. They can affect pond

catfish in case of acidification of the environment caused by the night respiration of the

organisms. High concentrations of carbon dioxide in the water disrupt the respiratory activity of

the fish. Thus, a concentration of 25 mg/L reduces the oxygen transport capacity of the blood

by half because the high content of this gas slows down the diffusion of carbon dioxide through

the gill lamella in the water, and it remains in place in the fish's hemoglobin, blocking the site

where oxygen should be fixed. This hypoxic situation can lead to a range of disorders from

growth retardation to asphyxiation, which can lead to mortalities but also represents a risk of

susceptibility to certain pathogenic organisms (Kinkelin et al., 2018).

(b) Toxicity of non-ionized ammonia and nitritesNon-ionized ammonia, NH3, is highly toxic to

aquatic organisms. High protein diets fed to catfish in intensive culture systems result in high

levels of ammonia as the primary nitrogen-containing excretory product, so that when alkaline

or neutral water is reused without treatment other than oxygenation, toxic levels of ammonia

can be generated. When non-ionized ammonia is present, the excretory capacity of

aquaticsanimals decreases, and ammonia concentration in their tissues increases, leading to

hyperplasia of the gill epithelium and fusion of secondary lamellae leading to reduced O2
diffusion efficiency and functional disorders in the kidney and liver. Excessive non-ionized

ammonia in the water is toxic to the fish and causes methemoglobinemia which is known as

brown blood disease; affected fish show brown blood, signs of asphyxiation, and anemia (Boyd

Tucker, 2014).

(c) Effects of climatic fluctuation and abrupt changes in temperature, pH, and turbidity CatFish

and other fish species have upper and lower thermal tolerance limits and optimal temperatures

for growth, egg incubation, food processing, and disease resistance. These optima vary among

species and may differ depending on parameters such as dissolved oxygen and water pH. Many

infectious diseases are modulated by temperature, with their magnitude closely related to a

specific temperature range(Elgendy et al. 2015). In many host-pathogen systems, there is a

balance between host defenses and pathogen invasiveness, but this balance is easily altered by

temperature change, especially if it is rapid. Water temperature also affects other properties of

the aquatic environment important to fish health (Robert, 2013). In freshwater, pH can be

affected by inadequate filtration systems and increased carbondioxide from respiration. pH is

important because fish must maintain a constant internal pH and acid-base balance in their

blood. Bicarbonate ions are released if blood pH becomes acidic to bring the pH back to

average values. In reverse, adding carbon dioxide or removing bicarbonate ions lowers the

blood pH. This mechanism is controlled by carbonic anhydrase enzyme activity in the blood and

gills. Most fish can cope with chronic pH changes within certain limits. Sudden drops in pH

cause severe distress in some species, and the fish may attempt to escape by jumping out of

the water; this stress from pH changes is fatal if continued (Robert, 2013).
2.12. Protozoans Parasite of Catfishes

Protozoans are one of the major threats to fish health, causing diseases in both farming and

wild systems (Buchmann, 2015). Parasitic invasion can adversely affect growth rate, cause

weight loss, and suppress reproductive activities. Severe infection can lead to extant mortality

and massive destruction of fish stock. A few studies have examined the prevalence, intensity,

histopathology, taxonomy, and systematic classification of protozoan parasites (Barzegar et al.,

2022; Taghavi et al., 2013; Zargar et al., 2017; Scherer et al., 2019).

Fish is a cheap and important source of protein and minerals for humans (Grzegorz and Jerzy,

2018). More than half of the world's population depends on fish as a principal source of animal

protein, which represents nearly 50% of the animal protein intake of many on the continent of

Africa (James et al., 2019). In Nigeria, fish accounts for about 40% of the total animal protein

intake (Valentina et al., 2018). From a socioeconomic point of view, besides being a significant

source of income, fish, especially Clarias gariepinus, has continued to be the most affordable

source of animal protein for an average Nigerian family (Eric et al., 2018). Various parasites are

associated with C. gariepinus in the wild and cultured environment where they cause morbidity,

mortality and economic losses in aquaculture practice in various parts of the world (Biu et al.,

2013)

However, despite being a valuable source of food, the consumption of fish comes with its own

set of public health issues. Their consumption by humans may contribute to food poisoning and

infections as they contain pathogenic bacteria and/or their toxins and parasites that are

zoonotic in nature (Thora et al., 2020). Fish-derived parasites often go unrecognised and are
responsible for several emerging zoonotic diseases (Shamsi, 2019). The public health issues

caused by zoonotic parasites and the prevention of their transmission to humans and other

animals are of great importance. Information on the occurrence, prevalence, and pathogenicity

of fish parasites and diseases is essential in aquaculture production, as such information

enables aquaculturists to apply correct prevention and control measures in their fish

production and also provide useful information on their public health-related concerns (Oso et

al., 2017).

Since fish is an affordable and accessible source of animal protein for Nigerian families (Eric et

al., 2018), the marketing of freshly captured live fish is common in the markets(Bimal et al.,

2019). Various public health-related issues in humans have been reported due to zoonotic

parasites found in the animals they consume (Ali and Reza, 2018). There are several parasites of

fish that are found to be zoonotic in nature (Onyedineka et al., 2010; Ali and Reza, 2018).

Several researchers have argued that due to sexual selection, male fish are more heavily

infected with parasites than female fish (Omeji et al., 2011; Dan-Kishiya et al., 2013). These

authors also explained that sex-biassed parasitism in fish can result from differences in immune

competence, with males predicted to bear a greater cost of sexual selection and immune

suppressive effects of testosterone production and thus become more susceptible to parasitic

infection than females.

Idowu and Anthony (2022) reported high occurrence of protozoa parasites in the C. gariepinus

samples examined in their study. Different fish parasites from fresh water have been reported

to have zoonotic potential if eaten raw or partially cooked (Markus et al., 2012; Ali and Reza,
2018). The major groups of fish parasites that are known to be zoonotic in nature are also

reported by Ali and Reza (2018). Parasitic agents, including cestodes (tapeworm), trematodes

(fluke), nematodes (round worms), and protozoan organisms (such as Cryptosporidium spp.),

are considered fish-derived zoonotic pathogens (Ziarati et al., 2022).

Eyiseh (2022) identified 11 protozoan parasites that had infected Clarias gariepinus. Out of the

eleven protozoan parasites, four parasites were also identified in the study carried out by

Amana et al., 2023, including Piscinoodinium, Coccidia, Chilodonella, and Microsporidians.

cyprinid fish. Omeji (2013) described chronic infections of catfish by the protozoan parasite

Ichthyophthirius on skin and gills, Ichthyobodo and Chilodonella on the skin, and Cryptobia in

the stomach and intestine.

Accprding to the work of Omeji et al .,(2014), 67.33% fish were infected by protozoans. such as

Ichtoyobodo necator 35.5% in the gills, Cryptobia ubilans 28.9%, in the stomach, Eimeria

chrisichthyii 22.3% in the intestine, Piscinoodinium pillulare (5.0%) in the gills, Chloronyxum

auratum (3.3%) in intestine Chilodonella uncinata (1.8%) in the gills Hexamita intestinalis and

Encephalitogoon intestinalis (1.5%) occurring in the stomach, gills were mostly affected organ

(42.1%), followed by stomach 30.5%, intestine 27.4%, while the most abundant and other least

were of phyla Euglena and Microspora respectively. Ashade et al. (2013) recorded Tricodina in

fish in dry season, due to less rainfall. Adeogun et al. (2014) reported 0.91% of Tricodina sp. in

Clarias sp. Urukwu and Adikwu (2017) reported in Benue river highest prevalence of 5.37% as

protozoans than any other parasites which tallied with Adeogun et al. (2014).
The importance of disease impact in order to elaborate efficient strategies for early diagnosis

and fast intervention in management practices in catfish so as to obtain a stable and

sustainable production (Padua and Cruz, 2013). The following are examples of some protozoan

parasites of Catfish (C. gariepinus):

(a) Ciliophora

These unicellular protozoans possess mobile cilia involving the external body surface in some

stage of their life cycle. Cytostome, macronucleous and micronucleous present. Reproduction

by binary fission and conjugation. Apiosoma, Balantidium, Chilodonella, Epistylis,

Ichthyophthirius multifiliis, Nyctotherus, Rhynchodinium paradoxum, Tetrahymena and

Trichodinidae are the main representatives (El-Tantawy et al., 2013).

(b)Flagellata

Flagellate protozoans are mainly characterized by the presence of one or more flagella for

movement. The majority of them are ectoparasites while others can be found parasitizing

internal organs. They reproduce by longitudinal binary fission as for kinetoplastids or present a

three-phased life cycle such as dinoflagellates. Amyloodinium ocellatum, Piscinoodinium

pillulare, Trypanosoma, Cryptobia and Ichthyobodo are the main representatives ( Moreira,

2013; Woo and Ardelle, 2014)

(c)Amoebae (Phylum Rhizopoda)

Amoebae are mostly difficult to determine. Their cell has a simple structure, the plasmalemma

is naked or with an external test. Trophic stages move using pseudopodia or a simple

protoplasmic flow. Flagella when present are usually restricted to developmental or sexual

stages. The diagnostic features include primarily the locomotive form and behaviour, presence

of flagellated stages, cyst structure and nuclear division patterns (stained cells are needed).

There are very few specific endocommensals of fish, such as species of the genera Entamobea

or Schizamobea, which under certain conditions can turn in true parasites. All other amoebae

infecting fish are amphizoic species, i.e., free-living forms which can under certain conditions

colonize the fish. Amphizoic species are found especially in families Hartmanellidae,

Mayorellidae, Acanthamoebidae and Vahlkamphiidae (FAO 2014)

(d)Myxosporidia (Phylum Myxozoa)

Myxobolus Bütschli, 1882 is an important microparasite genus, with approximately 856 species.

Some of these species have a considerable impact on fishery productivity by provoking diseases

in both the natural environment and the farmed catfish (EIRAS et al., 2014). In the catfish

(Siluriformes), these parasite have been found infecting a variety of organs, such as the gills of

the bandit corydoras, (Corydoras melini Lönnberg and Rendahl, 1930) (Mathew et al., 2016)

and the intestine of the Amur catfish (Silurus asotus Linnaeus, 1758) (Liu et al., 2016)