ABEN 115 – Aquaculture Engineering

2nd Semester SY 2022-2023

Name: PAULO ANGELO T. LIM Date: APRIL 03, 2023

Course and Section: BSABE 4-1 Course Code: ABEN 115

ACTIVITY NO. 2
Life Cycle of Common Aquaculture Species

1 Introduction

Philippines, in Southeast Asia. A nation of 7,641 fragmented islands forms an

archipelago. Cluster islands into Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. Luzon and Mindanao are
the largest islands. East, Pacific Ocean on eastern coast. The China Sea is bordered by the
Philippines, Taiwan, mainland China, and Vietnam. Malaysia is south of Brunei and
Indonesia. This country controls 2.2 million square kilometers of water, with a
200-nautical-mile exclusive zone. EEZ coastline is 36,289 km per BFAR's 2019 report. This
area has rich marine life and covers Indonesia, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, the
Philippines, Solomon Islands, and Timor-Leste. Important location with diverse coral reef
species.

In 2017, country shelves and coral reefs area was 18.46 million hectares and 2.7
million hectares. Verde Island Passage has the most sea creatures. Reefs have abundant
fish and coral, the study found. They possess over 60% of global fish and 300+ coral types
(Lamarca, 2017). The Philippines has 6 major bodies of water for fishing: seas, bays, gulf,
channels and passages, straits and major lakes. (BFAR, 2022)

Moreover, according to BFAR, (2022) that aquaculture demonstrated the most

significant proportion of volume and value compared to the other sub-sectors, accounting for
shares of 52.88% and 42.50% respectively. Whereas, in terms of production, seaweed led in
volume (59.82%), followed by Milkfish (19.69%) and Tilapia (12.51%). Milkfish holds the
highest share (39.78%) in aquaculture value, followed by Shrimp (22.03%) and Tilapia
(18.87%).

Now, fish have distinct breeding habits and preferred spawning and developmental
environments. Species spawn in shallow waters of lakes and rivers. Fish follow a natural life
cycle from birth to death. Fish life cycle stages: egg - larvae - fry - juveniles - adults. Each
fish has a unique journey. Lifespan data is useful for species management, helping estimate
invasion potential, extinction risk, and harvest rates. Fish lifespan is often unknown despite
utility. Difficulties in identifying the oldest of a species make it hard to estimate overall
lifespan (Budd et al, 2023).

2 Objectives

The objectives of the laboratory aims to;

● Identify the common aquaculture species in the country.

● Determine and discuss the life cycle of each identified aquaculture species.
3 Methodology

Data on various aquaculture species and their life cycles is furnished by research
journals and government reports. The initial section of this report explores the historical
context surrounding the water regions in the Philippines, focusing particularly on the area of
fish cultivation. The task involves reviewing various local reports, government profiles, and
yearly reports.

Furthermore, tables and figures have been utilized to present the pertinent
information and specifics in an organized and visual manner.

4 Results and Discussion

4.1 Aquaculture in the Philippines

As per Lamarca, 2017 due to the abundance of extensive resources including

338,393 hectares of swampland, 14,531 hectares of freshwater fishponds, 239,323 hectares
of brackishwater fishponds, 200,000 hectares of lakes, 31,000 hectares of rivers, and 19,000
hectares of reservoirs, there is considerable potential for the expansion and development of
Philippine aquaculture.

Now, in 2019, the fisheries in the Philippines delivered about 4.41 million metric tons
of fish, positioning it 8th around the world. The generation was 2.07% of the world's add up
to of 213.65 million MT (FAO, 2021). Additionally, the Philippines positioned 11th universally
in aquaculture generation, with 858.28 thousand MT or 1.01% of the overall worldwide
generation of 85.34 million MT (barring sea-going plants). The country's aquaculture
generation, worth USD 2.05 billion (FAO, 2021), included angle, shellfish, and mollusks.

Moreover, 2.19 million fisherfolk were enrolled within the 2021 Fish Registration
(FisgR) System. Over 50% of enlisted fisherfolk were included in capture angling, with
gathering and aquaculture bookkeeping for 11.59% and 11.28%, individually.

4.2 Aquaculture Species by volume of production and culture environment

Table 1. Top 10 Commodities in Aquaculture, 2021.

Source: BFAR, 2021

 Regarding the quantity of species produced this 2021 shown in table 1, Seaweed
maintained its top position as the most produced commodity with a contribution of 59.82% to
the overall aquaculture production. Milkfish, with 19.69%, and Tilapia, with 12.51%, followed
in second and third place, respectively. Milkfish ranks highest in terms of value among
aquaculture commodities, holding 39.78% of the total production value at current prices.
Shrimp follows with a 22.03% share, while Tilapia sits in third place with 18.87%.

On the other hand, the most commonly cultured fish species in both brackish and
marine waters is the Milkfish, (refer to table 2). The fishponds were responsible for the
highest percentage (99.12%) of the brackish water catch, while the majority of the marine
water catch (99.40%) was obtained from fish cages. Concerning freshwater, tilapia
dominates the field of aquaculture, accounting for 87.28% of the overall production, (BFAR,
2021).

Table 2. Volume of Production by Species and by Culture Environment.

Source: BFAR, 2021

4.3 Life Cycle of Species in Aquaculture

Now, the basis of thriving fisheries lies in a quality habitat that supports their health
and productivity. The loss, degradation or alteration of crucial fish habitats may result in
compromised support for the vital life processes of fish. It is advisable to carry out the
procedures in various fish farms under regulated settings, ensuring favorable circumstances
for the growth of the creatures and better supervision of each stage in the fish's life cycle,
(BRF, 2019).

As per Tzhori (2022), the habitat of fish has a continual impact on their wellbeing, life
cycle, as well as their growth performance. This is evident through various factors that
influence them, such as water chemistry, dissolved gasses, biomass density, quality feed,
and other stressors.
 Moreover, it is notable that there are numerous sorts of fish living within the
waterway, lakes and seas around the world. Fish have complex life cycles, comprising a few
particular life history stages (egg, larvae, fry, juvenile, smolt, adult and spawn; Figure 1).

Fish start as eggs. Female fish lay

many eggs in safe spots among gravel,
rocks, or sand. In this stage, eggs are
fragile and prone to damage. When eggs
hatch, they become larvae. Larvae have a
yolk sac attached for nourishment with
essential nutrients that larva relies on.

After finishing the sac, the third

stage was frying. Fry are young fish. Small
but rapidly growing. Fry self-feeding is
crucial for growth and strength.

The fry becomes a juvenile as it

grows. A juvenile is finger-sized. Fish fins
and scales will develop in this period.
Juvenile are larger and stronger than fry. The juvenile fish becomes an adult. Final life cycle
stage. The fish are now mature and self-sufficient. Now, spawning the female gender expels
their eggs into the water, while the male gender produces milt to facilitate The fertilization of
said eggs.

On the other hand, in terms of

mollusks, the males release sperm into
water for females to draw in. Fertilized
eggs are brooded in the female's gills,
developing into tiny glochidia larvae.
Larvae (glochidia) released by female
mussels attach to fish as temporary
parasites.

Glochidia become young mussels

while attached to host fish over several
weeks to months. After the process is
complete, juveniles become free living
mussels by falling to the lake or stream
bed. Some mussels need one fish species
as a host, while others use multiple.

Moreover, the growth of novel marine fish species in aquaculture encounters a major
obstacle due to inadequate knowledge regarding their nutritional requirements during the
initial stages of larval and early juvenile development.
4.4 Major Cultured Species and the Life Cycle

4.4.1 Seaweeds - Globally, seaweeds provide food, fuel, and income for people. Over 80%
of macroalgal harvests go towards human consumption or hydrocolloids. In Asia, 99% of
seaweed comes from cultivation, making up 93% of global production in 2013 (FAO, 2016).
Seaweeds are key marine ecosystem members with mangroves and coral reefs. Two
perspectives: ecological and economic benefits. Philippine seaweed is diverse in Asia
Pacific. As per Tahiluddin, et al., (2021), there are over 800 species of seaweeds. Major
seaweed species include Kappaphycus, Eucheuma, Gracilaria, and Caulerpa.

It is notable that seaweeds lead aquaculture production at 59.82%, trailed by Milkfish

(19.69%) and Tilapia (12.51%). Milkfish has the highest value among aquaculture
commodities at 39.78%, followed by Shrimp (22.03%) and Tilapia (18.87%). PH ranks 4th in
seaweed prod. after China, Indonesia &
S.Korea (FAO, 2020). Seaweed is
exported in the form of raw (fresh or dried
seaweed) and processed (mirefined
chips/carrageenan and refined
carrageenan).The Philippines
exportedCarrageenan both in semi-fine
and in refined form. It has been reported
by BFARthatmarine agriculture uses
between 100,000 and 120,000
workers,90%of which are marine growers
and the rest are marine processors and
traders. Tahiluddin (2021) pointed out that
there are several cultural methods
practiced in the country. These include
fixed off-bottom or bottom stake, bamboo
raft, floating monoline, boat long line and hanging longline. The harvest time varies from
region to region, from 20 to 60 days or usually 45 days later.

On the other hand, Bast, F. (2014) stated in his study that the techniques for
cultivating seaplants are heavily influenced by the life cycle of the species being grown,
making it significant to have a thorough comprehension of their life cycle for successful
seaplant farming. In his study, detailed life cycle and cultivation information for the major
farmed seaplant taxa, which include the Red seaplants: Porphyra, Kappaphycus, Eucheuma
and Gracilaria. Brown seaplants: Saccharina, Undaria and Sargassum. Green seaplants:
Monostroma, Ulva and Caulerpa.

Kappaphycus and Eucheuma are grown for kappa-carrageenan in various countries.

This seaplant is found in reef flats at depths of 1-15m, attached to coral reefs. Kappaphycus
needs bright light, warm seawater, and strong water flow for growth.

The life cycle has three phases: gametophyte (N), carposporophyte (2N), and
tetrasporophyte (2N), like Eucheuma in figure 4. Gametophytic thalli are filamentous with
heavily cartilaginous cylindrical branches. Male thallus produces spermatia and female
thallus produces carpogonium. Cells unite in female thalli to form diploid carposporophyte,
then diploid carpospores are
produced. Mitotic divisions create
tetrasporophyte. Meiotic divisions
form haploid tetraspores. Tetraspores
become gametophytes for life cycle
completion.

Gracilaria makes up 50% of

global Agar production. Habitat is flat
subtidal areas with hard or sandy
bottoms. Best growth for this species
requires nitrogen levels of 50-100
mg/m3 and freshwater intake.
Gracilaria, like other red algae, have
a triphasic life cycle with a
Polysiphonia-scheme (Fig. 5).

This alga has isomorphic,

free-living tetrasporophytic and
gametophytic phases, with a parasitic
carposorophyte phase on the female
gametophyte. After fertilization,
cystocarps form on female
gametophytes. Cystocarps release
2n diploid carpospores which
become 2n tetrasporophyte plants
identical to gametophytes.
Tetrasporophytes release tetraspores
that become haploid dioecious
gametophytes.

Caulerpa is grown in ponds and

lagoons in the Philippines and Okinawa,
and is popular in salads. It's the third most
cultivated green seaplant. Rhizoidal thalli
are planted via bottom method by hand, in
the upper 2 cm of muddy shoals. Ponds
and lagoons are typically shallow, around
0.5m with muddy bottoms. Not much is
known about the life cycle of algae, but it is
likely monomorphic sexual due to its
association with bryopsidales.

"Diploid and monoecious

gametophytes." Gametophytes produce
gametes with two flagella when they
mature. Protoplast migrates to the
periphery, integrates into gametes, makes thalli appear briefly white before disintegrating.
Gametes are released simultaneously in vast numbers as green clouds during early
morning. It is called "mass spawning." Zygote settles and returns to gametophyte generation
to complete the cycle.

4.4.2 Milkfish - The national fish of The Philippines is commonly known as Bangus,
scientifically named as Chanos Chanos, and is recognized as Milkfish. The cultivation of this
particular fish variety has been practiced for more than half a century In Southeast Asia and
is presently regarded as the most significant fish cultivated through a farming process.

In addition, Milkfish are raised In various environments such as estuaries, freshwater

lakes, brackish water, and coastal marine waters. Employing diverse methods of culture
such as utilizing ponds, cages, and pens. According to FAO (2009), milkfish eggs
(1.1-1.2mm) and larvae (3.5mm) are pelagic and remain in plankton for 2-3 weeks. Egg
splitting within an hour,
hatching in 35-36 hours.
Eggs are likely
dispersed in deep ocean
waters and on outer
reefs. Larvae move to
coastal wetlands or
lakes as they mature.

Larvae eat
zooplankton and thrive
in water up to 32 °C.
They move to the shore
where they can be
caught with fine nets in
sandy areas and mangroves. These 10-17 mm 'fry' are used to seed grow-out ponds, pens,
and cages. Young ones inhabit mangroves, lagoons, and rivers until they outgrow or reach
sexual maturity and return to the sea. Fresh milkfish is the primary product that is sold in the
market, sourced from the harvested stock. Chill, boneless, cured, and preserved by freezing.
The Philippines holds a prominent position. According to Pianjing and Wites (2021), the
Philippines operates milkfish manufacturing.

On the other hand, figure 8 shows the captivating journey of the milkfish's life cycle,
which begins from a
solitary egg and
concludes in returning to
the breeding locations.
The initial phase in the
life cycle of milkfish is the
process of laying eggs.
Fully grown milkfish
make a journey to the
shallow deep coral reefs
and deposit their eggs.
 Following their hatching, these eggs transform into larvae that float with the ocean
currents until they (fry) eventually come to rest in protected regions, such as estuaries,
mangroves, and bays. As they mature, they transition into adolescence and swim to more
profound depths where they consume microscopic creatures such as plankton. After
attaining adulthood, the juvenile (fingerlings) specimens make a journey back to the coral
reefs of their origin, which are situated in the shallower regions, for the purpose of spawning
once more.

4.4.3 Tilapia - The six cultivated tilapia species within the Philippines are Nile tilapia
(Oreochromis niloticus) along side its hereditary strains, Mozambique tilapia (O.
mossambicus), Blue tilapia (O. aureus), and Redbelly tilapia (Coptodon zilli), Blackchin
tilapia (Sarotherodon melanotheron), and Red tilapia (Oreochromis spp. hybrids).

Tilapias are considered so flexible in different environments that they have been
called “aquatic chickens” . Tilapias are regularly developed utilizing semi-intensive or
seriously culture strategies beneath different development and natural components, stocking
rates, and administration approach.

Moreover, the reproductive

behavior of cichlids can be divided into
two groups. These are substrate
ovipositors and mouth brooder.
Substrate spawners lay eggs in holes
dug at the bottom of lakes and ponds.
There is air in the egg and is protected
by guardians.

Mouthbrooders can lay eggs in

pits, place them in their mouths, and
hold them there until the young hatch.
Mouthbrooders are usually polygamous.
After the female releases and fertilizes
the eggs, the female is said to (typically)
pick up the eggs from her nest and
incubate them in her mouth, where she
shelters and protects the young.

Further, in the nest, eggs are laid

and fertilized by the male, who releases
sperm on the eggs. The female collects
the fertilized eggs in her mouth and incubates them for about 6-10 days. After hatching, the
newly hatched fry continues to shelter in its mouth for another 4-7 days. On the other hand,
tilapia reaches sexual maturity at 3 to 5 months of age (weight 150 to 200 g). After reaching
sexual maturity, most female tilapia can undergo successive spawning to produce a new
brood every 4 to 6 weeks, (refer to figure 9).

4.4.4 Shrimp - Shrimps/Prawns ranked 4th in the Philippines' aquaculture with 68,986.82
MT production in 2021. Varieties include Tiger Prawn, White Pacific Shrimp, Endeavor
Prawn, White Shrimp, and Freshwater Prawn. Region III produced the most Shrimp with
28,490.94 MT, accounting for 41.3% of the national production. Region X and XII had high
shrimp production: 13,373.17 MT and 6,914.66 MT, respectively, (BFAR, 2021).

Tahiluddin (2021) identified Peneaus monodon and P. vannamei as the primary

cultured shrimp/prawn species in brackish water ponds. Vannamei, P. Indicus P. setiferus
and M. ensis. A new
prawn called
Macrobrachium
rosenbergii has been
cultivated since 2001,
but its production is
minimal compared to
other species. Black
tiger prawn and Pacific
whiteleg shrimp are
popularly traded in the
Philippines.

Vedantu (2023)
stated that the prawns have three life cycles. 3 categories: Estuarine, Marine, Mixed. Estuary
life completes in seawater. The prawn undergoes this cycle. Red prawns live in oceans as
part of the marine cycle. The mixed life cycle of baby prawns is unique. Female prawns lay
eggs on the ocean floor in their life cycle. Eggs stay on the ocean floor until birth. Cycle ends
at adulthood. In 2-3 weeks, a mixed life cycle occurs.

It is notable that shrimps spend most of their lives in the open ocean, where they
mate and lay eggs that hatch and go through different larval stages (Nauplius, Protozoa,
Mysis). Once in the postlarval stage, they migrate to estuaries where they mature to reach
the juvenile stage and burrow in the sand for a long time. Once mature, they begin the cycle
again by returning to the sea.

To further explain, figure 10 shows that shrimp eggs sink when spawning. Spawning
occurs in high salinity oceanic waters, five naupliar stages followed. The initial stage is small
and the following ones gradually increase in size. Nauplii swim poorly and are oceanic
plankton, the naupliar stage moults and grows until it becomes a protozoea. Protozoea have
developed their mouth and abdomen. Found in oceanic waters. Early leg and antenna
development occurs in the Mysis stage, with three sizes (1/8-1/5 in.). Mysis is the first prawn
stage resembling the adult.

Further, two (2) postlarval stages for white shrimp at 1/6 to 1/4 in. The legs and
postlarvae are fully-formed shrimp. The second postlarval stage rides flood tides into
estuaries and becomes active during floods, settling during ebb tides. The postlarvae settle
in tidal creek shallows. Shrimp developed into the larval stage and became juveniles.
Juveniles are like adults but have longer horns and adjust to varying salinity and
temperature. Adults in the ocean may wait for cold weather if it is dry. Females spawning
have colorful ovaries visible under their shell. Adults near beaches up to 6 miles offshore.
Some species migrate for hundreds of miles along the coast.
4.4.5 Shellfish - Oysters and mussels are important aquaculture products in the Philippines.
Top mollusk species in the Philippines are slipper oysters and green mussels, commercially
grown for meat and Filipino consumption. About 12,000 seashell species exist in The
Philippines. Philippine waters host both the large Tridacna gigas and the tiny Pisidum shells.
In 2021, shellfish production was 64,443.94 MT, with oysters accounting for 40,736.89 MT
and mussels for 23,707.05 MT. Region III made 25,068.49 MT of shellfish in 2021, mostly
oysters (99.80%). Region VI: 2nd largest shellfish prod. with 19,984 MT. Mussels topped at
9,098.80 MT (highest in all regions).

The species that are being focused on are C. iredalei in culture and C. malabonensis
of moderate size, Malabon. They are abundant in Bacoor Bay and extend to Manila Bay,
Northern Luzon, Lingayen Gulf, Tayabas, Sorsogon, Batangas Bay, Iloilo, Negros
Occidental, Catbalogan, Western Samar, Northern Leyte and Palawan. Farmers mostly grow
crops in coastal provinces like Bulacan, Capiz, Cavite, Pangasinan, Sorsogon and Negros
Occidental.

Further, there are three mussel species in the Philippines used as food: green
mussel: Perna viridis, brown mussel: Modiolus metcalfei, and M. philippinarum. Green
mussels, locally known as "tahong," are the only economically profitable mussel species in
some regions, (PCAF, 2022).

On the other hand,

Oysters release sperm and
unfertilized eggs, which unite
in the water column. The
embryo has 3 development
stages: Trochophore, Veliger,
and Pediveliger. The
trochophore larva swims using
hair-like cilia. Veliger stage:
larva grows 1st shell & velum
organ w/ cilia for
swimming/feed. Lastly

, pediveliger stage develops a "foot" for probing substrate for settling spot. Oyster sets as
spat, stops moving. Spat mature and start reproducing.

In terms of the mussel, its life cycle begins

with an egg developing inside the mother.
Freshwater mussel mother carries eggs in gill
pouches. Each egg becomes a parasitic larva called
glochidium, which attaches to a host fish. A
glochidium is tiny and doesn't resemble a freshwater
mussel. The mother mussel releases glochidia.
Glochidia require host fish or perish. Glochidia
become moths. Glochidia transform into freshwater
mussels by creating a cyst on a fish. After weeks of
riding the fish, glochidia turn into tiny mussels and
drop to the lake/stream bed. Newborn freshwater mussels become adults at the lake or
stream's floor.

5 Conclusion

Philippine aquaculture has a rich history, with various species and farming methods
across different ecosystems. In this report the common aquaculture species was based on
the production that comes from seaweed, milkfish, tilapia, shrimp, oyster, and mussel
farming. Aquaculture supports food security, employment, and foreign exchange earnings.
Aquaculture grows faster than fisheries. It is notable that these species vary in the
development stages and the requirements for their growth. Tzhori (2022) states that fish
habitat affects their well-being, life cycle, and growth.

Caulerpa seaweeds are widely consumed in the Philippines. Philippines is now the
top producer of carageenophyte seaweed thanks to successful Eucheuma farming.
Additionally, Gracilaria red algae is consumed in the Philippines and utilized for agar
production. It is mentioned in the report that seaweeds commonly involve three phases, such
as gametophyte (N), carposporophyte (2N), and tetrasporophyte (2N) for Kappaphycus and
Eucheuma.
Philippine aquaculture mainly involved milkfish culture in brackish water ponds and
relied on natural food. Early fishponds grew milkfish in brackish water using natural fry from
tides. Nile tilapia boosted production with its light color and improved the fish's image.
Further, it stated that it begins at spawning to larvae, fry to juvenile, and adult.

In the 70s and 80s, Nile tilapia was commercially produced using floating net
enclosures and feeding in floating cages. It is notable that the reproductive behavior of
cichlids can be divided into two groups. These are substrate ovipositors and mouth brooder.

Shrimps are incidental in milkfish ponds. Shrimp farming grew exponentially in the
Philippines in the mid-1980s and became the top marine product export. Shrimps breed and
spawn in the ocean, with larval phases of Nauplius, Protozoa, and Mysis. After reaching
postlarval stage, they mature into juveniles in estuaries. They burrow in the sand before
becoming adults and going back to the sea.

Moreover, Oyster reaches adulthood at age three, after being a juvenile for one year.
Oysters grow 1 inch/year. Dependent on salinity and water quality. Higher salinity speeds
oyster growth. And mussels have 2 life-cycle stages. Larvae swim, adults don't move.
Larvae swim for 7-15 days, influenced by temp, food, and materials, (FAO, 2023).
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