LWE 424: AQUACULTURE ENGINEERING

GROUP 2

BILLONES, ALTHEA
DE FELIPE, YEDA AMOR Z.
DOCTORA, CHRISTINE ANNE
FABRO, JAN DAVE L.
UGAY, BILLY JHON

FEBRUARY 2024
BASIC BIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND REQUIREMENTS OF IMPORTANT
AQUACULTURE SPECIES
(Selection Criteria and Characteristics of Important Aquaculture Species, Production
Cycle of Important Aquaculture Species)

A Written Report
Presented to
Engr. Teofilo U. Sevilla, Jr.
Department of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering
College of Engineering
University of Southeastern Philippines-Tagum Unit
Apokon, Tagum City

In Partial Fulfilment of LWE 424: AQUACULTURE ENGINEERING

I. IMPORTANT AQUACULTURE SPECIES
Table 1. Top Ten Produced Commodities in Aquaculture in terms of Production Volume,
2022

The top ten most produced commodities in aquaculture includes the BFAR’s top five
priority commodities such as seaweed, milkfish, tilapia, shrimp and shellfish. Among these
commodities, milkfish predominantly contributed to the total aquaculture production value
in 2022, amounting to PhP 46.41 billion or 37.42% of the total value of aquaculture
commodities. Milkfish was followed by shrimp with a registered value of PhP 27.63 billion
or 22.29% share, and tilapia with PhP 21.44 billion or 17.29% share. Seaweed on the
other hand, ranked fourth with a value amounting to PhP 16.60 billion despite posting a
sizable volume of production.

1.0 SEAWEED
Selection Criteria and Characteristics
Seaweeds are marine algae grown in the sea or cultured in ponds that are
categorized based on their pigmentation: red algae (Rhodophyceae), brown algae
(Phaeophyceae), and green algae (Chlorophyceae). Seaweeds are being consumed
directly as food and utilized in their industrial form such as carrageenan. In the Philippines,
only a fragment of seaweed produced is being eaten by the populace. A substantial
portion of the seaweed grown is manufactured into carrageenan which is usually traded
in the world market. For this reason, the seaweed industry is essentially considered an
export industry.
Seaweed farming used to be an alternative livelihood in the past. Interestingly, it has
emerged as an important and major livelihood in coastal communities, particularly in the
southern part of the Philippines (PRDP, 2018). Albeit that there are 1,065 seaweed
species (Lastimoso and Santianez 2021) in the country, the industry predominantly
utilizes the species Kappaphycus alvarezii/Kappaphycus striatum (cottonii) and
Eucheuma denticulatum (spinosum). These species are the main species cultured by
seaweeds farmers and utilized for the production of carrageenan in the country. The most
important aspect in developing a potentially productive seaweed farm is site selection.
The site must be assessed to conform to the following criteria:

 Moderate water current and wave action to maintain high diffusion pressure which
enhances the absorption of nutrients by the seaweed.
 Adequate but not excessive light; irradiance levels of 500-900 μEm-2 S -1 are
optimum for both photosynthesis and pigment synthesis.
 Sufficient water depth; in shallow areas, the seedstocks must not be exposed
during low tides. The development of the floating farm support system has made
farming in deep areas possible.
 When farming shallow areas the substratum must be dark, consisting of coarse
sand to rocky-corally materials; substrate consisting of white fine sand must be
avoided.
 Minimal presence of grazers, microorganisms, silt epiphytes and flotsam.
 Optimum temperature range 27-30 ºC.
 Salinity level of 30-35‰; brackish water areas should be avoided.

In recent years, a seaweed species-selection index has been developed to help

identify and prioritize the most suitable species for seaweed-based integrated
aquaculture systems. This index uses available literature-based information,
reference data, and physiological seaweed experiments. It's important to note that the
Code of Good Aquaculture Practices (GAqP) for Seaweed covers practices that aim
to prevent or minimize the risk associated with the production and harvesting of
seaweed in brackish and marine waters either in land-based or sea-based facilities.
Production Cycle

Figure 1. Production Cycle of Seaweed

Feed supply.

Twelve varieties of K. alvarezii have been characterized based on their morphology, DNA
fingerprints and growth performance during the different cropping seasons. The
information derived from these studies is important and very relevant to the cropping
management in farms where the farmers use several varieties as seedstocks. The
present seedstocks are endemic in the Philippines.

Supplies of seedstock are sourced from the wild and multiplied in a nursery plot. The
original seedstock is washed clean of dirt and other contaminants and transported as
quickly as possible to the nursery site in Styrofoam boxes with air holes in the top, without
exposing it to sun and wind. The nursery-reared cuttings become the seedstock for the
first grow-out. Subsequent supplies of seedstock are obtained from the first cropping, and
so on.
On growing techniques

The total grow-out period varies from 2-3 months after planting; thus, four cropping cycles
are feasible within a year.

Seedstocks are prepared by tying 50-100 g pieces of cuttings with soft plastic tying
materials. The cuttings are tied at 20-25 cm intervals to the monolines in both the bottom
monoline and the floating methods.
Two main farming systems are presently used by farmers. These are the fixed off-bottom
monoline and the floating methods. In each case farm maintenance consists primarily of
weeding out epiphytes associated with the crop, cleaning the seaweed of silt and dirt,
harvesting the poorly growing seedstocks and replacing them with fast growing ones,
removing other species of seaweeds that grow in close association with the Eucheuma,
replacing lost plants, repairing the farm support system and removing benthic grazers.
Epiphytes and flotsam compete with seaweed for nutrients and energy from sunlight
resulting in slow growth of the crop.

The Fixed off-Bottom Monoline Method

Construction of the farm support system starts with knocking holes in the substratum
using a pointed iron bar and heavy bullhammer. Pointed wooden stakes are firmly driven
into the holes in the substratum using a ball hammer. The stakes are arranged in rows at
1 m intervals, with the distance between rows being 10 m. A loop is made at one end of
the monofilament line and is attached to a stake. The line is then stretched tightly and the
other end tied to a stake in the next row. The distance of the lines from the ground is
adjusted to the depth of the water during low tides so that the plants are not exposed to
air and sun. The lines are generally positioned parallel to the direction of the current or
waves. An additional support stake may be placed midway between the original rows of
stakes to prevent the lines from sagging.

Floating Methods

These methods are used in deeper areas as well as in shallow areas that are
characterized by weak water movement or where the bottom topography is irregular.
a. Monolines

In the raft method, the monolines are attached to a wooden or bamboo frame, the size of
which varies depending on the available frame materials. The monolines are attached to
the frame parallel to the length of the frame at 20-30 cm intervals. A 4 x 5 m raft unit may
be planted with 350-400 cuttings. The units are anchored to the substrate from their
corners, using nylon ropes. Floatation materials are attached to the corner of the rafts to
increase their buoyancy.
b. Floating Longlines

The floating longlines have two major variations – single and multiple. In the single variant,
100 m nylon ropes (3-4 mm diameter) are used as main support lines, both ends of which
are anchored to the substratum. The level of the lines in relation to the surface of the
water column is determined by adjusting the length of the line of the floatation device.
Single floating lines are distanced some 5-8 meters apart to avoid them from becoming
entangled.

Multiple long line units consist of 4-5 nylon lines (3-4 mm diameter), each of 20 m length
or more. The ends of the lines are attached at 30 cm intervals to the main spacing
supports, which consist of 3 to 4 cm thick hardwood. Depending on the length of the lines,
one or more wood spacers are attached to the middle of the unit. The corner ends of the
units are directly anchored to the substratum or are attached (tied) to the main support
anchor line (5-6 mm nylon rope) in series at 2 m intervals.

Harvesting techniques

Seaweed that is grown for less than 10 weeks is immature and contains little carrageenan.
For the best quality product, the crop should be harvested 10-12 weeks after planting to
allow the crop to mature.
2.0 MILKFISH (Chanos chanos)
Milkfish is the only species that belongs to the family Chanidae. It has a fusiform shape
and migratory nature; thus, it is comparable to tuna and salmon. It is widely distributed in
the Indo-Pacific region and abundantly collected in the Southeast Asian and West Pacific
regions. Among many other
cultivable fishes, Milkfish has
been cultured in many
countries for a long back.
Milkfish (Chanos chanos) are
naturally present in the Indian
and Pacific Oceans. It is a
national fish of the Philippines
known as ‘Bangus.’ In addition,
it is grown in freshwater,
brackishwater, and marine
environments. Milkfish is a
desirable species for Figure 2.Milkfish
aquaculture, which are the
following:
A. Environmental Tolerance
i. Temperature: According to FAO, Milkfish can tolerate low temperatures of
14 to 18ᵒC and high temperatures of 38 to 41ᵒC. In the Philippines, wet
season (May to October), milkfish pond temperatures range from 25 to
34ᵒC.
ii. Salinity: Milkfish are often harvested from brackish ponds, indicating a high
tolerance for varying salinity levels (FAO, 2000). In the Philippines, wet
season, salinities in these ponds range from 15 to 25 ppt (Aquaculture,
2024).
iii. Dissolved Oxygen: The DO levels in these ponds during the Philippines's
wet season range from 4 to 11 ppm (Aquaculture, 2024).
These environmental tolerances contribute to the success of milkfish as a cultured food
fish species. It’s worth noting that Milkfish farming is a cornerstone of Philippines
aquaculture, contributing significantly to the nation’s seafood production.

B. Reproductive Performance
A key factor affecting the sustainability and output of farming operations is the milkfish's
reproductive success in aquaculture. Under ideal circumstances, milkfish, which are
renowned for their excellent reproduction and very low breeding needs, usually
demonstrate powerful reproductive capacities. In milkfish aquaculture, spawning
substrate availability, temperature, photoperiod, and water quality are all critical for
successful reproduction. Mature milkfish release enormous numbers of eggs into the
water column during natural spawning episodes, which are facilitated by controlled
environmental conditions and suitable management methods. Healthy juvenile
populations are established for the ensuing grow-out phases by the efficient collecting
and incubation of these eggs. Furthermore, improvements in breeding methods such as
selective breeding and hormone induction present chances to improve genetic features
and reproductive performance pertinent to commercial aquaculture goals.

C. Growth Rate
According to FAO, milkfish exhibit rapid growth, from the early stage to harvest.
 Fry to Fingerling: Milkfish fry grow quickly from 0.005 g to 6.3 g in just 6
weeks.
 Fingerling to Marketable Size: It can grow from 3 g to 550 g in about 5
months from stocking.
 Specific Growth Rate: The SGR of fry and juveniles is high (4.5-13.74 and
2.4-2.7 %/day, respectively) and is influenced by food availability, feed
quality, and stocking density.

D. Type of Fish
Milkfish belonged to the herbivorous fish which can ensure nutritional security with simple
farming technologies which farmers can quickly adopt and produce with less input cost.
In 2020, milkfish production shared 416,315 metric tons (MT) or 17.9% of the total
fisheries production that contributed about Php 43.5 billion to the Gross Domestic Product
(GDP) of the country or approximately 2 to 3% of the country’s Gross Value Added (GVA)
for Agriculture, Fishery and Forestry (AFF). Volume of milkfish harvested has increased
from 225, 337 MT in 2001 to 416,315 MT in 2020 recording about 84.5% production
growth for the past 20 years. On the average, its production performance marked a 3.37%
average growth rate increment per year (PSA, 2020).
About 10% of the 36.8 kg of annual fish consumed by an average Filipino household is
milkfish (BFAR Philippine Fisheries Profile, 2018). Milkfish is the only species that
belongs to family Chanidae. It has a fusiform shape and migratory nature; thus,
comparable to tuna and salmon. It is widely distributed in Indo-Pacific region and
abundantly collected in the Southeast Asian and West Pacific regions. It is cultured in
freshwater, brackishwater, and marine environments. Milkfish is a desirable species for
aquaculture for several reasons.
The potential of milkfish culture to reduce poverty is closely linked to its ability to create
jobs and self-employment in the communities (PRDP, 2016). Several economic activities
are related to the milkfish culture which includes: fry gathering, hatchery, nursery
operations, grow-out operations, processing, marketing, and other services, such as ice
making and fish transport. In terms of market and trade, milkfish is one of the largest
volumes of fish merchandized everyday in almost all public markets in the Philippines.
Most of the milkfish sold in local markets are in fresh chilled form either in whole or
deboned. Nowadays, more of milkfish harvest is processed into value–added forms such
as smoked, dried, marinated, fermented, canned or bottled. Some companies produce
vacuum-packed milkfish value-added products and are exported to other countries like
Canada, United States of America (USA), and the United Kingdom (UK).
In 2019, about 32% or 132, 782 MT of milkfish produce are utilized for processing.
Meanwhile, 5,870 MT milkfish were exported in the same year (PSA, 2020). Despite its
significant contribution to the economy and food security, milkfish industry is challenged
by several problems along its supply/value chain. Shortage of good quality milkfish fry,
expensive cost of production inputs and environmental degradation due to intensification
of production are some of the major issues that impede the progress of milkfish farming.
For postharvest and marketing, availability of quality and suitable sizes of milkfish as well
as fluctuating prices are the bottleneck for expansion. Furthermore, frequent typhoon
occurrence and prolonged drought caused by climate change negatively affects milkfish
production.
Production Cycle

Figure 3. Milkfish Production Cycle

SEED SUPPLY
Milkfish fry can either be obtained through collection from coastal areas or littoral waters
or can be produced in captivity. The supply of wild fry is often unpredictable; catches in
recent years have diminished and cannot satisfy the demand from growing farms.
FRY FROM CAPTIVE BROODSTOCK AND SPAWNERS
To develop broodstock under captive conditions, large juvenile milkfish may be stocked,
fed and maintained in floating sea cages in protected coves or in large, deep, fully saline
ponds (as practiced in the Philippines), or in large deep concrete tanks on land (as
practiced in Indonesia and Taiwan Province of China), until they reach sexual maturity
with an average body weight of at least 1.5 kg. Land-based broodstock facilities are
entirely dependent on fresh-pumped seawater supplies and are often integrated with a
hatchery.

Broodstocks reach maturity in five years in large floating cages, but may take 8-10 years
in ponds and concrete tanks. On average, first-spawning broodstocks tend to be smaller
than adults caught from the wild. As a result, first-time spawners produce fewer eggs than
wild adults, but larger and older broodstocks produce as many eggs as wild adults of
similar size. Broodstocks of about 8 years old and averaging 6 kg produce 3-4 million
eggs.

Breeding milkfish in captive conditions and the mass production of fry, as practiced in
Taiwan Province of China, Indonesia, and the Philippines, is mostly dependent on natural
spawning, which assures high survival rates. Artificial induction is not normally used. On
days when natural spawning occurs, the fish may feed less than usual but show increased
swimming activity and exhibit chasing, occasional leaping, and water-slapping activities
from late noon to early evening. Spawning usually takes place around midnight but
daytime spawning sometimes occurs.

WILD-CAUGHT FRY
Wild-caught fry are collected with fine-mesh seines and bag nets of various indigenous
designs in the Philippines, Taiwan Province of China and Indonesia. The most commonly
used gear are push net 'sweepers' and dragged seines.

NURSERY
In the Philippines, milkfish nurseries are integrated with grow-out facilities, where wild-
caught or hatchery-reared fry are first acclimated into nursery compartments which
comprise one third to one quarter of the total area of the Brackish water pond. Fry are
stocked at a density of up to 1 000/litre and are fed with a naturally-grown micro-benthic
food known as 'lab-lab' which grows on the fertilized pond bottom. Nursery rearing has
also been carried out in hapa type suspended nylon nets installed in Brackish water ponds
or lagoons and in freshwater lakes within the grow-out compartments, a traditionally
practice in the Philippines. When natural food is becoming depleted, artificial feeds such
as rice bran, corn bran, and stale bread or formulated feeds are provided. In about 4-6
weeks, the fry grow to 5-8 cm juveniles, which is the ideal size for releasing into grow-out
ponds or pens. Depending on the desired grow-out period, juveniles or fingerling size
milkfish are kept in nurseries or transition holding tanks up to the required stocking size
of 30-40 g. Nursery rearing from fry to fingerling size normally achieves 70 percent
survival.
HATCHERY PRODUCTION
Milkfish hatcheries consist of larval rearing tanks, culture tanks for rotifers (Brachionus)
and green algae (e.g. Chlorella) and hatching tanks for brine shrimp (Artemia). Larval
rearing may be either operated in outdoor or indoor systems, depending on the specific
conditions in the countries where fry are being produced.

Hatchery operations utilize either intensive (high stocking density, high volume tanks,
daily feeding and water exchange) or semi-intensive (low stocking density, high volume
tanks, minimal water exchange, feeding with mixed diet) systems, with an average
survival rate of 30 percent (from stocked newly-hatched larvae). After hatching, the larvae
are ideally kept at 50/litre in hatchery tanks (either concrete, fibreglass, canvas or
polypropylene-covered earthen tanks) maintained with Chlorella and fed with rotifers
during the early stages and later with copepods or brine shrimp for a total of 3-4 weeks.
Following this, their size ranges between 2-3 cm and they are ready for transport to
nurseries.

The fry may change hands two or more times before being used for grow-out; each time
this happens, they are sorted and counted, transported, and stored for different periods
of time. Fry are a highly perishable commodity and some of them die during gathering,
storage, transport, nursery rearing and grow-out. The technologies for fry storage and
transport are generally effective, although perhaps not yet optimized. Fry are stored in a
cool place in plastic basins or clay pots at 100-500/litre, in water of 10-25‰, which is
renewed daily. Dealers may store fry for 1-7 days, depending on the demand. Fry can be
maintained on wheat flour or cooked chicken egg yolk for 1-2 weeks but soon begin to
die, despite continued feeding. Recently, micro-encapsulated feeds have become
commercially available for finfish but the cost compared to conventional live feeds is
higher.
3.0 TILAPIA

Figure 4. Tilapia Industry Profile

3.1 Tilapia Industry Profile

Tilapia is the second most important cultured species in the country accounting for
281,111 MT total production in 2021. Philippines’ total production was 263,871 MT in
2020, which makes up 20% of the Philippines’ aquaculture production, with Central Luzon
as the leading region with tilapia production of 136,218 MT. The most common species is
the Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), or gray tilapia, which has several improved breeds
available from government and private hatcheries. It can tolerate brackish water with
salinities of up to 25 parts per thousand (ppt). Tilapia is an important commodity for food
security because it is widely accepted and is suitable for mass production through grow-
out culture in backyard and commercial scale.
Tilapia fry produced in breeding units are kept in the nursery unit until fingerling size
before moving them into grow-out units to ensure proper growth of the fish and good
survival rate. Fish need adequate space, food, and a healthy environment so it is
important to consider water depth, food supply, and water quality in determining how
many fish are kept in the same area.
In the Philippines, tilapia is produced mainly for local consumption. The produce can be
sold fresh, chilled, or live. When grown to large size and fileted, tilapia can also be
marketed as a premium white fish as its mild tasting lean flesh is flaky for its somewhat
firm texture. Some places in the country, smoking of tilapia is done but mainly for the
immediate locality.
3.2 Selection Criteria and Characteristics
The success of any tilapia farming operation depends mainly on the quality of seedstock
used. The main concern of farmers is to be able to buy quality seedstock that can grow
to marketable sizes within the shortest possible time. Farmers can procure seedstock
from reliable reputable hatcheries, or from their own hatchery if they operate one for
themselves to be assured of good quality seed. Another option is to use all-male stocks
or genetically improved stocks from licensed farms, agencies, or research institutions.
Tilapia fingerlings (sizes ranging from 37 mm or size 17, to 46 mm or size 14) are normally
stocked in grow-out enclosures. Hatchery operators thus have to nurse ‘fry’ to marketable-
sized fingerlings.
Operating a tilapia hatchery requires technical expertise. Knowledge in proper broodstock
management is necessary. Genetically inferior or poorly managed breeders may produce
poor quality fingerlings that grow slowly, have deformities, are susceptible to diseases, or
mature too early. On the other hand, good quality fingerlings have the following traits:
 Fast growth (in terms of length and weight)
 Robust body
 Normal color
 No deformities
 Efficient feed conversion

3.2.1 Sex Identification

Sex identification of tilapia is relatively simple. The male has two openings just in front of
anal fin. The large opening is the anus and the smaller opening at the tip is the urogenital
pore. The female has three openings: the anus, the genital pore, and the urinary pore.
The genital papilla is usually smaller in the female. Tilapia can be sexed when it has
attained the weight of 15 grams. Application of ink or dyes to the papillae may increase
the accuracy of sexing and may allow sexing of smaller fish. By rubbing ink along the
papillae of the tilapia, sexes can be readily distinguished.

Figure 5. Tilapia Sex Identification

3.3 Tilapia Species
As mentioned, several species of tilapia are now in the Philippines and have been
propagated and reared for commercial production. Below is a brief description of each:
3.3.1 Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)
The Nile tilapia is the most popular, globally farmed tilapia species. It has vertical black
bands on the body and caudal or tail fin. The dorsal fin (or the fin on the top part of the
fish) has a black outline and the caudal fin has a red margin. Nile tilapia is most
preferred because it grows fast, is hardy, and well adapted for farming in warm tropical
countries like the Philippines.

Figure 6. Nile Tilapia

3.3.2 Mozambique or ‘Java’ tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus)

The Mozambique or ‘Java’ tilapia is generally black in color. The underside of the head
is white, and dorsal and caudal fins have red margins. The O. mossambicus can thrive
in freshwater, brackish water and/or seawater and it is the most common tilapia found
in coastal waters upstream of the surf zone. This tilapia breeds in short and successive
cycles. Oreochromis mossambicus is commonly mated with other tilapia species to
produce all-male fingerlings. When stocked in a common enclosure, monosex tilapias
such as all-male tilapias are observed to grow faster than when rearing female and
male tilapias communally.

Figure 7. Java Tilapia

3.3.3 Red tilapias (Oreochromis spp. hybrids)
The red tilapias are hybrids produced from crosses between Oreochromis
mossambicus and O. niloticus (Taiwanese red tilapia) or O. mossambicus hornorum
and O. niloticus (Philippine red tilapia). Red tilapias have no stripes on the caudal fin.
Red tilapias grow as fast as the Nile tilapia and can grow even better in brackish water
ponds and sea cages. In most parts of Southeast Asia, red tilapia enjoys a good market
in fresh, chilled, or live form.

Figure 8. Red Tilapia

3.4 Spawning
The Nile Tilapia is a mouth-brooder. Mouthbrooding is an advanced reproductive
tactic, a form of intensive care whereby the seed can be protected from the outside
world until their development is more advanced. The male establishes a territory and
builds a round nest in the pond bottom. (Usually the diameter of a nest is 30 – 60 cm.
The size of the nest is correlated to the size of the male.) The female enters the nest
and lay the eggs. The eggs are fertilized by male. The female then collects and
incubates the eggs in her mouth. Eggs hatch in about five to seven days. After hatching
the fry remain in the mouth of the female for another 4-7 days. The fry begin to swim
freely in schools, but may return to the mouth of the mother when threatened. Female
spawn every four to six week, but may spawn sooner if the eggs are removed. The
number of eggs per spawning is related to the size of the female. A female of about
100 grams may produce approximately 100 eggs per spawning while a female
weighing 100-600 g can produce 1,000-1,500 or more per spawning.

Figure 9. Spawning
3.5 Stocking tilapia fingerlings
When the ponds are ready for stocking, the tilapia fingerlings are transported from the
hatchery to the farm. Once in the farm, these must be gradually acclimated to the pond
water’s salinity and temperature levels. The sealed transport bags are allowed to float
in the ponds until the water temperature inside the bags is equal to that of the pond
water. The bags may also be opened and pond water gradually added to the bags.
3.6Growth of Tilapia
Growth of tilapia is dependent on stocking rates, food supply and water quality. Males
grow faster by 10-20 % than females. The growth of fish will be drastically reduced if
fingerling production is not controlled. The growth of tilapia is directly related to the
amount of food available in the pond.
3.7 Harvesting
Harvesting In most countries, the preferred market size for tilapia is 350-500 grams,
but in the Philippines, 150-200 grams is already considered marketable. Under
favorable conditions, in eutrophic lakes such as Laguna de Bay in the Philippines, it
takes about six months for caged tilapia to grow from 10 grams to 150-200 grams (or
about 5-7 pieces/kg), feeding only on natural food.
3.7.1 Total harvest
This is done on the sixth month after initial stocking. All the fish are harvested
regardless of size. Harvesting is done after the pond has been totally drained of its
water.
3.7.2 Selective harvesting
Selective harvesting is done when the market demand for tilapia is not high. The larger
fish are harvested on the fourth month from stocking. More fish may be harvested
every 2-4 weeks. The smaller fish are able to grow until the next scheduled harvest.
4.0 SHRIMP

Figure 10. Shrimp Industry Profile

4.1 Shrimp Industry Profile

The shrimp industry is an important component of the aquaculture sector in the
Philippines. Shrimps are sold fresh and whole, frozen or processed into shrimp
powder, paste or sauce. Shrimp started as an incidental harvest in brackish water
ponds before its production boom in the mid-1980. However, the Philippine shrimp
industry underwent a decline in production. In 2020, the total shrimp/prawn production
was 70,474.77 MT with the leading species black tiger shrimp’s production of
42,452.94 MT and pacific white or white leg shrimp’s production of 20,632.89 MT.
Other recorded species are endeavor prawn, white shrimp, and freshwater shrimp. In
the Philippines, shrimp production has been mainly located in Negros and the Panay
Islands in Central and Western Visayas. Recently, this has changed, and shrimp
production has been growing and increasing in other areas, such as in Central Luzon,
in other parts of Central Visayas, in SOCCSKSARGEN, in Northern Mindanao, and in
the Caraga and Davao regions.
4.2 Selection Criteria and Characteristics
The black tiger shrimp, which ranges from 9 to 11 inches, is the largest shrimp species.
Aside from its size, it can also be identified by the black stripes on its back and tail.
The white leg shrimp, on the other hand, generally has translucent white in color and
can grow up to 9 inches.
Penaeus vannamei is one of the most popular shrimp species for culture. This species
became well-known in tropical countries for its desirable characteristics, such as its
short culture period and fast growth, and it has made inroads in the global market. Its
production has grown tremendously in past years because of its high economic
returns, although it has also been ravaged by diseases.
Hatcheries can start the ball rolling by selling putian and suahe fry in commercial
quantities to farmers for grow-out. While the present attainable market sizes of 10-20
g may not meet export standards, local prices of P20-P40/kg are still more lucrative
than those of milkfish. In the meantime, SEAFDEC AQD and other institutions should
double their research efforts along nutrition and feeding studies, selective breeding,
etc. to achieve the internationally preferred sizes of 20-25 pcs/kg headless (35 g and
above heads-on).
Fry is a general term that applies to both young and older postlarvae from the wild or
hatcheries. Prawn juveniles correspond to the milkfish fingerling stage, ready for
stocking in grow-out ponds. They must spend at least one month in the nursery and
measure the width of a palito (matchstick) or more.
Kinds of prawns and shrimps There are more than 300 species of penaeid prawns and
shrimps recorded worldwide of which around 80 are commercially important in terms
of capture fisheries and/or culture. Among the various penaeids found in the
Philippines, the following four species are recommended for pond culture:
1. Penaeus monodon (Tiger Prawn)- It is the biggest member of the penaeid group
with individuals from offshore catches reportedly reaching 500-600 grams in body
weight. Among the characteristics that make it an ideal aquaculture species are high
survival rates of up to 90% in grow-out ponds and fast growth rates with sizes of up to
100 grams after 4-5 months at low density culture, although normal harvest size
ranges from 15 to 30 pieces to a kilogram (30-60 g).
2. Penaeus indicus and P. merguiensis (White Shrimp)- Fry and adults of these two
species resemble each other so that they are discussed as a single group. They are
fast-growing and have a quick turnover rate in ponds –– sizes of 10-20 g at high
density and 20-30 g at low density can be attained after three months with harvests of
300-400 kg/ha/crop.
3. Metapenaeus ensis - It has a short growing period of 2-3 months in ponds, attaining
market sizes of 10-15 g. It is more resistant to handling than putian.
4.3 Life Cycle

Figure 11. Shrimp Stages of Development

 Figure 12. Shrimp Production Cycle

Adult sugpo are bottom-dwellers in the offshore areas at depths of 20 to 70 meters.

The life cycle starts with the spawning or release of approximately 500,000 eggs by a
gravid or ripe female. The larvae hatch out 12-15 hours after spawning, looking very
different from the adults. After 10-12 days and two more larval stages, the larvae
metamorphose into the post larvae. The young postlarvae or fry move shoreward and
start appearing in coastal waters around two weeks into their postlarval life. They
continue migration towards mangrove and other brackish water areas which serve as
their nurseries or feeding grounds, growing to larger juveniles, post juveniles and
subadults. At this stage, P. monodon is mainly carnivorous, feeding on slow-moving
microscopic animals, small crabs, shrimps, molluscs, marine worms, and detritus. The
ecologically sound government policy of increasing production from already existing
fishponds rather than opening new mangrove areas has helped preserve wild
populations of commercially important crustaceans and finfish by protecting their
nurseries. Although first mating occurs in the estuaries, it is only during or after
migration back to the offshore areas that full ripening of the ovaries takes place. First
spawning occurs at 10 months of age upon arrival in the offshore areas, followed by
2-3 more consecutive spawnings within a single season. The adults remain in the
ocean up to a ripe old age of 3, 4 or 5 years unless they die earlier of predation or
disease. However, some Metapenaeus species reportedly undergo spawning and the
larval stages in brackishwater areas, completing the cycle without returning to the
open sea. It is the production of marketable prawns from postlarvae in brackish water
ponds — parallel to the period of growth from the juveniles to the sub adults in the
natural cycle — that is the main concern and preoccupation of most prawn
aquaculturists in the country.
Harvest and postharvest handling
Sugpo are harvested after 2.5 months (if postjuveniles from a bansutan are stocked)
up to 4-6 months (if juveniles or younger fry are stocked) of culture at sizes of 15-30
pcs/kg (35-70 g each).
Partial or selective harvesting
This is recommended when there is a wide range of sizes in both extensive and
semi-intensive ponds, particularly for sugpo. Cropping the bigger prawns reduces
competition and allows the remaining stock to increase their growth rates.

5.0 SHELLFISH
Shellfish aquaculture is the farming of oysters,
clams, mussels and similar species. People have
been growing shellfish since the time of the
Ancient Romans and has continued throughout
history. Shellfish provide important culinary,
economic, and ecological values. As a food item,
they have been important for thousands of years
in the cuisines of many nations, and an important
commercial industry have grown up around them.
Shellfish aquaculture is a rapidly growing
enterprise that helps provide a stable source of
Figure 13. Shellfish
shellfish while not harming wild populations.

Shellfish begin their lives as larvae that

mature into seed and/or juvenile animals. The farm cycle begins with the collection of
larvae, which may be gathered in the wild or produced from hatchery broodstock
(depending on the species and location).

 Clam larvae are kept in hatchery tanks where they transform into seed.
 Mussel larvae transform to juvenile animals.
 Scallop larvae settle and become juvenile animals.
 Oyster larvae are kept suspended in tanks by circulating water until they
transform into seed.

 Farmers acquire clam and oyster seed at various stages of its development –
depending on the requirements of the tenure and farming operations. The seed
is put into a nursery environment where it is nurtured into juvenile animals.
 Generally speaking, the juvenile animals then graduate to the growout phase
of their development.

 Clams are spread on subtidal tenures where they burrow and mature to
marketable size over a period of two to four years.
 Mussels are relocated to deepwater tenures where they are suspended in mesh
socks to mature to marketable size over a period of 18 to 36 months.
 Scallops are transferred to deepwater tenures where they are suspended in a
mesh bag or tray (suspension culture) or are seeded on the ocean floor (bottom
culture). Maturation to marketable size takes six to 36 months in suspension
culture and an additional 24 to 36 months for bottom culture.
 Oysters are frequently moved to a floating upwelling system (called a flupsy).
Ocean water is circulated through the flupsy and juvenile animals, kept in trays,
are able to grow to a larger size. When they are large enough, the young oysters
are moved to be reared in a growout system. The most common growout
techniques are raft, longline and intertidal.

6.0 MUDCRAB
The mud crab species commonly found in the
Philippines are the Scylla serrata, Scylla olivacea, and
Scylla transquebarica. Studies have already shown that
the Scylla serrata or locally known as Bulik is the faster-
growing breed, and they are the only species that can
grow bigger than 1 kg. Ideally, all pond operators would
only like to stock their ponds with Scylla serrata for
optimal profitability. However, it is very difficult for pond
operators to implement as they are not able to identify
the species from the seedlings. It is also common for
pond owners to buy Scylla serrata crablets but to find
another species when they harvest at the end of the
culture cycle. It is also common for species like Scylla
Figure 14. Mudcrab
olivacea, known for their aggressiveness to bore holes
into culture ponds causing problems down the line. The lack of seedlings has also
encouraged the illegal importation of other species of mud crabs (Scylla
paramamosain) from countries like Vietnam. The ecological impact of bringing a non-
native species like Scylla paramamosain into the Philippines remains unclear.
The production cycle of mudcrab, like many other crustaceans, involves various
stages from hatchery to market. Here is a generalized overview of the mudcrab
production cycle:

Figure 15. Mudcrab Production Cycle

1. Broodstock Collection:
- Selecting healthy adult mudcrabs as broodstock.

- Maintaining optimal conditions for their health and reproduction in specialized

facilities.

2. Spawning:
- Stimulating the broodstock to spawn.
- Collecting and incubating the eggs until they hatch into larvae.

3. Larval Rearing:
- Hatching larvae are transferred to larval rearing tanks.

- Providing suitable conditions for the larvae's growth and development, including
proper temperature, salinity, and nutrition.
4. Zoea and Megalopa Stages:

- Larvae go through several stages, including zoea and megalopa stages, during
which they undergo molting.

5. Juvenile Crabs:
- Metamorphosis from megalopa to juvenile stage.
- Transferring juveniles to grow-out facilities, such as ponds or tanks.

6. Grow-out Phase:
- Rearing juvenile mudcrabs to marketable size.
- Maintaining optimal water quality and providing appropriate feed.

7. Harvesting:

- Harvesting mature mudcrabs when they reach the desired size and marketable
weight.
- Using proper harvesting techniques to minimize stress and damage.
7.0 CATFISH
The Catfish under two families with Ictaluridae and Clariidae, represent more than 95%
of the total global catfish production (Obirikorang et al., 2014).

The freshwater catfish, Clarias ssp. are widely distributed in Southeast, South Asia
and Africa. They exist in a variety of habitats from brackishwater in estuaries to fully
freshwater rivers and lakes. In the mid- 1990's, and introduced species, Clarias
gariepinus, have become a very popular aquaculture species in the country because
they can be spawned artificially, grow very fast, can tolerate farming conditions and
are easy to culture (PhilAquaculturist, 2014).

In the Philippines, there are three species of Catfish in the following:

Figure 16. Catfish (Clarias macrocephalus)

Figure 17. African Catfish (Clarias gariepinus)

 Figure 18. Thai Catfish (Clarias batrachus)

SELECTION CRITERIA

 Select healthy and uniformly sized fingerlings with average body weight of 3-5
grams. Acclimate fingerlings before stocking. Stock fingerlings at 5-20 pcs/m2.
 Providing proper nutrition requirement
 Water temperature
 Fish size
 Water quality
 Maintaining optimal water conditions.
 Farmers monitor growth
 Manage disease risks
 Ensure sustainable practices
 Habitat - Catfish live in rivers, lakes, and other bodies of water. Some of them,
however, can also be found in saltwater habitats.

Desired Characteristics

C. macrocephalus is closely related to C. batrachus. The species can be distinguished

by the shape of the occipetal process, which is more pointed in C. batrachus and
evenly curved in C. macrocephalus. C. gariepinus on the other hand has three pointed
occipetal process.

Figure 19. Figure. Morphological Identification of Clarias

spp. (PhilAquaculturist, 2014).
  Catfish has secrete mucus. This mucus protects them from predators by
preventing predators from catching them with their teeth or claws. The mucus
also protects the catfish from disease by supplying antimicrobial enzymes that
help to defeat infectious diseases.
 Catfish have excellent sensory abilities, which help them survive in their natural
habitat’s murky waters. Their eyes can see in low light because of an organ
called the tapetum lucidum, which gathers light and improves their vision.
 Nocturnal catfish are also known for their unique way of hunting in the dark.
 They track the trail of their prey and attack from behind. During this time, they
use their incredible sensory abilities to locate their prey effectively.
 Females produce eggs based on their body size, with some producing between
3,000 and 50,000 eggs. In order to safeguard them against potential predators,
the parents will cover these eggs in bubbles produced by them.
 They can thrive in both extremely cold and extremely warm water, ranging
from 68º F to nearly 100º F. However, the ideal temperature for a catfish to
thrive is between 75 and 85º F.
 One of the well-known species that can walk on land is the walking catfish that
can survive up to 18 hours outside of water. This fish prefers to live in water
habitats that tend to dry up. When this occurs, they use their ability to walk to
move to a different water habitat.
 Some male species are known to fertilize eggs inside their mouths, a process
known as mouthbrooding. This is a species adaptation because it allows the
father to protect his eggs from predators and drying out.

PRODUCTION SYSTEM
Natural Propagation

 Broodstock management - In the Philippines, catfish can be found in Bicol

region, Palawan, and some areas in Mindanao. These can be collected from
lakes, rivers, tributaries by hand or indigenous fish trap (Fermin, 2003).
 Breeding - While natural spawning of catfish occurs in the wild. C.
macrocephalus may not spawn in confined waters: hence, use of hormones to
induce its spawning is necessary. The absence of spawning is correlated with
the lack of a surge in gonadotropin (GTH), a hormone secreted by the pituitary
gland with gonad (ovary or testis) as target organ.
 Hatchery - Simple facilities are used in running a catfish hatchery. Basically,
facilities include incubation containers where fertilized egg mass are hatched
and yolksac larvae maintained, and tanks for rearing the larvae for about two
weeks.
 Nursery - Ten days before stocking, growth of natural food organisms should
be promoted by suspending about 20 kg cow dung placed in a sack in the
 middle of the tank or pond and introducing Moina or Daphnia starters. Although
the 15-day old fry or even the 3-day old first feeding larvae can be stocked
directly into the tank or pond, it is advisable to rear the larvae inside a net cage
with a mesh size of 0.5-1.0 mm, especially if fry is reared in ponds. Rearing in
net cages suspended in either tanks or ponds was observed to improve survival
of the fry.
 Grow-out - Preparation of ponds include drying the pond bottom for 7- 10 days
until the soil cracks, and application of hydrated lime and chicken manure at 1
ton per ha. Before stocking of the fish, 60% of the rearing water is changed,
and increased to a depth of 60 cm upon stocking of juvenile catfish. Uniform-
sized and healthy fingerlings are selected for stocking. Swamp cabbage and
water hyacinth are grown at 20-30% of the pond area to serve as shelter for the
fish.
 Feeding - It is not necessary to feed the fingerlings on the first day of stocking
as they have enough food in the earthen pond.
- Feeds should be given gradually at 3-5% of the body weight at 2-3X per day
adjusted weekly.
 Harvesting and Transport - The fish at marketable size are seined continuously
depending on the demand and wholesalers. During the last seining, the pond
is drained and the fish are caught by scoop net. Catfish has to be transported
and sold live. Nobody prefers to buy dead catfish. They are transported in trucks
in plastic drums at the rate of 70kg/drum filled with water. Transportation time
can be as long as 10 hours.

Artificial propagation

 Spawning - Depending on the larvae requirement, 100-150 g or 6-8 months old

catfish broodstock (2:5, male to female ratio) are placed in separate holding
containers.

Figure 20. Catfish Artificial Propagation

 Stripping - Anaesthetize the female catfish by placing them into a pail with 10
liters of tap water mixed with 5 mL anaesthesia (2-phenoxyethanol). Pat dry the
fish and inject hormone to dorsal musculature.
 Anaesthetize males, pat dry, make an L-shape cut to open the
abdomen and take out the testes. Place this in a Petri dish, rinse with
0.9% NaCl, blot-dry, transfer to a clean dish, macerate, and add
0.9% NaCl to obtain milt solution. Add more 0.9% NaCl, if needed,
to make sure that eggs are totally exposed to the sperm.

Figure 21. Catfish Stripping

 Larval rearing - Transfer 4-6 day-old larvae into tanks with 10-15 cm water
level. Stock at 100-150 larvae/L. Aerate mildly, place shelters at the bottom,
and feed larvae with newly-hatched Artemia nauplii at 10 individuals/mL thrice
a day. Change about 30% of the water in the larval rearing tanks daily.

Figure 22. Catfish Larvae

 Grow out in ponds - Drain, level, and dry pond bottom for 2-3 weeks. Repair
gates and screens. Check dike for leaks and seepages. Eradicate unwanted
species using lime. Apply lime at 500-1,000 kg/ha. Apply cow or chicken
manure at 500-1,000 kg/ha. Install a fence 20-30 cm high along the perimeter
dike. Let in water at an initial depth of 10-20 cm and allow to settle for 7 days.
 Apply inorganic fertilizer 16-20-0 at 50 kg/ha and urea at 25 kg/ha. Increase
water depth to 50-60 cm.

 Harvest - Prior to harvest, cook some catfish samples to detect off-flavor. If

detected, delay the harvest and determine the cause. Replenish 60-80% of
pond water for 2-3 days. Hold harvested fish in tanks with running water for few
days. Harvest fish when they reach 80-200 grams after 3-5 months of culture.
Catfish are marketed live.

According to Ruinata (2020), that the artificial method, both female and male catfish
breeders have low chances of survival. The females are injected with dosages of
certain hormones to induce maturation and ovulation while for the male, sperm can
only be obtained by sacrificing it.

8.0 CARP
The scientific name of common carp fish is Cyprinus carpio. Common carp belongs to
the Class Osteichthyes (the bony fishes), the Order Cypriniformes and the Family
Cyprinidae.

Figure 23. Carp

Figure.
Carp culture in the Philippines began in 1966 when fingerlings of Chinese carp, i.e.,
bighead, silver and grass carps, and the common carp were grown in ponds at the
Tanay Experimental Station of the Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources
(Chaudhuri 1979).

Types and Breeds of Carp in the Philippines

 Common carp
 Bighead Carp
 Mud carp
 German mirror carp
 Koi carp
 Goldfish
Selection Criteria
 Select healthy males and females
 Select a mature fish that females have soft palpable abdomen with swollen and
reddish genital papilla are candidates for induced spawning.

Figure 24. Female Carp

 Males with rough or callous pectoral fins (particularly along the big rays and the
side close to the body) and whose head and body surfaces are rough to touch
(fine, sand paper-like) are usually selected for induced spawning.

Figure 25. Male Carp

 Carps prefer calm waters with plenty of vegetation such as pond or lake that
meets these criteria.
 Site should not be on a flood and pollution prone area and should not occupy a
natural water course,
 Good, all-weather access to the farm through a well maintained road is
important to ensure efficient delivery of supplies and ability to reach markets as
required.
Desired Characteristics
 The reproductive capacity of a fish is determined by its genetic makeup
 Young fish to be reared to broodstock size should exhibit fast growth and have
normal physical appearance and well-developed sex organs.
 The fish should be free of parasites and not manifest clinical signs of a 3
disease.
 A two-year old bighead carp (2-3 kg) usually produces 30,000 to 70,000
ovulated eggs per kg.
  Common carp occur within the temperature range of 3–35 ℃ (Froese and
Pauly, 2011). The optimum water temperature for growth and propagation is
20–25 ℃. In nature, common carp live in the middle and lower sections of rivers
and in areas where the water is shallow (only a few meters deep) and the
bottom is muddy.

Product Cycle

Production System
Seed supply - Seed collected from the wild is mainly used for maintaining the genetic
quality of broodstock. Broodstock used for artificial propagation are usually raised in
captivity from seeds from the wild or from breeding stations where good natural stocks
are maintained.
Hatchery production - Broodfish of mud carp weigh about 0.8-1.4 kg (for example, a
female mud carp weighing 850 g has an ovary weighing 136 g and has 204 000 eggs
- usually an individual fish can spawn more than 100 000 eggs). Well-matured
breeders are released into a spawning tank (round, cement, with diameter of 6-10 m
and a water depth of ~2 m), after being injected with an inducing hormone (usually
LRH-A). The oestrus of mud carp begins 4-6 hours after injection. The sex ratio of
female and male of mud carp is 1:2.
Eggs are transferred to hatching raceways or jars, either manually or by gravity.
Hatching raceways (which are round or ellipse-shaped structures) are commonly used
for large-scale production. The width and depth of the raceways is normally 0.8 m and
0.8-1.0 m respectively. The inlets are mounted on the bottom of the raceways with
openings in the same direction and at an angle of around 15 º to the bottom, to promote
water circulation. Screens are mounted on the inner wall for discharging water during
the operation. Water can be totally drained out through the outlet on the bottom.
Current flow is maintained during the hatching period to keep the eggs and larvae
suspended in the water column. This phase typically takes about 18 hours at 28 ºC
Nursery phase - Earthen ponds (usually 0.1-0.2 ha and 1.5-2.0 m deep) are used for
the nursing of mud carp. Ponds are chemically treated after total drying, to eliminate
all harmful organisms after total drying; normally quicklime is used for this purpose, at
900-1 125 kg/ha.
Monoculture is practiced in the nursery stage, with a stocking density of 3 mm fry
normally ranging between 4.5-6.0 million/ha, depending on the length of rearing and
targeted size.

Fingerling production - Relatively larger (0.2-0.3 ha) and deeper earthen ponds (about
1.5 m) are used for fingerling rearing. Contrary to the nursery stage, both monoculture
and polyculture are practiced. Usually monoculture is adopted for summer-fingerlings
from 30-60 mm in size. It is important to ensure good fingerling survival rates to select
healthy and similar size fry for stocking; they should be active, uniform-sized, bright-
coloured, complete-scaled, small-headed, and thick-backed, and able to swim strongly
against water flow.

Feeding is vitally important throughout the fingerling rearing period, mainly with
commercially manufactured feeds. In monoculture, groundnut cake can be used at 0.3
kg/day/10 000 fish.
The most commonly adopted ongrowing technique for mud carp is polyculture in
ponds. Though this species grows slowly and does not reach such a large size as
grass, bighead and silver carp, it can be reared in high density and its production rate
is high. Mud carp may be stocked either as the major species or as a secondary
species, together with other carps.
After one year, the mud carp typically reach 125-200 g, with a production level of 2
000-3 000 kg/ha, accounting for about 24 per cent of total production, which ranges
from 7 500 to 10 000 kg/ha.

Mud carp are omnivores that feed on both natural food and commercial feeds.
Although some farmers continue to use individual feed ingredients or mixtures of them
in monoculture systems, the use of pelleted commercial feeds is becoming more
popular.

Feed supply - There are many manufacturers of freshwater fish feeds and some are
specifically designed for mud carp.
Harvesting technique - Mud carp, being a bottom-dwelling fish, are difficult to harvest
effectively without draining the pond. Harvesting takes place at the end of the culture
period firstly by netting at a reduced water depth, followed by total harvesting after
drainage. Selective harvesting is also practiced by some farmers for balanced
marketing. Selective harvesting is usually conducted in the early morning (because
temperatures are relatively low and for morning sales) during late summer and
autumn. Individuals of marketable size are selected after netting.

9.0 GROUPER
Groupers or Epinephelus spp.

Figure 26. Orange-spotted grouper

Epinephelus spp., commonly referred to as "lapu-lapu" in certain dialects of the

Philippines, are significant marine fish that are members of the Serranidae family. Their
bodies are slightly elongated, thick-set, and spotted or blotched with brown pigment.
They often have a projecting lower jaw and very huge jaws. However, because fish
may change their color, it is challenging to distinguish between distinct species. Under
particular physiological slates and environmental settings, groupers can take on a
variety of hues. However, the overall pattern of blotches, stripes, and dots doesn't
change. Compared to females, males are somewhat longer. One reaches sexual
maturity in four to six years. The majority of groupers are protogynous hermaphrodites,
meaning that their sex changes in response to factors like size, age, and social control
throughout raising.
Males are slightly longer than females. Sexual maturity is obtained in 4 to 6 years.
Most groupers are protogynous hermaphrodites, which change sex depending on the
rearing condition such as age, size and social control. Maximum body length reaches
up to 200 cm. Marketable sizes in commercial production vary depending on
requirements of different live grouper importing countries: 400-700 g in the Philippines,
600-900 g in Singapore, more than 1 kg in Kuwait.
Geographic distribution

● Indo-West Pacific; East Africa, Red Sea to the Philippines, southern Japan,
Hawaii

Habitat

● Coastal water area, rocky shore, coral reef

Food habit

● Carnivorous; feeds on fishes, crabs, squids, etc

Life cycle

Spawning

● Spawning season June to September and November to December

(INDONESIA), August (SINGAPORE), April to July (KUWAIT), year-round
except May in tanks and July-October in floating net cages (PHILIPPINES).
● Spawning habit

● Spawning habit Grouper start spawning before sunset. Distinct courtship

behavior is observed: the male and female are found pairing closely with
oneanother and swim swiftly in a counterclockwise direction. In the Philippines,
the onset of the monthly spawning cycle in tanks and floating net cages has
been observed over a period of 3 days before and after the last quarter moon.

Fecundity

● From 400,000 to 700,000 eggs per kg female. Live, fertilized eggs are pelagic,
and measure about 0.8 mm in diameter with a single oil globule of 0.19 mm.
Incubation

● Incubation period Fertilized eggs hatch after 18 to 20 hours at 27 to 29 °C.

Larvae

● The size of hatched larvae is 1.7 mm. Newly hatched larvae become free-
swimming larvae (2.7mm) after 3 days, start feeding, then metamorphose into
juveniles (25 mm) after 35 to 50 days.

Young and adult

● Young groupers (about 16 cm in total length) are found in shallow waters. They
move to off-shore areas as they grow. Biological minimum size is 45-50 cm in
body length at 2 years of age. Grouper reverse sex (from female to male) when
they attain 65-75 cm in body length.

Figure 27.Figure_. Developmental

Grouper Production Cycle stages of grouper

Cultivation Phases
Cultivation involves hatchery rearing (up to 60 days), nursery rearing (1-2 months),
and grow-out (6-8 months).
Hatchery Phase
● Stock larvae (20-30 larvae/liter) in rearing tanks.
● Feed larvae with Nannochlorum, rotifer, Artemia, and artificial diet.
● Transfer larvae to marine cages or brackishwater ponds when they reach 2-3
cm length.

Nursery Phase

● Stock 2-3 cm fry in 1 x 2 x 1.5 m hapa nets at 75-100 fry/m3.

● Install hover-type lamps to attract prey.
● Feed fry with an artificial diet or chopped fish 4-6 times a day.
● Transfer fry to grow-out cages or ponds after 45-60 days or when they reach
6-10 cm length.

Grow-out Phase

● Acclimatize juveniles in floating net cages.

● Stock juveniles in ponds or net cages.
● Feed juveniles daily with fresh/frozen chopped fish or artificial diet.
● Harvest fish after 5-7 months or when they reach market size (300-350
grams).

Site Selection
● Consider availability of fry, seasonal variations, and sources such as tidal
rivers, estuaries, and coastal bays.

Production Strategy

Fry Conditioning
● Condition tiny grouper fry (2-3 cm) in tanks for a month before transferring to
nursery.

Nursery Rearing
● Sort healthy juveniles (3-5 cm) and feed them live food initially, then wean
with chopped fish and small shrimp.
Grow-out Management
● Stock juveniles in net cages vary stocking rates based on size, feed daily, and
harvest when they reach market size.
Commonly Cultured Species

Figure 28. Commonly cultured species of grouper

Figure _. Commonly cultured species
10.0 SIGANID specifically Siganus guttatus

Figure 29. Rabitfish Siganus guttatus

Siganus guttatus, commonly known as the Orange-spotted spine foot, is a perciform

fish belonging to the Family Siganidae. It is popularly known as “samaral” or “kitong”.
Some of its common names are: “goldlined spinefoot”, “malaga” or “danggit”
(Philippines), “belais” or “ketang” (Malaysia), and “birra” or “samadar” (Indonesia).
Siganus guttatus possesses distinct characteristics, including a deep, compressed
body and a rabbit-like mouth. Notably, it features 13 pungent spines in the dorsal fin,
seven spines in the anal fin, and two spines in the ventral fin, all equipped with well-
developed venom glands. Its skin is described as leathery, with smooth, small, and
closely adherent scales.

Habitat
This species thrives in turbid inshore reefs among mangroves and demonstrates an
ability to tolerate low salinities. During the juvenile stage, it settles among mangrove
roots in shaded areas, shallow bays, and river mouths, while adults are also found on
the drop-offs of inshore fringing reefs down to 6 meters. Its wide distribution spans
across the Eastern Indian Ocean and Western Pacific regions, encompassing areas
such as the Andaman Islands, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Southern Japan, the
Philippines, and Palau.

Feeding Habit/ Diet

As an herbivore, Siganus guttatus primarily feeds on benthic algae but becomes an
omnivore when held under captivity. It performs better when fed with formulated diets,
but a combination of filamentous algae or Gracilaria seaweed and commercial diet can
also yield comparable growth results, reducing feed costs.
Activity
Generally diurnal, but Siganus guttatus is nocturnal.

Production Cycle

Figure 30. Siganid Production Cycle

Spawning
Broodstock Management

● Broodstock of S. guttatus are reared to sexual maturity in floating net-cages.

● Floating net-cages are either rectangular (4 × 4 × 2 m) or circular (10 m dia ×
3.0 m deep), made of galvanized iron pipes or bamboo, and provided with
cylindrical styrofoam floats.
● Fish are stocked at a density of 2-3 kg/m³ and thinned and size-graded every
3-4 months.
● Nets are regularly cleaned of fouling organisms.
Gonadal Maturation and Sexual Maturity

● Captive wild S. guttatus matures at 200 g with a fork length of 34.0 cm.
● Hatchery-bred males mature in 10 months at 19.0 cm FL, and females in 12
months at 21.5 cm FL.
● One gonadal cycle is complete within 27-28 days, and fish spawn every month
throughout the whole year.

Spawning
● S. guttatus spawns naturally throughout the whole year, with females spawning
2-3 days after the first lunar quarter.
● Injection of human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) can induce spawning in S.
guttatus.

Spawning Behavior

● Spawning behavior of S. guttatus involves male chasing the female, nudging

her abdomen, and continuous swimming close to her before releasing eggs and
milt. After a minute of male display, female release a small quantity of eggs
and male release milt. They stay quiescent for a time and another
display is exhibited. Then more eggs and milt are released by both.

Egg Handling

Egg Collection and Handling

● S.guttatus eggs are adhesive and demersal.

● Egg collectors, either plankton nets or plastic sheets, are placed at the tank
bottom before spawning.
● After spawning, the collectors are removed and transferred to incubators.

Incubation
● Eggs are incubated in 500 L tanks or directly in larval rearing tanks.
● A maximum stocking density of 400/1 may be used for incubation.
 ● Incubation time ranges from 18-26 hours.

Larval Rearing

● Guttatus larvae are reared in a semi-static system with aeration. Sediments and
detritus on the tank bottom are siphoned out daily.
● Phytoplankton such as Chlorella, Tetraselmis, or Isochrysis are added to
rearing tanks as water conditioners and food for rotifers.
● Newly hatched guttatus larvae are more resistant to low and high salinities (8-
37 ppt) than older larvae.

Larval Feeding

Diet Composition

● Guttatus larvae are fed on rotifers, newly hatched brine shrimp nauplii, and
artificial diet.
● Preference for brine shrimp over rotifers was observed in older larvae.
● Phytoplankton such as Chlorella, Tetraselmis, or Isochrysis are added as water
conditioners and food for rotifers.

Feeding Behavior

● Initial feeding on rotifers occurs at a total length (TL) of 2.6 mm (day 2) and on
brine shrimp at 4.4 mm TL (day 12).
● Feeding habits change at about 7.0-9.5 mm TL, preferring rotifers initially and
then shifting to brine shrimp.
● Feeding preference shifts coincide with the full osteological development of the
feeding apparatus.
● Guttatus larvae exhibit a diurnal feeding pattern, with active feeding shifting
earlier in the day with larval growth.
Feeding Management

● Survival of guttatus larvae is improved when fed rotifers less than 90 mm at a

density of 10-20 ind/ml.
● A combination of phytoplankton and small-sized rotifers results in better
survival.
● Survival of larvae fed with rotifers at different densities varies significantly.

Feeding Timing

● Satiation occurs at 0800-hr, and the percentage of larvae with food in the gut
decreases in the evening, reaching zero at 2200 hr.

Fry Rearing in Net Cages

● Nursery operation involves rearing fry in pond-based nursery cages until they
reach a weight of 40–50 g, ideal for grow-out culture.
● Net cages (5 mm mesh size) with dimensions of 4 m x 3 m x 1.5 m or 5 m x 5
m x 1.5 m are installed prior to stocking for ease of harvesting juveniles.
● Fish are stocked at a density of 150 pieces per cubic meter.
● Fry are acclimatized for 20–30 minutes before release into the cage.
● Commercial feeds with specific nutrient content are provided three times daily.
● If Gracilaria or filamentous algae are abundant, a 50% mixture of these algae
and commercial diet can be fed.
Table 2 . Feeding rate and feed type according to fish body weight in the nursery
phase

Estimated average body Feeding rate (%) Feed type

weight (g)

0.5-10 12 crumble

11-20 10 starter

21-30 7 starter

31-60 6 starter

Transfer to Grow-out Ponds

● Juveniles are transported from the nursery to grow-out ponds using

improvised-mobile net cages, pails, or fish tubs without aeration.
● The density of live transport varies depending on the method used.The density
of live transport using fish tubs and pails is 10 pieces per liter, whereas the
density of live transport using an improvised mobile net cage is 100–150 pieces
per cubic meter. The improvised-mobile net cage can only be used when
transporting fish adjacent to ponds or within the pond, whereas pails and fish
tubs “banyera” can be used throughout the farm.

Grow-out Culture in Ponds

● Juveniles (30–50 g body weight) are reared in grow-out ponds to marketable

size (250–300 g average body weight).
● Fish are stocked at a density of 5,000 per hectare (semi-intensive).
● Fish are acclimatized before release into the pond.
● Feeding occurs 2–3 times per day, with feeding rates adjusted based on the
average body weight.
● Fish can be trained to respond to sounds for feeding.
Table 3. Feeding rate and feed type according to fish body weight in the grow-out
ponds

Estimated average body Feeding rate (%) Feed type

weight (g)

31-60 4.5 starter

61-100 4.0 grower

101-150 3.5 grower

150-350 3.0 finisher

● Harvesting is done when fish attain the desired average body weight.
● Partial harvesting can be done by selecting good sizes and placing them
temporarily in a net cage in the pond.
● Prices may differ based on size, with bigger sizes commanding a higher price.
● Appropriate gloves should be worn during harvesting to prevent stings from
rabbitfish spines.
References
Anong Chirapart, & Rapeeporn Ruangchuay. (2022). Seaweed in Aquaculture: An
Overview. Springer EBooks, 381–397. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-
91955-9_20
BFAR-7 succeeds in naturally spawning catfish in fresh water farms. (2020). Manila
Bulletin. https://mb.com.ph/2020/09/04/bfar-7-succeeds-in-naturally-spawning-
catfish-in-fresh-water-farms/
Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources. (n.d.). https://region8.bfar.da.gov.ph/wp-
content/uploads/2022/12/4.pdf
Caballero, P. A., Coniza, E. B., & Dayrit, R. (2022). Nursery and grow-out culture of
rabbitfish Siganus guttatus in brackishwater ponds. In
repository.seafdec.org.ph. Aquaculture Department, Southeast Asian Fisheries
Development Center. https://repository.seafdec.org.ph/handle/10862/6396
Cooperation, A.-P. E., & Center, S. A. F. D. (2001). Husbandry and health management
of grouper. In repository.seafdec.org.ph. Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation.
https://repository.seafdec.org.ph/handle/10862/1054
Duray, M. N., & Juario, J. V. (1988). Broodstock management and seed production of
the rabbitfish Siganus guttatus (Bloch) and the sea bass Lates calcarifer
(Bloch). Repository.seafdec.org.ph; Aquaculture Department, Southeast Asian
Fisheries Development Center.
https://repository.seafdec.org.ph/handle/10862/131
FAO: Common carp home. (2024). Fao.org. https://www.fao.org/fishery/affris/species-
profiles/common-carp/common-carp-
home/en/#:~:text=Common%20carp%20belongs%20to%20the,Cyprinus%20c
arpio%20in%20their%20publications.
FAO: Growth. (2024). Fao.org. https://www.fao.org/fishery/affris/species-
profiles/milkfish/growth/en/
FAO - Penaeus vannamei. (2024). Retrieved February 19, 2024, from Fao.org
website:
https://www.fao.org/fishery/docs/DOCUMENT/aquaculture/CulturedSpecies/fil
e/en/en_whitelegshrimp.htm
Fermin, A. C. (1988). Broodstock management and seed production of tilapia and
carp. SEAFDEC/AQD Institutional Repository, 211–230.
https://doi.org/971851113X
Induced Breeding and Seed Production of Bighead Carp Aristichthys nobilis
(Richardson). (2001).
https://repository.seafdec.org.ph/bitstream/handle/10862/2145/aem33.pdf
Ledesma, R. H. (2021). Farming Catfish - SEAFDEC/AQD. SEAFDEC/AQD -
Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center | Aquaculture Department.
https://www.seafdec.org.ph/catfish/
Ledesma, R. H. (2022). Farming Grouper - SEAFDEC/AQD.
https://www.seafdec.org.ph/grouper/
Ledesma, R. H. (2021, March 30). Farming Milkfish - SEAFDEC/AQD.
SEAFDEC/AQD - Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center |
Aquaculture Department. https://www.seafdec.org.ph/milkfish/
Lio-Po, G. (1984). Diseases of milkfish. Repository.seafdec.org.ph; Aquaculture
Department, Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center.
https://repository.seafdec.org.ph/handle/10862/157
Macusi, E. D., Estor, E. P., Borazon, E. Q., Clapano, M. B., & Santos, M. D. (2022).
Environmental and Socioeconomic Impacts of Shrimp Farming in the
Philippines: A Critical Analysis Using PRISMA. Sustainability, 14(5), 2977–
2977. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14052977
Obirikorang, K. A., Madkour, H. A., & Adjei-Boateng, D. (2014). A study of intra-cohort
cannibalism in juveniles of the african catfish,(clarias gariepinus) under
controlled conditions.International journal of Science and Technology,3(1), 23-
26.
PCAARRD's Industry Strategic Science and Technology Plans. (n.d.). Milkfish
Broodstock Management and Hatchery Program – Industry Strategic Science
and Technology Plans (ISPs) Platform.PhilAquaculturist. (2014). Culture of the
Native Hito (Clarias macrocephalus). Blogspot.com.
https://philaquaculture.blogspot.com/2010/06/culture-of-native-hito-
clarias.html
PHILIPPINE NATIONAL STANDARD PNS/BAFS 208:2021 Seaweeds -Code Of
Good Aquaculture Practices (Gaqp) Seaweeds -Code Of Good Aquaculture
Practices (Gaqp) PHILIPPINE NATIONAL STANDARD. (2021). Bureau of
Agriculture and Fisheries Standards.
Rowena, M., Ruel, R.-E., Eguia, V., & Pakingking, R. (n.d.). AQUACULTURE
EXTENSION MANUAL NO. 66 TILAPIA CULTURE THE BASICS Aquaculture
Department Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center Iloilo, Philippines.
Retrieved from https://www.seafdec.org.ph/wp-
content/uploads/2022/07/AEM66_cover-to-intro.pdf
Towers, L. (2024, February 16). How to Farm Mud Carp. The Fish Site.
https://thefishsite.com/articles/cultured-aquatic-species-mud-carp
Wildlife Informer. (2022). 10 Characteristics of Catfish - Wildlife Informer. Wildlife
Informer. Retrieved February 15, 2024 from:
https://wildlifeinformer.com/characteristics- of-catfish/
Zuraek, M. L. (2016, February 5). Manual guides milkfish farmers in dealing with
diseases. DOST-PCAARRD Portal.
https://www.pcaarrd.dost.gov.ph/index.php/quick-information-dispatch-qid-
articles/manual-guides-milkfish-farmers-in-dealing-with-diseases