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Cage culture of freshwater fish

Technical Report · January 2016

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.4802.2803

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 Cage culture of freshwater fish
What is Cage Culture?
Cage culture is an aquaculture production system where fish are held in
floating net pens. Cage culture of fish utilizes existing water resources but
encloses the fish in a cage or basket which allows water to pass freely
between the fish and the pond permitting water exchange and waste
removal into the surrounding water.
Cages are used to culture several types of shell fish and finfish species in
fresh, brackish and marine waters. Cages in freshwaters are used for food
fish culture and for fry to fingerling rearing.

The origins of cage culture are a little vague. It can be assumed that at the
beginning fishermen may have used the cages as holding structures to
store the captured fish until they are sent to the market. The first cages
which were used for producing fish were developed in Southeast Asia
around the end of the 19th century. Wood or bamboos were used to
construct these ancient cages and the fish were fed by trash fish and food
scraps. In 1950s modern cage culture began with the initiation of
production of synthetic materials for cage construction. Fish production
in cages became highly popular among the small or limited resource
farmers who are looking for alternatives to traditional agricultural crops.

1
1. Advantages and Disadvantages
As with any production system, fish culture in cages has advantages and
disadvantages that should be considered carefully before choosing it as
the production model.
Advantages
Following are the advantages of cage culture when compared to the other
fish farming systems:
 its installation is easy.
 flexibility of management.
 effective use of fish feeds.
 less manpower requirement.
 better control of fish population.
 in emergencies it can be removed from one place to another.
 treatment of disease is much simple than that of pond culture.
 It requires less investment, because it use existing water bodies,
and simple technology and swift return of investment
 controlling the unwanted reproduction of tilapia, therefore mixed-
sex populations can be reared in cages.
 close observation and sampling of fish is simple and therefore
only minimum supervision is needed.
 many types of water resources can be used, including lakes,
reservoirs, ponds and rivers.
 fish handling and harvesting are very simple and helps to
maintain the non-seasonal supply of the fish.
 Since the cage is meshed, fish inside have less chances of being
attacked by predators.
 They can be used to clean up eutrophicated waters through
culture of caged planktivorous species such as silver carp.
Disadvantages
 feed must be nutritionally complete and kept fresh.

2
  Stocked fish simply affected by the external water quality problems
eg. low oxygen levels.
 Diseases are a common problem in cage culture. The crowding in cages
promotes stress and allows disease organisms spread rapidly. Also, wild
fish around the cage can transmit diseases to the caged fish.
 caged fish are unable to get the natural food of their choice, whereas
it is readily available to the free fish.
 during feeding a significant amounts of fish feed passes out through
the mesh, therefore, fish require feeding many times a day.
 The high fish density with the high feeding rates, often reduce
dissolved oxygen and increase ammonia concentration in and around
the cage, especially if there is no water movement through the cage.
 In public waters, cage culture faces many competing interests and its
legal status is not well defined.
 It is difficult to overwinter warm-water fish in cages. There is usually
a high mortality rate because of bacterial and fungal diseases.

2. Design and construction

Cage range in size from one to several hundred cubic meters and can be
any shape but rectangular, square or cylindrical shapes are typical. Cage
shape does not appear to affect production with most freshwater species.
Cage size depends on the size of the pond, the availability of aeration, and
the method of harvesting. Small cages are more easily managed than large
cages and usually provide a higher economic return per unit volume. Cage
consists of:

(1) Frame: Cage frame can be constructed from wood, iron, steel.

(2) Flotation. Floating cages require a flotation device to stay at the

surface. Flotation can be provided by metal or plastic drums, sealed PVC
pipe, or styrofoam. Floats should be placed around the cage so that it floats
evenly with the lid about 30 cm out of the water.
3
(2) Mesh or netting, made from wire mesh or nylon netting. Plastic netting
is durable, semi-rigid, light weight and less expensive than wire mesh.
Nylon mesh is inexpensive, moderately durable, lightweight and easy to
handle. Nylon is susceptible to damage from predators such as turtles and
crabs. An additional cage of larger mesh and stronger twine may be needed
around nylon cages. Mesh size has a significant impact on production.
Mesh sizes for tilapia cages should be at least 1.5 cm, but 2.0 cm is
preferred. These mesh sizes provide adequate open space for good water
circulation through the cage to renew the oxygen supply and remove
waste. The use of large mesh size requires a larger fingerling size to prevent
escape. For example, a 1.0 cm plastic mesh will retain 9-gram tilapia
fingerlings while a 2.0 cm mesh requires a fingerling weighing at least 25
grams with plastic or nylon netting. Larger mesh size facilitates the entry
of wild fish into the cage.

(3) Cage cover: Cages should be equipped with covers to prevent fish
losses from jumping or bird predation. Covers are often eliminated on large
nylon cages if the top edges of the cage walls are supported 30 to 60 cm
above the water surface.

(4) Feeding ring: Feeding rings are usually used in smaller cages to retain
floating feed and prevent wastage. The rings consist of small-mesh (2 mm
or less) screens suspended to a depth of 45cm or more. Feeding rings should
enclose only a portion of the surface area because rings surrounding the
entire cage perimeter may reduce water movement through the cage.
However, feeding rings that are too small will allow the more aggressive fish
to control access to the feed. If sinking feed is used, small cages may require
a feed tray to minimize loss. These rectangular trays can be made of
galvanized sheet metal or mesh (2 mm; galvanized or plastic) and are
suspended from the cover to a depth of 15 to 45 cm.

3. Site selection and placement of cages

4
Site selection is the most important part of the cage culture. Proper
selection of a site will reduce most of the problems arise with cage culture
and operational cost. Different types of sites may be adapted to cage
culture. Lakes, reservoirs, ponds, rivers and streams can be used as
potential sites provided that the water quality is suitable and there is
adequate water depth beneath the cages to allow water movement. The
depth should be sufficient to keep the nets clear of the sediment and allow
water exchange beneath the nets. The cage units should be built to
withstand prevailing wind and wave conditions at the selected site. Good
water exchange is also important in cage culture to replenish oxygen and
flush away wastes.
Before attempting cage culture in an existing water body, the following
criteria should be considered:
 At least 4.5 meter should separate each cage to optimize water quality.
 The surface area should be at least one half acre and preferably an acre
(One acre is 4.046,9 m2) or larger.
 There should be at least 30 to 60 cm of water column below the bottom
of the cage to allow waste materials to be flushed away from the cage.
 The water level should not fluctuate greatly (0.5-1.0 m).
 Locate cage in water body where the maximum natural circulation of
water presents to provide natural feed and remove the waste away from
the cage.
 In a place with good water quality where runoff is not contaminated
with high levels of pesticides or large amounts of livestock wastes.
 Problems with aquatic weeds, overpopulations of wild fish, surface
oxygen depletion problems should not be present.
 Cages may be moored individually or linked in groups to piers, rafts, or
lines of heavy rope suspended across the water surface.
 Large bodies of water tend to be better suited for cage culture than
small ponds because the water quality is generally more stable and
affected less by fish waste.
5
 Small ponds (1 to 5 acre) can be used for cage culture, but emergency
aeration may be required.

4. Environmental impacts of cage culture

The success of cage culture depends on maintaining good water quality
around the fish cages and so it is in the farmer’s best interests to minimize
environmental impacts. Some of the environmental issues related to cage
culture are:
 Nutrient enrichment of waters that may lead to increased algal
growth and downstream impacts.
 Interactions with wild fish populations.
 Accumulation of uneaten feed and fish excreta under the cage can
become an environmental problem, but this can be avoided by
selecting a site with good water exchange to install the cage.
Generally, the environmental impacts of cage culture can be minimized
through:
 Proper site selection.
 Appropriate anchoring or mooring systems.
 Using extruded feed or stable pellet diets to avoid leaching of nutrients.
 Keeping feed wastage in low level and higher Food Conversion Ratios.

5. Water Quality
 Dissolved oxygen: Dissolved Oxygen (DO) level and its availability
are critical to the health and survival of caged fish. In general, warm
water species such as catfish and tilapia need a dissolved oxygen
level of 4 mg/l DO (or ppm) or greater to maintain good health and
feed conversion. Dissolved Oxygen levels below 3 mg/l can stress
fish. If this level goes below 2 mg/l can increase the mortality of fish.
 Temperature: The most important physical factor controlling the
life of a cold-blooded animal like fish is temperature. It is critical in

6
 growth, reproduction and sometimes survival. Each species of fish
has an optimum temperature range for growth, as well as upper and
lower lethal temperatures.
 pH: Uptake and release of CO2 during photosynthesis and respiration
affect on pH in a pond and due to this, it fluctuates daily. The lowest
level of pH appears at or near dawn whilst the highest is at mid-
afternoon. The desirable range of early morning pH for fish production
is from 6.5 to 9. Acid death point of the fish is approximately pH 4 and
the alkaline death point is approximately pH 11. Slowed growth of fish,
reduced reproduction, and susceptibility to disease increasing can be
caused if the pH is not at the optimum range.
 Other-Turbidity, Nitrate and Phosphate levels, Alkalinity, and
Salinity are also affecting on fish culture in cage.

7. Production management

Fingerlings Cages may be used for fingerling production. One-gram fry

may be reared in 0.6 cm mesh cages at up to 3,000 fish per cubic meter
for 7 to 8 weeks until they average about 10 grams each. Ten-gram fish
can be restocked into 1.2 cm mesh cages. Cages stocked with 10-gram fish
at 2,500 per cubic meter will produce 25- to 30-gram fingerlings in 5 to 6
weeks. After grading, 25-30 gm fish can be restocked at 1,500 fish per
cubic meter to produce 50-60 gm fingerlings in 5 weeks, or at 1,000 fish
per cubic meter to produce 100-gram fingerlings in 9 to 10 weeks. Fish
should be graded by size every 4 to 6 weeks. Stunted fish and females
should be culled.

Final grow-out cages the optimum fingerling size for stocking in final
grow-out cages is determined by the length of the growing season and the
desired market size. The shorter the growing season, the larger the
fingerlings must be at stocking. The use of male populations which grow

7
at twice the rate of female populations will result in larger fish, greater
production and a reduction in the grow-out period.
Recommended stocking rate of tilapia fingerlings depends on cage volume,
desired harvest size and production level, and the length of the culture
period. Expected harvest weights of male tilapia are given in Table 1.

Table 1: Expected average final weights for different culture periods and
initial weights of tilapia.
Length of growing
Expected average final weight (g)*
season (weeks)
30 g 60 g 100 g
12 200 270 350
16 250 340 440
20 310 410 520
24 370 480 600
28 420 550 690
*Values are for male populations

High stocking rates can be used in small cages of 1 to 4 cubic meters.

Optimum stocking rates per cubic meter range from 600-800 fish to
produce fish averaging 1/4 kg; 300 to 400 to produce fish averaging 1/2
kg; and 200 to 250 to produce fish averaging 3/4 kg.
Water exchange is less frequent in large cages, and therefore the stocking
rate must be reduced accordingly. In 100-cubic meter cages, the optimum
stocking rate is approximately 50 fish per cubic meter to produce l/2 kg
fish. Cages for final grow-out should be stocked when water temperature
rises above 21°C and harvested when the temperature falls below 21°C. In
tropical or sub-tropical regions with a year-round growing season, a
staggered production system could be used to facilitate marketing by
ensuring regular harvests, e.g., weekly, biweekly, or monthly. The exact
strategy will depend on the number of cages available and the total
production potential of the body of water.

8
Example: if 10 cages are available for placement in a pond with sufficient
production potential and grow0out takes 20 weeks, then a cage could be
stocked every 2 weeks. Beginning on week 20, the first cage would be
harvested and restocked, followed by another cage every 2 weeks. A
staggered system requires a regular supply of fingerlings.

Aeration
Aeration can enhance water quality, reduce stress, improve feed
conversion efficiency, and increase growth and production rates. Research
has shown that aeration can improve cage production by 20 percent or
more. Aeration is most commonly needed at night or during still, overcast
days. Aeration for cages can be provided by several types of mechanical
aerators. The key to aeration of cages is to create a current that moves
water through the cage. Mechanical aerators like paddlewheels or vertical
pumps can be placed near cages where they create currents through the
cages. These types of aerators work well to aerate cages near them and
within their current pattern.

7. Total production
Total production in cages increases as the stocking rate is increased.
However, there is a density at which fish become too crowded and water
quality within the cage deteriorates to a point that causes a decline in
growth rates. In small cages of 1 to 4 cubic meters, a reduction in growth
usually begins at production levels around 115 kg per cubic meter. In 100-
cubic meter cages, production should be limited to 23 kg per cubic meter.
Tilapia continue to grow above these levels at gradually decreasing rates,
but they convert feed poorly, and the risk of loss due to oxygen depletion
or disease is greater.
For maximum turnover of marketable fish, it is best to limit production to
levels that do not depress growth. The total number of cages that can be

9
deployed in a pond, and therefore total fish production, is primarily a
function of maximum allowable feeding rate for all cages in that body of
water. The total feed input is related to number and size of fish in the cages
and is limited by surface area of the pond.
As total feed input is increased water quality eventually starts to deteriorate
until it becomes unsuitable for fish in cages. Although tilapia survival is
usually better than 95 percent, caged tilapia are more susceptible than non-
caged tilapia to stress from poor water quality, particularly low dissolved
oxygen (DO) level. DO should be monitored regularly at late afternoon and
early morning especially when attempting to maximize total production and
emergency aeration equipment should be available.

Feeding
Feeding is the most important management practice that a fish farmer
does each day. Simply stated, no feed will mean no growth. Without growth
there will be no profit. On the other hand improper feeding can be
adversely affected to the culture species. In fact, feed may comprise over
60% of variable costs. Therefore, most of the Egyptian farmers use low cost
feed. Fish feed must be a nutritionally balanced which has adequate protein
and energy levels, is balanced in amino acids, and in essential fatty acids,
and is supplemented with a complete array of vitamins and minerals.
Feeding fish twice daily at adequate rate depending on water temperature,
species, size, culture and density is recommended. Feeding ratio can be
determined through fish sampling that was carried out periodically or
applying standard growth tables.
Caged fish should be fed a floating pelleted feed. Floating feed is trapped
inside the feeding ring and will allow the fish farmer the opportunity to
observe the fish. Sinking feed will fall through the cage (unless the cage
has a bottom) and not be eaten by the fish. In general, warm-water species
such as catfish, tilapia and carp can be successfully reared from large-

10
sized fingerlings on 32% protein complete diets although many fish
farmers prefer 36%. Pellet sizes normally available include 1.5, 3, and 6
mm diameters. Usually large fingerlings can accept 6 mm pellets. Small
fingerlings and species with small mouths (e.g., bluegill) may need to be
started on 1.5 mm pellets.
Floating feeds allow observation of the feeding response and are effectively
retained by a feeding ring. Since it takes about 24 hours for high quality
floating pellets to disintegrate, fish may be fed once daily in the proper
amount, but twice-daily feedings are better. Good results can be obtained
from sinking pellets, but extra care must be taken to ensure they are not
wasted. Sinking pellets disintegrate quickly in water and have a greater
tendency to be swept through the cage sides. More than one feeding is
needed each day; tilapia cannot consume their daily requirement of feed
for maximum growth in a single meal of short duration. Fish less than 25
grams should be fed at least three times daily. Sinking pellets may be:
 slowly fed by hand, allowing time for the fish to eat the feed before
it sinks through or is swept out of the cage,
 placed in shallow, submerged trays, or placed in demand feeders.

Feeding adjustments can be weekly or every 2 weeks. The fish should be

biweekly sampled to determine their average weight and the correct feeding
rate for the daily ration. Recommended feeding rates are listed in Table 2.
Feeding rate tables serve as guides for estimating the optimum daily ration,
but are not always accurate under a wide range of conditions, such as
fluctuating temperatures or DO.
Demand feeders can be used to eliminate the work (feed weighing, fish
sampling, calculations). Demand feeders reduce labor by nearly 90%.
Feeding rate schedules may still be used with demand feeders by adding a
computed amount of feed daily instead of refilling the feeder whenever it is
nearly empty. Because floating pellets are round and uniform in size, they
are best for demand feeders, but sinking pellets will also work. With high

11
quality feeds, good growing conditions and effective feeding practices, feed
conversion ratios as low as 1.3 have been obtained. Generally, feed
conversion ratios will range from 1.5 to 1.8.
Demand feeders have been used successfully with caged fish. The
problems with demand feeders are:
 the fish must be trained to use the feeders,
 the feeders need frequent adjustment, and
 the producer must observe feeding behavior of the fish to head off
water quality and disease problems.
Table 2: Recommended daily feeding rates, expressed as percentage of
body weight for tilapia of different sizes.
Fish weight Feeding rate (%) Fish weight Feeding rate
(grams) (grams) (%)
1 11.0 30 3.6
2 9.0 60 3.0
5 6.5 100 2.5
10 5.2 175 2.5
15 4.6 300 2.1
28 4.2 400 1.5
Feeding practices
 Fish will feed most aggressively near their preferred or optimum
temperature and when oxygen levels are high (i.e., above 60% of
saturation).
 Generally fish will adapt to any feeding time as long as it is consistent.
 Changes in the feeding schedule should be made gradually (e.g., not
changing more than 30 minutes per day).
 Most studies have shown that fish will grow faster and have better
feed conversion if their daily feed ration is divided into two feedings
given at least 6 hours apart.
 Overfeeding wastes feed and money, and can cause water quality
deterioration leading to stress and increased incidence of disease.

12
  Underfeeding reduces the growth rate, total production and profit.
 A general rule of thumb for most warm-water fish is to feed fish all
they will eat in 10 to 30 minutes when the water temperature is above
21°C.
 Caged fish, particularly catfish, are sometimes shy and may not start
feeding immediately. Also, when fish are first stocked into a cage they
usually adjust slowly to feeding.
 Keeping good feeding records is essential to becoming a successful
fish producer.
 It is a good practice to offer caged fish one-half of the amount of feed
they consumed the previous day, so as not to overfeed if there is a
weather, water quality or disease problem that reduces consumption.
After adding feed observe the feeding response, adding more feed as
needed at 20-to 30-minute intervals. If the fish have not consumed
the feed after 20 to 30 minutes, do not add more feed.
 The key is to get as much feed into the fish as they want to eat
(satiation) without leaving or wasting feed.
 Caged fish should be fed at least 6 days a week, unless pre-cluded by
bad weather, poor water quality, or disease.
 The daily amount of feed fed will need to be increased as the fish grow.
 After fish reach advanced fingerling size the rate will decrease to 3%
and nearing harvest size will drop to only 2% or less (see Table 1).
 Feeding rates for fish are calculated on a percent of body weight per
day basis, based on the fish size and water temperature. Small fish
consume a larger percentage of their body weight than larger fish,
and all fish increase consumption as water temperatures approach
optimum temperature range.
Winter feeding
Many species of warm-water fish can be overwintered in cages. Tilapia are
the exception and will die as water temperatures reach about 12°C. Caged
fish can be fed during the winter at a reduced feeding level. Table 2 gives
13
general guidelines for feeding catfish during the winter in cages. Feeding
is usually most successful if done on warm, sunny afternoons. Research
has shown that catfish can gain 10 - 20% of their body weight over the
winter if fed, but feed conversion is poor (>3.0). Research has also shown
that catfish can survive the winter without being fed and may be more
resistant to bacterial diseases if deprived of feed.

Table 3: Winter feeding schedule for caged fish.

Temperature (°C) % of total fish weight to feed Feeding frequency
18-21 2.0 Every other day
16-17 1.5 Every other day
13-15 1.0 Every other day
10-13 1.0 Twice per week
7-9 0.5 Once per week

Good culture practices

 Stock fry or fingerlings in a cage with appropriate size for the mesh to
avoid fish escapes.
 Clean the nets regularly.
 Review the cage structure regularly.
 Monitor health status of the fish visually and send samples to
laboratory if a problem is detected.
 Adjust the quantity of feed according to consumption after monitoring
through feeding trays.
 Be aware of the, salinity, pH and temperature changes of the water body.

Culture species
The selection of fish species for culture should be based on:

14
 - Biological criteria, such as physiological, behavioural characteristics
and level of domestication;
- Marketing criteria, for example demand, price, process and
production for its trade;
- Environmental criteria, for example: temperature, distribution and
habitat for the growth.
Many of the fish species are suitable for culture in cages. The most
appropriate species or strains of tilapia for cage culture are Nile Tilapia, T.
aurea (blue tilapia), Florida red tilapia, Taiwan red tilapia, and hybrids
between these species and strains. The choice of a species for culture
depends mainly on availability, legal status, growth rate and cold tolerance.
Tilapia can be cultured at high densities in mesh cages that maintain free
circulation of water. Eggs fall through the cage bottom or do not develop if
they are fertilized. (Reproduction will occur in cages with 2mm mesh or less,
which is small enough to retain eggs.)
Most commonly in Egypt tilapia and grey mullet are cultured in cages up
to “table fish” level and fry to fingerling rearing also become successful.
There are also some other species such as catfish and carp reared in cages.
The desired species characteristics for cage culture are:
 Fast growth rate, in regional environmental conditions,
 Tolerance for crowded conditions.
 Good market value.

Stocking
Fish stocking in cages can be slightly different from specie to specie and
also depends on the preferred stocking density and the size of fry stock.
On the other hand high stocking density requires feed in adequate
quantity and quality to promote and guarantee fish growth.

15
Before stocking it is very important to check the condition of the fry that
is going to be stocked in the cage. Fry must be free from diseases and
should have the recommended size, according to the cage mesh size.

Stocking in fry to fingerling rearing cages

Recommended stocking density for cages located in tanks are 225-285
fry/cm3 and for the cages in the ponds are 114 fry/cm3. Recommended
size of the fry is 2.5–3.0 cm for tilapia and carp species.

Stocking in food fish culture cages

The recommendation is to stock graded 6 to 8 inch fingerlings, which ensure
best production of marketable sized fish at the end. For carps, Tilapia, and
catfish, the recommended minimum stocking density is 80 fish/m3, higher
densities are possible in some cases. A recommended maximum stock
density to beginning farmers is the number of fish that will collectively
weigh 150 kg/m3 when the fish reach a predetermined harvest size. The
smallest recommended fingerling size for stocking is 15 g. A 15 g fish could
not escape from a 13-mm bar mesh net. Survival rates in well-placed and
well-managed cages are typically 98 to 100%. Unless greater mortality is
expected, no adjustment is needed to calculate stocking density.
An example of who to calculate the number of fish to stock per cage follows:
Assume that a farmer wants harvest fish weighing 500 g from 1m3 cage.

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑖𝑠ℎ 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑎𝑡 ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑡 150𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

𝑆𝑡𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = = = 300 fish/m3
𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑠ℎ 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑎𝑡 ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑡 0.5 𝑘𝑔

To harvest fish averaging 200g, stocking density would be

150/𝑚3
𝑆𝑡𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = = 750 fish/m3
0,2 𝑘𝑔

16
Carrying Capacity
Carrying capacity of the water body which contains the cages is a very
important factor. If we over exploit the water body by exceeding its carrying
capacity it will resulted in increased stress, diseases and mortality and
reduced feed conversion efficiency, growth rate, survival and profit. Also it
will increase the pollution which impact badly on caged fish.

6. Problems
- Fish are difficult to observe in cages. Sampling to observe may stress the
fish and led to secondary infections. Therefore, the observation during
the feeding, when the fish come up to eat at the water surface, is critical.
- Stress comes from the water body. Accumulation of the feed, organic
materials, livestock waste and pesticides in the water body may be
harmful to the fish. These factors can be avoided by doing an appropriate
site selection and a proper maintenance of the cage.
- Human errors. Poor cage construction, stocking poor quality fingerlings,
high or low density stocking, poor quality of feed, improper feeding
methods, ignoring regular monitoring of fish, poor fish handling,
improper site selection and inadequate cage maintenance can be
considered as human errors.
Waste accumulation can control by the following practices:
- To facilitate water exchange, use a mesh size as large as possible.
- Ideal exchange rate is one cage volume per every 30 to 60 seconds.
- Place the broad side of a cage into the prevailing wind to aid water
exchange
- Cage bottom should keep at least 50 cm above from the bottom of the
water body.
- Feed only as much as the fish will consume within 15 minutes. If fish
do not consume the feed in 15 minutes or stop feeding, reduce or stop
feeding until fish respond willingly to the feed.

17
 REFERENCES

Halwart, M., Soto, D. and Arthur, J. R. (2007): Cage aquaculture,

Regional reviews and global overview, FAO, Fisheries Technical Paper, 498
Olivares, A. E. V. (2003): Design of a cage culture system for farming in
Mexico. www.unuftp.is/static/fellows/document/alfredo03prf.pdf.
Masser, M. (1988): Cage Culture. Cage culture problems. Southern
Regional Aquaculture Center, SRAC Publication No. 165.
Masser, M. (1997): Cage Culture. Cage Construction, Placement, and
Aeration. Southern Regional Aquaculture Center, SRAC Publication No.
162.
Masser, M. (2008): What is cage culture. Southern Regional Aquaculture
Center, SRAC Publication No. 160.
Rakocy, J. E. (2005): Cage culture of Tilapia: Southern Regional
Agricultural Center and the Texas Aquaculture Extension Service,
http://www.thefishsite.com/articles/135/cage-culture-of-tilapia/

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