IAN ALFONSO D.

DE GUZMAN

Cage culture involves the rearing of animals in a structure enclosed on all or all but
the top sides by wooden, mesh or net screens, whilst maintaining a free movement of
water (Beveridge, 1996). The use of cages for rearing fish and other aquatic animals is
thought to have begun in China nearly one thousand years ago (Hu, 1994), and to
have become locally widespread in China, Cambodia and Indonesia during the closing
years of the last century and early decades of the present century (Lafont and
Savoeun, 1951; Hickling, 1962; Ling, 1977; Pantulu, 1979; Reksalegora, 1979). In
Europe and North America, cages began to be widely used in the 1960s in the
emerging trout and catfish farming industries.

Most cage culture activities in freshwaters are related to the production of food fish.
However, cage-based aquaculture has also been used as a cost-effective
biomanipulation technique for addressing anthropogenic eutrophication problems
(Yang, 1982; Beveridge, 1984a; Graneli, 1987; Milstein et al., 1989; Arcifa et al.,
1995; Starling et al., 1997) and as a means of producing seed to enhance fishery
production (De Silva, 1988; De Silva et al., 1991; Lu, 1992; Li and Xu, 1995;
Lorenzen, 1996).

Aquaculture in lakes and reservoirs is often viewed as desirable as it can generate

employment, income and food, support or complement fisheries or other activities,
capitalising on previously under-exploited resources such as waste agricultural and
industrial materials (Gonzales, 1984; Beveridge and Phillips, 1988; Beveridge, 1996).
Foremost among its merits is the possibility of using existing water bodies,
subdividing what is usually a common-property resource into parcels over which
rights of tenure may be given. In theory this facilitates the involvement in aquaculture
of members of the community with scant land resource (Gonzales, 1984; Conway et
al., 1989; Beveridge and Muir, 1997; CARE, 1996). Freshwater cages also tend to be
inexpensive and easy to construct and manage and, entrepreneurial abilities aside,
require modest managerial skills. A further advantage of using cages to produce
fingerlings support a culture-based fishery is that fish are readily acclimated to
conditions within the lake or reservoir prior to release.

However, cage aquaculture has its disadvantages too. It is not always easy to establish
cages in reservoirs, the presence of submerged trees and the practice and extent of
drawdown restricting the availability of suitable sites. Drawdown also increases the
risks of a breakdown in stratification, with the consequent upwelling of deoxygenated
hypolimnetic water that has caused caged fish mortalities in Indonesia and elsewhere
(Soemarwoto et al., 1990; Zoran et al., 1994). Cages are vulnerable to adverse
weather, vandalism and theft and pollution. There are problems with allocation of
rights in what are often publicly owned and used water bodies. All wastes are released
untreated into the environment, potentially affecting not only the farmers themselves,
but also other resource users. As a result, critics have argued that the development of
cage aquaculture in inland waters has brought about problems of social inequity and
caused serious environmental impacts and that developments are often unsustainable
(Beveridge, 1984a, 1996; Beveridge and Phillips, 1988; Santiago, 1995; CARE, 1996;
Beveridge and Muir, 1997; Beveridge et al., 1997).
 DIFFERENT TYPES OF CAGES

Fixed Cages
Fixed cages are very common in the Philippines. They are cheaper and simple.
However, they are limited in size and shape. They are used in sheltered shallow sites.

-Fixed cages consist of a net bag suspended from posts in the flow of a stream, river,
canal, lake, or reservoir. These cages are generally used in shallow bodies of water,
with depths of 3 to 10 feet. The bottom of the net bag does not touch the bottom of the
water body.

Using fixed cages in aquaculture comes with its own set of advantages and
disadvantages:
Pros:
Stability: Fixed cages provide stability in turbulent waters, ensuring the safety of the
aquatic stock and the infrastructure itself.
Lower Maintenance: Compared to floating cages, fixed cages generally require less
maintenance as they are less prone to drifting or damage from rough weather
conditions.
Cost-Effectiveness: Once installed, fixed cages can be cost-effective over the long
term, as they typically have lower initial setup costs and may have lower ongoing
maintenance costs.
Efficient Use of Space: Fixed cages can be installed in areas where floating cages
might not be feasible, such as in deeper waters, maximizing the use of available
space.
Control Over Environment: Operators have more control over the environment
within fixed cages, allowing for better management of water quality, feeding regimes,
and disease prevention.

Cons:
Limited Flexibility: Unlike floating cages, fixed cages cannot be easily moved to
different locations, limiting flexibility in managing the aquaculture operation.
Site Selection Constraints: Fixed cages require suitable seabed conditions for
installation, which can limit the choice of location for setting up aquaculture
operations.
Potential Environmental Impact: Installation of fixed cages can disrupt the seabed
habitat and surrounding ecosystem, potentially leading to environmental concerns
such as habitat destruction and alteration of local biodiversity.
Risk of Fouling: Fixed cages are more prone to biofouling compared to floating
cages, which can affect water flow and oxygenation within the cage and may require
regular cleaning.
Higher Initial Investment: While fixed cages may have lower long-term costs, the
initial investment required for installation, including anchoring systems and cage
construction, can be higher compared to floating cages.
Limited Depth Range: Fixed cages are typically suitable for relatively shallow to
moderate depths, and may not be feasible for deeper waters where floating cages or
other aquaculture methods are more suitable.
Floating Cages
Floating cages has a variety of designs. Shapes and sizes can suit the purpose of the
farmer. Rigid materials such as GI pipes, bamboos and plastic pipes can be used as
frames. Flotation materials such as empty plastic drums and styropor can also be
utilized. Floating cages can be towed to other favorable sites , as maybe needed. Other
countries were reported to used rigid bag and solid floor. Various types of rotating
floating cages were also noted. Rotation of cages may discourage excessive fouling of
the enclosure.
-Floating cages consist of a frame that floats on the surface of the water. Net bags are
suspended from the floating frame so that their bottoms do not touch the ground.
These cages are generally used in deeper bodies of water, with depths greater than 16
feet.The floating frame functions as a walkway so that the nets can be maintained, and
the fish can easily be observed and managed.
Floating cages come in a wide range of designs, varying in size and shape. Different
designs are developed to be suitable for various conditions in open bodies of water.

Using floating cages in aquaculture has its own set of advantages and disadvantages:

Pros:
Mobility: Floating cages can be easily moved to different locations, allowing for
flexibility in managing the aquaculture operation and responding to changing
environmental conditions or market demands.
Versatility in Site Selection: Floating cages can be deployed in a wide range of water
bodies, including coastal areas, lakes, and reservoirs, without being restricted by
seabed conditions.
Minimal Environmental Impact: Compared to fixed cages, floating cages generally
have less impact on the seabed habitat and surrounding ecosystem during installation
and operation.
Reduced Fouling: Floating cages are less prone to biofouling compared to fixed
cages since they are not in direct contact with the seabed, reducing the need for
regular cleaning and maintenance.
Lower Initial Investment: Floating cages typically have lower initial setup costs
compared to fixed cages, as they require less infrastructure for anchoring and
installation.

Cons:
Vulnerability to Weather Conditions: Floating cages are more susceptible to
damage from rough weather conditions such as strong winds, storms, and high waves,
which can pose risks to both the aquatic stock and the infrastructure.
Limited Stability: Compared to fixed cages, floating cages may experience greater
movement and instability, especially in turbulent waters, potentially affecting fish
welfare and operational efficiency.
Higher Maintenance Requirements: Floating cages may require more frequent
maintenance, including cleaning, inspection, and repairs, to ensure structural integrity
and optimal performance, particularly in harsh marine environments.
Space Limitations: Floating cages may have limited space for expansion compared
to fixed cages, as they are constrained by the surface area of the water body and may
face regulatory restrictions on cage density.
Risk of Escapes: There is a higher risk of fish escapes from floating cages,
particularly during extreme weather events or due to equipment failure, which can
have negative ecological impacts on wild fish populations and genetic integrity.

Potential Interactions with Wildlife: Floating cages may attract wildlife such as
birds and marine mammals, which can lead to conflicts and potential predation on the
aquaculture stock.
Submersible cages are a variation of floating cages with either rigid or flexible
netting. The buoyancy of plastic floats is variable so that the fish cage can be moved
to different depths in the water column. These types of fish cages are often used in
marine environments.

Submersible cages, also known as submerged or submersed cages, offer a unique

approach to aquaculture with their own set of advantages and disadvantages:

Pros:

Reduced Environmental Impact: Submersible cages operate beneath the water

surface, minimizing their visibility and reducing potential visual impact on the
surrounding environment. This can be particularly beneficial in sensitive or
aesthetically important areas.
Enhanced Protection from Extreme Weather: Being submerged beneath the water
surface provides additional protection from extreme weather conditions such as strong
winds, storms, and high waves, reducing the risk of damage to the aquaculture stock
and infrastructure.
Improved Fish Health: Submersible cages can provide a more stable and controlled
environment for fish, with reduced exposure to temperature fluctuations, sunlight, and
surface agitation, which may lead to improved growth rates and overall fish health.
Reduced Risk of Predation: Submerged cages can offer increased protection from
predators such as birds, marine mammals, and larger fish species, helping to minimize
losses due to predation.
Potential for Enhanced Water Quality: Submersible cages may have a positive
impact on water quality by promoting natural circulation and exchange of oxygen and
nutrients between the cage environment and the surrounding water, leading to
improved water quality conditions.

Cons:
Higher Installation and Maintenance Costs: The installation and maintenance of
submersible cages can be more complex and expensive compared to traditional
floating or fixed cages, as specialized equipment and expertise are often required for
submersion and retrieval.
Limited Accessibility for Monitoring and Maintenance: Submerged cages can be
more challenging to access for routine monitoring, feeding, cleaning, and
maintenance activities, requiring specialized equipment and trained personnel for
underwater operations.
Risk of Fouling and Biofouling: Submersible cages are still susceptible to fouling
and biofouling, which can affect water flow, oxygenation, and fish health if not
managed effectively. Regular cleaning and maintenance are necessary to prevent
fouling buildup.
Potential for Escapes: While submersible cages offer increased protection from
surface threats, there is still a risk of fish escapes, particularly during submersion and
retrieval operations or due to equipment failure. Escapes can have negative ecological
impacts on wild fish populations and genetic integrity.
Regulatory Challenges: Submersible aquaculture operations may face additional
regulatory challenges and environmental permitting requirements compared to
traditional aquaculture systems, particularly regarding submersion depths,
environmental impact assessments, and monitoring protocols.
Submerged Cages
Submerged cages are those enclosures that are underwater the whole duration of the
culture period. Simple submerged cages were reported to be adopted in Indonesia and
in lakes in China (Vass & Sachlon, 1957; Li, 1994). In the Philippines, the design is
adopted in Magat Dam and Taal Lake tilapia cages, where bamboo is used for
framing and flotation material. Another design has no frame and requires 20 liter
plastic containers as float to maintain the shape of the cages. Frameless or flexible
cage is suited in shallow sites with less fluctuating water depth. Submerged cages
allow the use of site exposed to strong winds. Less materials are needed for framing
and flotation and may yield better per cubic meter. However, cage size is limited and
working area is absent.

Submerged cages consist of a solid, rigid frame, wherein a net bag is fitted. The entire
cage is submerged underwater, and fish do not have access to the water surface.
This type of cage is not commonly used for aquaculture because they are only suitable
for fish without swim bladders and fish with closed swim bladders. Fish with open
swim bladders, like salmon and trout, need to access the water's surface to refill their
swim bladders and maintain their buoyancy.

Submerged cages, also known as submersible cages or underwater cages, present a

distinctive approach to aquaculture with their own set of advantages and
disadvantages:

Pros:
Reduced Environmental Impact: Submerged cages operate beneath the water
surface, minimizing their visibility and reducing potential visual impact on the
surrounding environment. This can be particularly beneficial in environmentally
sensitive areas or locations with strict regulatory requirements.
Enhanced Protection from Weather Events: Being submerged underwater provides
additional protection from extreme weather conditions such as strong winds, storms,
and high waves, reducing the risk of damage to both the aquaculture stock and the
infrastructure.
Improved Fish Health and Growth: Submerged cages can offer a more stable
environment for fish, with reduced exposure to temperature fluctuations, sunlight, and
surface turbulence. This stable environment can lead to improved growth rates, feed
conversion efficiency, and overall fish health.
Reduced Risk of Predation: Submerged cages may provide increased protection
from predators such as birds, marine mammals, and larger fish species, as these
predators are less likely to detect and access submerged cages compared to surface-
based cages.
Enhanced Water Quality: Submerged cages can promote natural circulation and
exchange of oxygen and nutrients between the cage environment and the surrounding
water, potentially leading to improved water quality conditions within and around the
cage.
Cons:
Higher Installation and Maintenance Costs: The installation and maintenance of
submerged cages can be more complex and expensive compared to traditional floating
or fixed cages, as specialized equipment and expertise are often required for
submersion, anchoring, and retrieval.

Challenges in Monitoring and Management: Submerged cages can be more

challenging to monitor and manage compared to surface-based cages, requiring
specialized equipment and trained personnel for underwater operations such as
feeding, monitoring, and maintenance.

Risk of Fouling and Biofouling: Submerged cages are still susceptible to fouling and
biofouling, which can affect water flow, oxygenation, and fish health if not managed
effectively. Regular cleaning and maintenance are necessary to prevent fouling
buildup.

Limited Accessibility: Submerged cages may have limited accessibility for routine
maintenance and inspection, as they require specialized equipment and procedures for
underwater operations. This can increase the logistical challenges associated with
cage management.

Regulatory Considerations: Submerged aquaculture operations may face additional

regulatory challenges and environmental permitting requirements compared to
surface-based aquaculture systems, particularly regarding submersion depths,
environmental impact assessments, and monitoring protocols.
Fish Cages With Flexible Netting Versus Cages With Rigid Netting
The primary purposes of the netting used in fish cages are to keep the fish in, keep
predators out, and allow water to flow freely through the cage. Two types of netting
can be used to serve these functions – flexible or rigid.

Flexible netting for fish cages is most often made of nylon. It is inexpensive and can
easily be cleaned and treated with chemicals to prevent biofouling. Biofouling is the
build-up of algae and microorganisms on the netting. It reduces the free flow of water
through the cage, so it impacts water quality.

Rigid netting used for fish cages is either galvanized or plastic-coated steel mesh or
hard plastic, which is more expensive. This type of netting is mostly used in
submersible cages. Biofouling is also a problem with rigid netting, and it is more
difficult to clean and treat this type of netting. Still, rigid netting has a longer lifespan
than flexible nylon netting.