Republic of the Philippines

Central Luzon State University

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Science City of Muñoz, Nueva Ecija

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL AND BIOSYSTEMS ENGINEERING

ABE 514 LAB

AQUACULTURE ENGINEERING

Term Paper No. 2

Life Cycle Of Important
Aquaculture Species
Submitted by:
LACSON, MA. GELINA G.
BSABE 5-2 / MW 4:00-5:30

Submitted to:
DR. CHITO F. SACE
Professor

Date Submitted:
November 4, 2019
 Republic of the Philippines
Central Luzon State University
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Science City of Muñoz, Nueva Ecija

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL AND BIOSYSTEMS ENGINEERING

Term Paper No. 2
Life Cycle of Important Aquaculture Species

I. INTRODUCTION
Aquaculture is an important sector in Philippine fisheries and the most dynamic since the
decline of marine fisheries starting 1976. The total fish production in the Philippines in 1992 was
2,625,607 tons — 41.3% came from coastal or sustenance fishing, 30.7% from offshore or
commercial fishing, and 28% from aquaculture (Table 1). Fish production from the coastal zone
decreased and the fish caught were of lower commercial value. Commercial fishing increased in
production but existing fishing boats are old and small and lack modern equipment to explore the
exclusive economic zone.

Aquaculture is a more controllable and manageable production system. From this sector, a
yearly increase in production has been achieved (Table 1). In terms of value, aquaculture products
contributed nearly 40% of P65.443 billion in 1992 (Table 2). Production from brackishwater ponds,
from freshwater ponds, pens and cages, and from mariculture in different regions in the Philippines
are shown in Table 3. In the export markets, cultured shrimps and seaweeds have been major winners
since 1987. In 1992, the shrimp export was worth US$211.448 million and the seaweed export
$18.953 million (Table 4). Employment in the aquaculture sector is estimated at 258,480 people
(BFAR 1992).

Environmental conditions play a major role in the economic success of aquaculture. They
affect significantly the economic value of farming particular species, the returns from genetically
improving aquaculture species, the economic relevance of selection for particular genetic traits, and
the economic value of particular aquaculture techniques and systems. The purpose of this article is
to show how economic analysis can be used to guide the selection and development of aquaculture
species and systems taking into account environmental factors.
 Jhingran and Gopalakrishnan (1974) include about 465 species, belonging to 28 families of
plants and 107 families of animals, in a catalogue of cultivated aquatic organisms. A more recent
listing by the FAO (Garibaldi,1996) and their annual production statistics indicate that there are about
300 farmed aquatic species. Out of a total of 297 farmed aquatic organisms in1997,71 were
exclusively from fresh water and the rest were salt tolerant, including 82 exclusively from seawater
(Kutty,2001) (see Table5.1).As can be expected the number of aquatic species under culture are
increasing at a faster rate with time as is evident from the species-wise statistics available from year
to year. It would probably be possible to culture almost all aquatic organisms, but the main
consideration is whether it is worth the effort and how far they can contribute to the main objectives
of aquaculture.

The availability of a large number of aquaculture species adapted to different environ-mental

conditions is an advantage, as it will often be possible to choose from locally occurring species and
avoid the introduction of exotic ones for culture. For example in Venezuela, species selection trials
of native Chachama (Colosoma macropomum),a migratory characid, has enabled substitution of
exotic tilapia and rainbow trout to an extent (Joryet al.,1999).However, this also means that aqua-
culture misses the advantages that crop andanimal production have had in agriculture where
concentrated research on a few species has led to the development of advanced technologies of
production and selected high-yielding strains and hybrids. It can, however ,be pointed out that in
spite of the large number of species involved in aquaculture globally the number of species
accounting for high production is small, as indicated earlier (see Table 2.2).Only eight species yield
over 1m tons annually while 24 species yield over 100000 tons but less than 1m tons, according to
FAO aquaculture production data for 1997.The history of agricultural research indicates that time
and effort that are needed to develop advanced production technologies.

The science of aquaculture (as distinct from traditional practices),which is relatively new,
will probably require a longer period of time to reach that level of advancement if efforts have to be
shared among so many species. It has to be remembered that long traditional experience and scientific
research have so far actually succeeded in domesticating, in the sense of animal husbandry practices,
only a small number of species such as the trout ,common carp andsalmon. However, one can clearly
see a tendency towards limiting the number of species in largescale commercial aquaculture, whereas
in aquaculture research an increasing number of species are still being investigated. One has also to
consider the larger variety of genetically plastic aquatic species available to meet the present and
future needs of man as well as the greater variability of the site-specific aquatic environment
compared to the terrestrial, in the further diversification of species in
aquaculture(EAS,2001;Kutty,2001).Therefore the con-centration of research efforts and
developments of diversified aquaculture systems may also become more restricted in a geographical
context, especially in a studying adaptive mechanisms of significance in site-specific aquaculture.

OBJECTIVES
After performing the exercise, the students should be able to:
1. Identify the major aquaculture species in the country and discuss each of their life cycles.
2. Determine the biological characteristics of aquaculture species.
3. Enumerate and elaborate the qualities needed for the suitability of a specie in aquaculture
system.
II. METHODOLOGY

1. The student did some research about the life cycles of important aquaculture species.
2. The student identified the major aquaculture species in the country and discuss each of
their life cycles.
3. The biological characteristics of aquaculture species was determined by the student
4. The student enumerated and elaborated the qualities needed for the suitability of a specie
in aquaculture system.

III. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

The Environment and the Selection of Aquaculture Species and Systems: An Economic
Analysis

Environmental conditions play a significant role in the economic success of aquaculture. This
article classifies environmental factors in a way that facilitates economic analysis of their
implications for the selection of aquaculture species and systems. The implication of on-farm as
on-site environmental conditions for this selection are considered first using profit possibility
frontiers and taking into account the biological law of environmental tolerance. However, in
 selecting, recommending and developing aquaculture species and systems, it is often unrealistic to
assume the degree of managerial efficiency implied by the profit possibility function. It is
appropriate to take account of the degree of managerial inefficiency that actually exists, not all of
which may be capable of being eliminated. Furthermore, experimental R&D should be geared to
on-farm conditions, and the variability of these conditions needs to be taken into account.
Particularly in shared water bodies, environmental spillovers between aquaculturalists can be
important and as shown theoretically, can influence the socially optimal selection of aquaculture
species and systems. Similarly, aquaculture can have environmental consequences for the rest of
the community. The social economic implications of this for the selection of aquaculture species
and systems are analyzed. Some paradoxical results are obtained. For example, if the quality of
social governance of aquaculture is poor, aquaculture species and systems that cause a slow rate of
environmental deterioration may be socially less satisfactory than those that cause a rapid rate of
such deterioration. Socially optimal choice of aquaculture species and systems depends not only
on their biophysical characteristics and market conditions but also on the prevailing state of
governance of aquaculture. Failure to consider the last aspect can result in the introduction of new
aquaculture species (and systems) doing more social harm than good.

Developmental and ecological stages in the life history of milkfish Chanos chanos Forsskal

In the Philippines, Chanos chanos (ForsskAl) postlarvae (10 to 17 mm total length, TL)
occur in tremendous numbers in shore waters and support a big fry fishery that supplies a centuries-
old pond culture industry with seed. In contrast, adults (50 to 150 cm TL) occur only as incidental
catches in coastal traps at limited times of the year. Juveniles (2 to 50 cm TL) are hardly seen in
nature, but are produced by the tons in brackish water ponds. The ecology of milkfish, particularly
at the juvenile stage, is of interest to both the fishery biologist and the aquaculturist.
Juvenile milkfish occur naturally in a variety of undisturbed coastal wetlands, such as
lagoons, creeks, estuaries and swamps, that share the common characteristics of being semi-enclosed,
calm and shallow, free from many predators, and rich in bottom flora, fauna and deposits that serve
as food (Buri et al. 1981, Kumagai & Bagarinao 1981), characteristics that are well-approximated by
culture ponds. These coastal wetlands serve as nursery grounds for milkfish under conditions
similarly to those in culture ponds. It is interesting to note that in places like India, Thailand, Vietnam,
Papua, New Guinea, Fiji and Sri Lanka, where there is no milkfish pond industry to speak of, juvenile
milkfish can be collected in commercial quantities from tidal creeks and coastal lagoons (Schuster
1952, Lichatowich 1978, Villaluz et al. 1982).
A study was conducted to determine how well wild milkfish fare in their natural habitats.
They were found to be highly adaptable and to do very well in different habitats on different diets
(Kumagai & Bagarinao 1981). This paper reports on the growth of wild juvenile milkfish in a small
mangrove lagoon in Naburut Island (123"12'E, 11" 35'N) in central Philippines (Fig. l), based on the
size-frequency distribution of samples collectebver a period of 9 consecutive months. Tropical
marine fishes are quite difficult to age from markings on scales, otoliths and vertebrae, more so those
specimens less than 1 yr old (Panella 1974). The numbers of juvenile milkfish collected from natural
habitats had been low (Kumagai & Bagarinao 1981) and inadequate for analysis. Moreover, the
spawning season of milkfish is relatively long; settlement of postlarvae in many coastal wetlands is
continuous over the season, and size groups could not be defined. The small mangrove lagoon in
Naburut Island had special characteristics that made it possible for the first time to determine growth
rates, length-weight relationship, food habits and duration of stay of juvenile milkfish in a natural
habitat

Selection of finfish species as candidates for aquaculture in French Polynesia

Situated in the center of the Pacific Ocean, between 8 and 27 0 of latitude south, French
Polynesia became an Oceanic area of economical interest after the extension to 200 miles of his
economic exclusive zone. The exploitation of his natural fish resources, in a territory of 3.3 million
of km 2 reached a total of 8000 tonnes in 1987 including 4000 tonnes exploited by industrial Japanese
and Corean vessals, 2000 tonnes of pelagic fish (Tuna, Bonitos) caught nearly Polynesian Islands
and 1700 tonnes of lagoonal fish traditionnaly captured by traps and nets in the Tuamotu
Archipelagos (Service de la Mer et de l'Aquaculture, 1987).The recent tourism development in the
last ten years increased the demand of fresh good quality products that traditionnal fishing methods
are not totally able to supply due to the seasonnal fluctuations of the catching and the risk of ciguatera
contamination encountered in many atolls.
The project of developping finfish aquaculture, using floating netcages, largely extensed
in many tropical Asean countries, as Singapore, Hong-Kongand Thaïland (Chua, 1986), was recently
investigated by the Centre Oceanologique du Pacifique (IFRF.MER) in Tahiti, considering the
favorable characteristics of many lagoons and Islands of French Polynesia as : continuous reneval of
water by the action of waves over the reef, — good protection from ocean swells, easy accessibility
of water and constant temperature around 27 to 28°C, — abundance of sites. This new aquaculture
project could offer good quality products, strictly calibrated and available all over the year. It could
also help to create new economical activity, fitting the capacity and the need of the Islands
populations, in participating to their retention and even their return in the Islands.
From 1983 to 1987, the programme of selection allowed to retain a limited number of species
considering several economical and biological factors. Both local and imported species were studied
and 4 local families (Carangidae, Coryphaenidae, Serranidae and Siganidae) and 2 imported ones
from South East Asia (Centropomidae and Ciclinae) were chosen in a first estimation among the
hundred identified by Nash (1988) as potentially interesting and largely present in South East Asia
(Rabanal, 1988). The results of the test are emphazised for each of the six families and a final
classification in 3 groups is proposed, considering their availability to be reared and the difficulties
encountered to control the whole cycle of their production in French Polynesia.

IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Major Aquaculture Species in the Philippines

Aquaculture species cultured include milkfish (Chanos chanos ), Nile tilapia (Oreochromis
niloticus ), Mozambique tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus ), common carp (Cyprinus carpio ),
bighead carp (Aristichthys nobilis ) and others, walking catfish (Clarias batrachus ), North African
catfish (Clarias gariepinus ), snakehead murrel (Channa striata ), giant gourami (Osphronemus
gouramy ), barramundi (Lates calcarifer ), grouper (Epinephelus spp.), orange-spotted spinefoot
(Siganus guttatus ), vermiculated spinefoot (Siganus vermiculatus ), spotted scat (Scatophagus argus
), giant tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon ), other penaeid prawns: Indian white prawn (Penaeus Indicus
), banana prawn (Penaeus merguiensis ), greasyback shrimp (Metapenaeus ensis ), mud crab (Scylla
serrata, Scylla oceanica ), giant freshwater prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii ), lobsters (Panulirus
spp.), slipper cupped oyster (Crassostrea iredalei, Saccostrea spp.), green mussel (Perna viridis ),
abalone (Haliotis asinine ), and seaweed (Eucheuma spp., Gracilaria spp., Caulerpa spp.).

The seven major aquaculture species in the Philippines are:

 Seaweed (mainly Kappaphycus and Eucheuma spp.).

 Milkfish (Chanos chanos ).
  Tilapia (mainly Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus ).
 Shrimp (mainly giant tiger prawn Penaeus monodon ).
 Carp (mainly bighead carp Aristichthys nobilis ).
 Oyster (slipper cupped oyster Crassostrea iredalei ).
 Mussel (green mussel Perna viridis ).

In 2002 seaweed made up 66.9 percent of total aquaculture production. The remainder was
from milkfish (17.3 percent), tilapia (9.1 percent), shrimp (2.65 percent), carp (1.36 percent), oysters
(0.94 percent), mussels (0.87 percent) and others (0.88 percent) (Bureau of Agricultural Statistics,
2004). Seaweed, giant tiger prawn, milkfish, oyster and mussel are endemic to the Philippines, while
tilapias and bighead carp have been introduced.

The farming of the seaweed Eucheuma started in 1960s as a response to strong demand for
phytocolloid carrageenin on the world market. Milkfish farming has been going on for centuries, and
giant tiger prawn was a secondary harvest. Commercial farming of giant tiger prawn started in the
1980s as a response to export demand, mainly from Japan. The production of seaweeds and milkfish
continues to grow every year, while giant tiger prawn production declined in the mid 1990s because
of disease and has remained low ever since.

Tilapias were first introduced into the country in 1950 (O. mossambicus from Thailand).
Subsequent introductions of various species followed. Genetically improved tilapias e.g. GIFT
(Genetically Improved Farm Tilapia) and GMT (Genetically Male Tilapia), which have been
developed in the Philippines, are now starting to contribute significantly to fish food production in
the country.

Life Cycles of Major Aquaculture Species in the Philippines

 Seaweed (mainly Kappaphycus and Eucheuma spp.).

Seaweed life and reproductive cycles can be quite complicated. Some seaweeds are perennial,
living for many years, while are annuals. Annual seaweeds generally begin to grow in the spring,
and continue throughout the summer. Some red seaweeds have a life span of 6 to 10 years.
 Seaweeds can reproduce sexually, by the
joining of specialized male and female reproductive
cells, called gametes. After they are released from the
sporophyte, the spores settle and grow into male and
female plants called gametophytes. The gametophytes
produce gametes (sperm or eggs). The sperm and eggs
are either retained within the gametophyte plant body,
or released into the water. Eggs are fertilized when the
sperm and egg fuse together, and a zygote is formed.
Zygotes develop and grow into sporophytes, and the life
cycle continues.
Seaweeds display a variety of different reproductive and life cycles and the description above
is only a general example of one type, called alternation of generations. In a few species there is an
alternating sexual and asexual reproductive process with every generation.
Seaweeds can also reproduce asexually through fragmentation or division. This occurs when
parts of a plant break off and develop directly into new individuals. All offspring resulting from
asexual reproduction are clones; they are genetically identical to each other and the parent seaweed.

 Milkfish (Chanos chanos ).

Not much is known about mating systems and behaviors in milkfish. (Bagarinao, 1994)
Milkfish breed near shore in clean, clear, saline, warm, and shallow waters over sand or coral reefs.
These spawning locations are as close as 6 km off shore (Bagarinao 1994) but are no more than 30
km off shore (Garcia 1994). Milkfish may spawn more than once a year and spawning usually takes
place during the night. Spawning is highly seasonal and may be influenced by the lunar cycle
(Bagarinao 1994). Milkfish breeding season is longer near the equator than at higher latitudes. The
length of the spawning season may be influenced by surface water temperatures in certain areas
(Garcia 1990). (Bagarinao, 1994; Garcia, 1990)
 Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous seasonal breeding
gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate) sexual fertilization external broadcast (group)
spawning oviparous.

 Tilapia (mainly Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus ).

In all Oreochromis species the male excavates a nest in the pond bottom (generally in water
shallower than 3 feet) and mates with several females. After a short mating ritual the female spawns
in the nest (about two to four eggs per gram of brood female), the male fertilizes the eggs, and she
then holds and incubates the eggs in her mouth (buccal cavity) until they hatch. Fry remain in the
females mouth through yolk sac absorption and often seek refuge in her mouth for several days after
they begin to feed.

Sexual maturity in tilapia is a

function of age, size and
environmental conditions. The
Mozambique tilapia reaches sexual
maturity at a smaller size and younger
age than the Nile and Blue tilapias.
Tilapia populations in large lakes
mature at a later age and larger size
than the same species raised in small
farm ponds. For example, the Nile
tilapia matures at about 10 to 12
months and 3/4 to 1 pound (350 to 500 grams) in several East African lakes. Under good growth
conditions this same species will reach sexual maturity in farm ponds at an age of 5 to 6 months and
5 to 7 ounces (150 to 200 grams). When growth is slow, sexual maturity in Nile tilapia is delayed a
month or two but stunted fish may spawn at a weight of less than 1 ounce (20 grams). Under good
growing conditions in ponds, the Mozambique tilapia may reach sexual maturity in as little as 3
months of age, when they seldom weigh more than 2 to 4 ounces (60 to 100 grams). In poorly
fertilized ponds sexually mature Mozambique tilapia may be as small as 1/2 ounce (15 grams).The
sex of a 1-ounce (25-gram) tilapia fingerling can be determined by examining the genital papilla
located immediately behind the anus (Fig. 1). In males the genital papilla has only one opening (the
urinary pore of the ureter) through which both milt and urine pass. In females the eggs exit through
a separate oviduct and only urine passes through the urinary pore. Placing a drop of dye (methylene
blue or food coloring) on the genital region helps to highlight the papilla and its openings.

 Shrimp (mainly giant tiger prawn Penaeus monodon ).

The life stages and reproduction of shrimp are interesting. Reproduction occurs during the
summer months, though some species reproduce year round. Mating occurs with the male at a right
angle to the female, transferring a spermatophore to a specialized receptacle on the female’s
abdomen. Six to 20 hours after mating, the female begins to produce a large quantity of eggs, which
she carries under her abdomen. The quantity of eggs depends on the species and the individual. After
developing, the eggs are released. These eggs hatch into larvae, which are moved down river toward
the estuaries and the sea. Larvae that cannot reach saline water within 4 or 5 days die. The larvae go
through a series of transformations in this saline environment for a period of 30 to 50 days.
After this time, they become postlarvae, or tiny shrimp, approximately 0.5 inch in length.
During the postlarval period they live and forage near the bottom. These tiny replicas of the adult
shrimp then start an upstream migration in search of freshwater pools where they will spend the rest
of their lives.The shrimp become reproductively mature within 4 to 6 months of reaching their
juvenile stage. Shrimp are one of many organisms whose life cycles depend on clean, running river
water and uncontaminated estuaries. This is why it is so important not to pollute our water and to do
away with poor fishing practices, such as poisoning and overfishing. These contribute to a significant
reductions of our shrimp populations, as well as those of aquatic species.

 Carp (mainly bighead carp Aristichthys nobilis ).

Common carp mature at the length of ~ 30 cm when they are 2-3 years old. Females can
carry up to 3 million eggs. Once mature, adults of both sexes migrate into shallow wetlands to spawn
in the spring. Once released by females, the eggs are immediately fertilized and stick to submerged
vegetation. The eggs develop and hatch within a week. Each female can produce several hundreds
of yearlings and carp can quickly become superabundant. However, this occurs only in habitats that
lack native predators, such as marshes that winterkill (when fish die in winter due to a lack of
oxygen). In most lakes in Minnesota, young carp survive poorly because abundant panfish
populations can decimate carp eggs and larvae. Marshes that winterkill are key nursery habitats for
carp in Minnesota.

In addition to panfish controlling carp eggs and larvae, there are two other factors in carp’s
life cycle that can be targeted for control. The first is that adult carp aggregate together (shoal) under
the ice, during which time they can be located using telemetry and removed with seine nets. The
second is their migrations from lakes to marshes to spawn, which can be blocked or targeted for
removal.

Suitability of a Species for Aquaculture: 7 Qualities

1. Rate of Growth and Production: The rate of growth and production under culture
conditions is a major characteristic that determines the suitability of a species for
aquaculture. Certain slow-growing spe-cies may be candidates for culture because of their
high market value, but it is generally difficult to make their culture economical.
2. Size and Age at First Maturity: It is preferable to select those fishes which will reach
marketable size before attaining first sexual maturity, as most of the feed would be used by
them for somatic growth. Early maturity before reaching marketable size would obvi-ously
be a great handicap (example : Tilapia). How-ever, early maturity would ensure easier
availability of breeders for hatchery operations.
 3. Breeding: If breeding criteria are taken into account then species preferable for culture
should consider the following :

a. Seeds Available from the Wild

b. To Culture a Species that can Breed under Captive Condition’s
c. High Fecundity and Frequency of Spawning
d. Artificial Feed Acceptance of Larvae’

4. Adult Feed: Feeding may account for more than 50% of the total cost of production, and is,
there-fore, of prime concern in modern aquaculture.
5. Preference of Hardy and Disease Resistant Species: In relatively poor and partially
polluted water bodies, the temperature and oxygen concen-trations can fluctuate, and
deterioration of the water quality may occur unavoidably. In such unfavourable conditions,
species that are hardy will obviously fare better. At the same time they should be resistant
to diseases.
6. Influence of Species on Environment: Some species may have certain influence on the
environ-ment. For example, soil erosion may be caused due to the feeding habit of carps.
Such species which upsets the ecological balance would need special protective measures,
leading to higher cost of maintenance and environmental concern.\
7. Intensive and Semi-Intensive Cultures: Intensive and semi-intensive cultures involve
high stocking density, confined in a limited space, with water recirculation system and
intensive feeding. Overcrowding may lead to an increase in transmission of diseases,
cannibalism in the early stages and accu-mulation of waste products. Species that can
withstand such environmental hazards are better candidates for aquaculture.

V. CONCLUSION

The choice of suitable species for aquaculture often is a balance between biological
knowledge and economic necessities. The biological knowledge required to allow a successful
culture of a species is manifold and needs thorough considerations of the applicable conditions. Prior
to selecting a species for culture or for a (business) project, it is important to consider the species'
biological requirements and the economics and market potential. The following general factors
should be considered when selecting a species for a successful aquaculture venture: knowledge on
biology, ecology, and life history, knowledge on reproductive culture methods, possibility of captive
breeding and closing the life cycle under controlled farming conditions, ability to culture at high
population densities in artificial holding facilities, ability to consume and efficiently grow on
artificial formulated diets, ability to mimic the natural life cycle in a controlled environment,
attainability of market size within economically feasible period of time, low vulnerability to
pathogens.

In the selection of species for culture, the economic considerations are more important to an
aquaculturist than biological factors. The presence of proven technologies for culture along with
economic viability acts as a guideline for investors and aquaculturists, in the selection of a species
for culture.

VI. RECOMMENDATION

One critical option is the cultured species. We therefore recommend that research on new species
continues in a judicious and selective fashion, particularly in the following areas:

 Development of suitable indigenous species rather than exotics;

 Additional species in geographical regions where major market niches are not yet satisfied,
(for example cold water regions and the Mediterranean);
 Closure of life cycle of species already being grown out on a substantial scale;
 Air-breathing fish species suitable for culture in systems with unsophisticated technology
and poor water quality;
 A wider range of species, including molluscs and crustaceans, for freshwater culture.

Aquaculture can be made more economically efficient through the development of additional
products from the species grown. We recommend more research and development of fine chemical
and pharmaceutical products from cultured organisms, including fish and invertebrates as well as
algae and microorganisms.
 VII. REFERENCES

Funge-Smith, S. Phillips, M.J. 2001. Aquaculture systems and species. In R.P. Subasinghe,P.
Bueno, M.J. Phillips, C. Hough, S.E. McGladdery & J.R. Arthur, eds. Aquaculture in the
Third Millennium. Technical Proceedings of the Conference on Aquaculture in the
Third Millennium, Bangkok, Thailand, 20-25 February 2000. pp. 129-135. NACA,
Bangkok and FAO, Rome.

T.V.R. Pillay. (2015). Aquaculture and the Environment Second edition. Retrieved from
https://www.slideshare.net/ssuserd95617/aquaculture-and-the-environment-44113414

Yap, WG.2002b .Philippine milkfish production on the rebound. SAEP Newsletter (A popular
publication of the Society of Aquaculture Engineers of the Philippines, Inc.). January 2001-
June 2002.

Aypa, Simeona M. (1995). Aquaculture in the Philippines. Retrieved from

https://repository.seafdec.org.ph/bitstream/handle/10862/114/adsea94p137-147.pdf