Sustainable crab fishery for Blue Economy in Kenya

Esther N. Fondo 1,* and Benrick Ogutu2

1
Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute, P.O. Box 81651 – 80100, English Point, Mkomani,
Mombasa
2
Kenya Fisheries Service, P.O. Box 90423-80100, Liwatoni, Mombasa.
*Corresponding author: efondo@kmfri.co.ke

Lakes, rivers and oceans provide unique resources and support fisheries and aquaculture worldwide.
The fisheries and aquaculture sector of Kenya contributes approximately 0.8% to the country’s GDP.
Marine production is about 9 000 tonnes per year. Marine finfish form the bulk of the marine production,
while shellfish (e.g. prawns, lobsters and crabs), molluscs (e.g. octopi and squids) are underexploited. The
Fishery sector has the potential of about USD 5 billion for the Blue Economy in Kenya. Crab fishery in
Kenya is active in some areas of the south and north coast. The crab resources along the Kenyan waters
are diverse and a variety of species are edible. The most commonly fished crab by artisanal fishers is
the Mangrove Mud Crab Scylla serrata. Semi-commercial and industrial fishers usually have portunid
and other deep sea crabs as by-catch in trawl and longline fisheries, which in many cases are unutilized.
Exports of live crabs have increased over the years, with exports mainly to Asian countries. Export of
frozen crabs started recently. The need to sustainably utilize lake, river and ocean resources is recognized
and important in promoting Blue Economy. Sustainable development of crab fishery provides a potential
area for the Blue Economy development in Kenya. Research is essential to crab fishery development.

Keywords: Scylla serrata, crab production, deep sea crabs, shallow water crabs

Introduction most abundant surface fresh water reserve, holding

All waterbodies, including lakes, rivers, and
underground water, in addition to seas and the
coast, are unique resources. Lakes, rivers and
extensive oceans form the base of Blue Economy.
The biotic resources of these water bodies allow
for expansion in fishing, aquaculture, mariculture
sectors and foster the emergency of vibrant
pharmaceutical, chemical and cosmetics industries
in many developing nations (ECA, 2016). The
extraction of mineral resources and the generation
of new energy resources provide the feedstock to
resource-based industrialization.
Oceans and freshwater sources provide
livelihood and employment to millions of people.
The Great Lakes, for example, offer the world’s
20% of world’s fresh water (Campbell et al, 2015).
The growing water resource scarcity globally
is creating pressure on water‐intensive human
activities, making the potential for utilization of
Lakes important for economic benefit and Blue
Growth (Mayer et al., 2016).
It is estimated that fish provide more than
4.2 billion people with more than 15 percent of
their animal protein intake (FAO, 2014). Kenya’s
fisheries and aquaculture sector contributes
approximately 0.8 % to the country’s GDP (FAO,
2015). With an EEZ of 142 400 km2, Kenya’s
marine capture fisheries produce about 9 000
tonnes per year valued at USD 12 million. Marine
finfish are highly exploited and form the bulk of
the marine production, while shellfish (e.g. prawns,

21
Aquatic Ecosystem Health & Management, 24(1): 21–26, 2021. Copyright © 2021 Aquatic Ecosystem Health & Management Society.
ISSN: 1463-4988 print / 1539-4077 online. DOI: 10.14321/aehm.024.01.05

Downloaded from http://read.dukeupress.edu/aehm/article-pdf/24/1/21/1061578/05_fondo.pdf

by guest
 22 Fondo & Ogutu / Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management 24 (2021) 21–26
lobsters and crabs), molluscs (e.g. octopi and
squid) are underexploited. The Fishery sector has
much more potential (estimated to be about USD
5 billion) for the Blue Economy in Kenya; it is
also crucial in contributing towards achieving the
Sustainable Development Goals such as providing
food and ending poverty.
Seafood plays a key role in fighting hunger and
malnutrition worldwide. It provides a good source
of proteins, healthy fats and essential nutrients.
Over 10 million people in Kenya currently suffer
from chronic food insecurity and poor nutrition. In
Kenya, consumption rate of fish is 4.1 kg of fish
per year, excessively low compared to the global
average rate of 20 kg (Obiero et al., 2019). In
addition, the demand for fish and fish products is
increasing, yet many marine fisheries resources
such as crabs remain unexploited. Exploitation of
such resources can reduce the pressure on fish and
promote sustainable utilization of fishery resources.
Despite the ecological and economic
importance of crabs, few studies on crab fishery
and sustainability have been performed in East
Africa. In Kenya, the crab fishery is focused
mainly on one species, the Mangrove Mud Crab
Scylla serrata and to a lesser extent the Blue
Swimming Crab Portunus pelagicus. There is lack
of information on other edible species of crabs that
can be fished. The aim of this study was to review
the status of crab fishery in Kenya and identify
unexploited crab resources. This information is
important for sustainable development of fisheries
and promoting Blue Economy in Kenya.
Methodology
A review of crab fishery in Kenya was done by
searching literature from publications and reports
on crabs from the Kenya Marine and Fisheries
Research Institute Library and the internet. The
study covered the Kenya coast with major crab
fishery areas in Lamu, Mida creek, Kilifi in the
North coast and Vanga, Majoreni and Gazi in the
South coast. An analysis of potential underutilized
crab resources of Kenya was done from survey
and reports from commercial fishers of Kenya.
The species of crabs with potential for crab fishery
and promotion of Blue Economy were listed and
described.
Downloaded from http://read.dukeupress.edu/aehm/article-pdf/24/1/21/1061578/05_fondo.pdf
by guest
Results and Discussion
Crab fishery in Kenya
Crab fishery in Kenya is active in some areas
of the south coast (e.g. Vanga, Majoreni and Gazi)
and north coast (e.g. Lamu, Mida Creek and
Mtwapa) (Mirera, 2017). The crab resources along
the Kenyan waters are diverse, and a variety of
species are edible including those of the families
Lithodidae, Macidae, Caneridae, Portunidae,
Xanthidae, Potamidae and others (Muthiga, 1986).
However, very few of these species form important
food source for the local communities. Mangrove
Mud Crab Scylla serrata is the most commonly
caught by artisanal fishers (Fondo et al., 2010;
Onyango, 2002). Commercial fishers usually have
portunid and other deep sea crabs as by-catch;
which in many cases are unutilized.
Globally, the demand for seafood is increasing
as human population increases. The high quality
and value of Mud Crab meat makes it an important
source of income and its fishery is a significant
economic activity in coastal Kenya. Crabmeat is
popular in tourist hotels and crabs enter the export
market along East Africa (Muthiga, 1986; Barnes
et al., 2002). In Kenya, Mud Crab (S. serrata) has
been harvested for a long time, from mangrove
holes during daytime low spring tides by expert
fishers (Fondo et al., 2010; Mirera, 2011). Mud
Crab fisheries in Kenya are traditional in nature,
using simple fishing gear such as poles, sticks and
poles (Fondo et al., 2010). The fishery is dominated
by men (90.3 %) aged between 23 and 55 years
(Fulanda et al., 2009). A number of Fishing
communities are involved in Mud Crab fisheries;
however, due to the nature of the fishery, it is
difficult to collect representative data to provide
information on the trends of catch rates of the
fishery.
The sizes of crabs and type of market determine
prices. Crabs of less than 500 g are sold at US $8
kg-1 and those more than 1 000 g at US $15 kg1.
Crab for local consumption are sold from USD
0.2-0.5 kg-1 ; those sold to private homes and
tourist hotels go for USD 2-5 kg-1 and US $8-
15 kg-1 for export markets (Mirera et al., 2013).
However, the revenue accrued from the fishery is
poorly represented in national production statistics,
 Fondo & Ogutu / Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management 24 (2021) 21–26
because the market is not well defined and poorly
monitored. Fishing for sub-adult and juvenile crabs
is mainly done by women and children who collect
them in order to meet subsistence needs. Recent
surveys show that the individual weight of crabs
caught currently range between 0.25-0.9 kg, which
is a marked decline from 0.5-1.5 kg recorded 2-3
decades ago (Fondo et al., 2010; Muthiga, 1986;
Onyango, 2002). A study on the crab size frequency
showed normal distribution with female crabs
being markedly smaller than male crabs (Fondo et
al., 2010).
In the 1980s, crab production was approximately
20 tonnes in Kenya (Mutagyera, 1981). Mud Crab
fisheries production has generally increased from
90Mt in 1990 to more than 250Mt in 2013 (Fig
1), with a corresponding increase in value and
diversified market outlets. The main rich areas
along the Kenyan coast include Vanga, Shimoni,
Majoreni, Ngomeni, Gongoni and Karawa. Small
landings also occur at Malindi, Kilifi and Lamu
(Fisheries Bulletin, 2013). Lamu County is ranked
the highest producer of Mud Crabs at 49.7%
followed by Kwale 26.9%, Mombasa 11.2%, Kilifi
11.9% and Tana River 0.3%. The Mud Crab catch
per unit effort has been estimated at 0.25-1.7 kg hr-1
and with a fisher spending between 2.5-5.0 hours
fishing in a day (Mirera et al., 2013).
Fig. 1. Mud Crab production (MT) and value (USD) in Kenya
(Source: Fisheries catch statistics data for 1990-2015).
In recent years, increased interest has been
demonstrated in Mud Crab farming in Kenya.
However, hatcheries providing seed for the
industry are lacking (Mwaluma, 2002; Mirera,
2011). In most of the crab farming ventures,
crabs are collected from the wild for fattening
Downloaded from http://read.dukeupress.edu/aehm/article-pdf/24/1/21/1061578/05_fondo.pdf
by guest
23
(Mirera and Mtile, 2009). Studies have shown that
juvenile crabs are collected in intertidal zones that
are accessible to a wide range of crab collectors
who cannot enter the mangrove forests to get
bigger crabs (Mirera et al., 2013). The increasing
demand for crabmeat creates a need to develop the
aquaculture, targeting all stages. Crab aquaculture
has a great potential in boosting the Blue Economy
in Kenya. However, for sustainable Blue Growth,
policies and regulations on crab fishery and culture
need to be developed.
Crab exports
Mud Crab in Kenya are exported mostly as
live crabs to several destinations including: China,
Hong Kong, South Korea, Lebanon, Nigeria, Qatar,
Singapore, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Tanzania, Thailand,
United Arab Emirates (UAE) and Vietnam. The
most common destinations are Singapore, UAE,
China and Thailand. Markets for frozen crabs
include Belgium, China, Italy, South Korea,
Netherlands, South Africa and Spain.
Several companies (establishments) have
engaged in Mud Crab exportation. Between 2005
and present, about 39 establishments exported
live mud crabs at some point; with Freshery
Incorporation, Indian Ocean Marine Aquarium
and Zero Degree Seafood exporting most of the
crabs. Currently, there are about 14 establishments
exporting live crabs, with Tsavo Aquarium (23.5
tonnes) and Blue Union Company Limited (15
tonnes) dominating in exports. One establishment,
Zero Degree Seafood, exports live deep sea crabs.
Fig. 2. Live Mud Crab exports in quantity and value from 2004
to 2019 (Source: Kenya Fisheries Service).
Figure 2 shows the live exports from Kenya in
 24 Fondo & Ogutu / Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management 24 (2021) 21–26
quantity and value from 2004 to 2019. Mud Crab
exports showed peaks in 2007 (48.21 tonnes), 2010
(43.83 tonnes) and in 2018- 2019 (approximately
60 tonnes). Exports declined between 2011 and
2016, with quantities ranging between 17 and
23 tonnes. Presently crab exports have reached
approximately 58 tonnes. The value of exported
live crabs followed a similar trend as that of the
exported quantities, with peaks in 2007 (USD 72
000), 2010 (USD 103 000) and 2019 (upto October
USD 246 000).
Exports of the live deep sea crab Pink Geryon
started recently in 2018, with about 1.2 tonnes
exported valued at USD 4 840. Until October 2019,
about 3.7 tonnes of live Pink Geryon were exported
with a value of USD 148 000. Markets for frozen
crabs are mainly Spain, South Africa and Italy,
ranging from 12 to 50 tonnes.
Unutilized crab resources in Kenya
Deep sea crab
Deep sea crab resources in Kenya are
unutilized. Emerging crab fishery in the northern
coast of Kenya, (Fig. 3) is the long line trap
Fig. 3. Map of Kenya and major sites for Mud Crab fishery (adopted from Mirera, 2017)..
Downloaded from http://read.dukeupress.edu/aehm/article-pdf/24/1/21/1061578/05_fondo.pdf
by guest
fishery, targeting the deep water crab, Pink Geryon
(Chaceon macphersoni). A deep water crab that
feeds on macrofauna, and occurrs at depths of 200
to 1025 m (Groeneveld et al., 2013). They have
high variations in abundance and size over depth,
substratum type and season within space and time
(Groeneveld et al., 2013). In Kenya, Chaceon
macphersoni) contributes 19% (by weight) of deep
sea catches third after fish and prawns (Everett et
al., 2015). It is a species of commercial importance
in the South Western Indian Ocean region. The size
ranges from 3.5 to 19.4 cm carapace length. These
crabs are for export and the price is USD 1.5/ kg.
Commercial fishing for Chaceon macphersoni has
started in Kenya, using long line beehive fishing
traps. Live deep sea crabs are exported to Asian
countries particularly China and South Korea. This
is a potential area for investment and can boost the
Blue Economy of Kenya. There are currently four
(4) licensed commercial fishing vessels targeting
live deep sea crabs primarily for export.
Shallow water crabs
Some shallow water edible crabs found in
Kenya include the Blue Swimming Crab Portunus
 Fondo & Ogutu / Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management 24 (2021) 21–26
pelagicus, Crenate Swimming Crab Thalamita
crenata, Yellow Moon Crab Ashtoret lunaris,
Spanner Crab Ranina ranina and many others.
Portunus pelagicus occur in the subtidal area
to a depth of 40 m, on sandy to sandy-muddy
substrates in areas near reefs, mangroves, and sea
grass and algal beds (Carpenter et al., 1997). It is
mostly caught as by-catch in commercial prawn
trawlers and artisanal fishers using nets, but is
hardly fished in Kenya. The market size ranges
from 14 to 20 cm (CL), with price ranges of USD
8 to 15 kg-1. Thalamita crenata inhabits shallow
non-reef habitat with soft substrates, prefers areas
near mangroves, on mangrove swamps or with
muddy-rocky substrates in intertidal platforms
(Carpenter and Niem, 1998). The market size is
about 8 cm (CL). Ashtoret lunaris is nocturnal and
occurs from intertidal zone to a depth of 50 m, on
muddy sand or broken shells bottoms (Saher et
al., 2017; Carpenter and Niem, 1998). They feed
on small shellfish, worms and other small crabs at
night (Saher et al., 2017). They are commercially
important and are a food source in many tropical
and subtropical countries. The sizes range from 4.2
to 4.5 cm (CW) and weight between 11.6 and 14.8
g; with males being larger than females (Saher et
al., 2017). Ranina ranina is found at depths more
than 100 m in open sandy areas in which they bury
(Carpenter and Niem, 1998). The market size is
about 15 cm (CL) with a weight of up to 900 g.
Conclusions
Crab fishing in the Kenyan coast has been
practiced for decades. Local communities are
dependent on crab fishery of food and income. The
most commonly fished crabs are the Mangrove
Mud Crab and the Blue Swimming Crab and
production has increased over the years. Other
edible crab resources are unexploited. Sustainable
development of crab fishery provides a potential
area for the Blue Economy development. However,
little is known about these rich resources of Kenya.
Research into the abundance, biology, ecology
and distribution of crab species is essential to
crab fishery development. This is particularly in
reference to the emerging deep sea crab fishery,
which has elicited a lot of interest by commercial
fishing investors, though its biological information
Downloaded from http://read.dukeupress.edu/aehm/article-pdf/24/1/21/1061578/05_fondo.pdf
by guest
25
is limited.
Acknowledgements
We wish to acknowledge the Kenya Marine
and Fisheries Research Institute and all organizers
of the GLOW 9 Conference, where this work was
presented.
Funding
Funding for this study came from the Kenya
Marine and Fisheries Research Institute.
References
Barnes, D.K.A., Dulvy, N.K., Priestly, S.H., Darwall, W.R.T.,
Choisel, V., Whittington, M., 2002. Fishery characteristics
and abundance estimates of the mangrove crab Scylla
serrata in southern Tanzania and northern Mozambique.
South Africa Journal Marine Science 24, 19-25.
Campbell, M., Cooper, M.J., Friedman, K., Anderson, W.P.,
2015. The economy as a driver of change in the Great
Lakes–St. Lawrence River basin. J. Great Lakes Res. 41,
69-83.
Carpenter K.E., Niem V.H. (Eds.), 1998. FAO species
identification guide for fishery purposes. The living marine
resources of the Western Central Pacific. Volume 2, 687-
1396. Cephalopods, crustaceans, holothurians and sharks.
FAO, Rome.
Carpenter, K.E., Krupp, F., Jones, D.A., Zajonz, U., 1997. FAO
species identification guide for fishery purposes. The living
marine resources of Kuwait, Eastern Saudi Arabia, Bahrain,
Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates. FAO 293, Rome.
ECA, 2016. Africa’s Blue Economy: A policy handbook. The
Economic Commission for Africa. ISBN: 978-99944-61-
86-8.
Everett, B.I., Groeneveld, J.C., Fennessy, S.T., Dias,N.,
Filipe,O., Zacarias, L., Igulu, M., Kuguru, B., Kimani,
E., Munga, C.N., Rabarison, G.A., Razafindrakoto, H.,
Yemane, D., 2015. Composition and abundance of deep
water crustaceans in the Southwest Indian Ocean: Enough
to support trawl fisheries? Ocean and Coastal Management
111(C), 50-61.
FAO, 2014. State of the World Fisheries and Aquaculture:
Opportunities and Challenges. FAO, Rome. E-ISBN 978-
92-5-108276-8.
FAO, 2015. Fishery and Aquaculture Country Profiles. The
Republic of Kenya. http://www.fao.org/fishery/facp/KEN/
en (accessed on 2 November 2018).
 26 Fondo & Ogutu / Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management 24 (2021) 21–26
Fisheries Bulletin, 2013. Statistics on Fishery landings along
the Kenyan coast 1997-2013. Fisheries Department, Kenya.
Fondo, E.N., Kimani, E.N., Odongo, D.O., 2010. The status
of mangrove mud crab fishery in Kenya, East Africa.
International Journal of Fisheries and Aquaculture 2 (3),
79-86.
Fulanda, B., Munga, C.N, Ohtomi, J., Osore, M., Mugo, R., Md.
Hossain, Y., 2009. The structure and evolution of the coastal
migrant fishery of Kenya. Ocean and Coastal Management
52, 459-466.
Groeneveld, J.C., Everett, B.I., Fennessy, S.T., Kirkman, S.P.,
Santos, J., Robertson, W.D. 2013. Spatial distribution
patterns, abundance and population structure of deep sea
crab Chaceon macphersoni, based on complementary
analyses of trap and trawl data. Marine and Freshwater
Research 64(6), 507-517.
Mayer, A., Mubako, S., Benjamin, L., Ruddell, B.L., 2016.
Developing the greatest Blue Economy: Water productivity,
fresh water depletion, and virtual water trade in the Great
Lakes basin. Earth’s Future 4 (6), 282-297.
Mirera, D.O., 2011. Trends in exploitation, development
and management of artisanal mud crab (Scylla serrata-
Forsskal-1775) fishery and small-scale culture in Kenya:
An overview. Ocean & Coastal Management 54, 844-855.
Mirera, D.O., 2017. Status of the mud crab fishery in Kenya: A
review. WIO Journal of Marine Science 16 (1), 35-45.
Mirera, D.O., Mtile, A., 2009. A preliminary study on the
response of mangrove mud crab (Scylla serrata) to different
feed types under drive- in cage culture system. Journal of
Ecology and Natural Envronment 1, 7-14.
Mirera D.O., Ochiewo, J., Munyi, F., Muriuki, T. 2013. Heredity
or traditional knowledge: Fishing tactics and dynamics of
Downloaded from http://read.dukeupress.edu/aehm/article-pdf/24/1/21/1061578/05_fondo.pdf
by guest
artisanal mangrove crab (Scylla serrata) fishery. Ocean &
Coastal Management. 84, 119-129.
Mutagyera, W. B., 1981. A review of past research on the edible
crustaceans of the East African Coast. In proceedings of
the workshop of Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research
Institute on Aquatic Resources of Kenya, held Mombasa,
Kenya, 1981 July, 13-19.
Muthiga, N.A., 1986. Edible crabs of Kenya. Kenya Aquatica
Bulletin 3, 61-65.
Mwaluma, J., 2002. Pen culture of the mud crab Scylla serrata
in Mtwapa mangrove system, Kenya. Western Indian Ocean
Journal of Marine Science 1, 127 – 133.
Obiero, K., Meulenbroek, P., Drexler, S., Dagne, A., Akoll, P.,
Odong, R., Kaunda-Arara, B., Waidbacher. H., 2019. The
contribution of fish to food and nutrition security in Eastern
Africa: emerging trends and future outlooks. Sustainability
11(1636), 1- 15.
Onyango, S.D., 2002. The breeding cycle of Scylla serrata
(Forsskal 1755) at Ramisi river estuary, Kenya. Wetlands
Ecology and Management. 10, 257-263.
Saher, N.U., Amanat, Z., Gondal, M.A., Qureshi, N.A., 2017.
Distribution, Abundance and Population Ecology of
Ashtoret lunaris (Forskel, 1775) and Matuta planipes
Fabricius, 1798 from the Sonmiani Bay (Lagoon), Pakistan.
Pakistan J. Zool., Vol. 49(2), 455-465.