ISSN: 2676-2854 (Print) 2676-2862 (Online)

Journal of Fisheries and Coastal Management 1 (2019) 7- DOI: 10.5455/jfcom.20190311090846

14

Mangrove oyster farming: Prospects as supplementary

livelihood for a Ghanaian fishing community
B. Asare¹*, E.A. Obodai² & E. Acheampong²
¹ Catfish Ghana Limited, Akosombo, Ghana
² Department of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, University of Cape Coast, Ghana

*Corresponding author
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
E-mail: kasare26.ba@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT
The declining marine fish stocks likely due to climate change and other environmental stressors have severe effects on
livelihoods of small scale coastal fishing communities. As a result, development of supplementary livelihood has become
relevant in recent times as a way of reducing hunger and creating employment. There have been preliminary studies
conducted to identify viable aquaculture techniques that will increase the yield (growth rate and size) of mangrove oysters as
a means of supplementary livelihood for coastal communities in Ghana. As part of an extended study, this paper assesses the
status of oyster fishery in a coastal community and the growth of oysters in the nearby lagoon. We assessed the socio-
economic characteristics of the fishery, sizes sold at the market and the appropriate period required to possibly culture the
species. An interview guide and oysters purchased from the local market were used to gather information on the status of the
fishery while coconut cultches were used to collect oyster spat for culture in the Nakwa lagoon. The results indicated that 60
% of the respondents harvested the oyster for sale, consumption or both. The oysters were available all year round although
the sizes and quantity harvested were reported to be reducing in recent times. The sizes of oysters found in the market could
be obtained within seven months of culture and with better meat condition. Based on the fast growth rate, high demand and
interest of respondents to culture the species, the potential for formal oyster farming at Nakwa is high with the possibility of
extending lessons learnt to other coastal communities in Ghana.

Keywords: Crassostrea tulipa, Cultches, Culture, Nakwa, Lagoon

Introduction
projects and fisheries management initiatives include the
development of alternative/supplementary livelihood opportunities
Fisheries resources worldwide are threatened by multiple
(e.g. Pet-Soede, 2003; Center, 2009). These initiatives often
stressors, ranging from global climate change to local pollution,
include various forms of aquaculture such as seaweed farming
habitat loss and over-exploitation. The consequences of these
(Crawford, 2002), fish farming in cages or in ponds, and
global and local stressors are potentially catastrophic – both for
integrated rice-fish farming (Center, 2009). The justification is
marine biodiversity and the communities who depend on marine
that aquaculture (i) reduces fishing pressure on overexploited
fisheries for jobs, food and future opportunities (www.un.org/
fisheries by diversifying fish production away from wild stocks,
stainabledevelopment/oceans/).
(ii) enables fisher folks to provide nutritious food for their families
The threat is even greater in small-scale, subsistence fishing
while generating surpluses for sale, and (iii) provides good
communities. According to Pauly (1997) and others (Aheto et al.,
employment opportunities through various enterprises (e.g., the
2011), overfishing and habitat degradation have led to the rapid
processing and sale of fish) associated with the aquaculture value
depletion of conventional food fisheries in these communities. As
chain (FAO 2014, 2016). Eventually, these opportunities reduce
a consequence, poverty rate and malnutrition are high, particularly
dependence on wild fish stocks and limit the vulnerability of
in communities with open access fisheries and limited alternative
individuals, households and community to global change effects.
livelihood opportunities (Béné & Friend, 2011; FAO, 2014; Baker-
Primavera (2006) recommends that the use of aquaculture as
French, 2015). In Africa, over 46.3 % of people within small scale
alternative livelihood option should be undertaken with care to
fishing communities are poor and malnourished (FAO, 2006).
avoid creating new vulnerabilities; for example, the conversion
Ghana is not exempted as a report by Ghana Statistical Service
of mangroves to ponds destroys fish nesting and feeding habitats
[GSS] (2014) indicates that over 5.5 million adult Ghanaians are
and increases exposure of fishing villages to storm-surge. Waste
malnourished whiles nearly 6.7 million people are poor (A greater
discharges from aquaculture facilities can also lead to nutrient
proportion of these poor and malnourished people live within the
pollution and eutrophication of coastal ecosystems (Primavera,
coastal areas (Edgar et al., 2016).
2006). In this regard, many community-based coastal resources
So, in order to raise the socio-economic status of small-scale
management projects emphasise the aquaculture (mariculture) of
fishers, many community-based coastal resources management
bivalve molluscs as a sustainable alternative livelihood option that
can meet conservation goals in addition to meeting the demand for
cheap animal protein and employment in many coastal
communities (see, for example, Pet-Soede, 2003; Center, 2009).
© 2019 J. Fish Coast. Mgt., Department of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, This is because bivalve aquaculture differs significantly from the
University of Cape Coast. All rights reserved.
culture of most finfish and crustaceans (Crawford et al., 2003): it
does not involve
8 Mangrove oyster farming: Prospects as supplementary livelihood for a Ghanaian fishing
community
external feed inputs because bivalves feed on naturally occurring
phytoplankton. For this same reason, bivalve aquaculture does not
result in additional nutrient loading. Rather, via their filtration of
suspended particles and ejection of both pseudo faeces and true
faeces which sink to the bottom, bivalves contribute to improving
water quality and the recycling of nutrients in coastal areas by
coupling the transfer of dissolved nutrients to benthic sediments
(For a more complete discussion on the ecological role of bivalve
aquaculture, see Dumbauld et al, 2009).
In this study, the potential for aquaculture of the West African
mangrove oyster, Crassostrea tulipa is evaluated, taking into
consideration biological characteristics, as well as some economic
and marketing aspects, which may be relevant for the future
development of oyster farming in Ghana. The oyster is found on
bottom sediments or attached to hard objects such as mangrove
roots and rocks in intertidal zones of estuaries and lagoons
(Angell, 1986; Yankson, 2004). The meat of the oyster is a cheap
source of animal protein for many coastal communities in West
Africa; the shell is used as a building material, a poultry feed
ingredient and in traditional medicine (Obodai, 1997; Yankson,
2004).
The culturability of C. tulipa has been demonstrated
experimentally in the past 30 years by Kamara (1982). Oyster
culture techniques developed by these previous studies have been
employed by Ansa & Bashir (2007) and Obodai (1997) in
subsequent studies. The objective of the present study was to
assess the aquaculture potential of the species in an ‘open’ lagoon,
using the suspended culture technique and taking into
consideration some biological characteristics, marketable size,
consumption and marketing factors relevant for the development
of oyster farms.
Materials and Methods
The study area
This study was conducted in a small fishing community called
Nakwa, located at 0°55’26.05’’W and 5°12’15.77’’N, about 50
km east of Cape Coast, Ghana (Figure 1). According to reports
from GSS (2014) and others (e.g., Bandoh, 2015), the community
has a population of about 4169 and an unemployment rate of
≈30% which is about 6 times higher than the country’s
unemployment rate of 5.2% (World Bank, 2013). The nutritional
situation of the community is also not good even though ≈78% of
the people eat fish daily. For example, only about half of the
children in the community get the minimum dietary requirements
of essential vitamins and minerals (Bandoh & Kenu, 2017). The
socioeconomic situation in Nakwa is therefore similar, if not
worse than the situation occurring in small fishing communities
around the world.
The community lies near an open lagoon called Nakwa
Lagoon that serves as fish landing site and a fishing ground for the
community. The lagoon has a surface area of ≈ 1.2 km 2 and a mean
water depth of 64.28 ± 5.04 cm; it is oligotrophic, with nutrient
input from agricultural runoff and domestic activities (Ansa-Asare
et al., 2008). All oyster culture experiments reported in this work
were conducted in the lagoon. Laboratory works were carried out
at the Department of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, University of
Cape Coast.
Status of the wild oyster population at Nakwa
Similar to other coastal communities in Ghana, the oyster
fishery within the Nakwa community is based on the exploitation
of wild stocks (Obodai, 1997; Yankson, 2004). Hence, prior to the
beginning of the experiment, the rate of exploitation,
morphological characteristics (live weight, shell height, length and
width), sexes and the physiological condition of the wild C. tulipa
exploited by fishermen operating in the Nakwa lagoon were
assessed. The specimens were purchased from fishermen
randomly selected in order to ensure they were good
representatives of the Nakwa Lagoon oyster fishery.
In addition, data to assess the interests and participation of
Nakwa residents in oyster fishery were collected using an
interview guide. These data included information on the level of
formal education attained by the residents, their dietary preference
for C. tulipa and occupation especially in the fishery and value
chain of the oyster. Respondents were randomly selected from
different parts of the community.
Determination of oyster shell sizes, sex, and condition index
In the laboratory, individual oysters were carefully removed
from their clustery (mostly made up of old oyster shells and other
hard substrates) using a knife. Only live, intact individuals that
had no identifiable shell damage during the separation were
selected for analysis. These specimens were thoroughly washed
under running water and wiped dry using a tissue paper. They
were weighed using an electronic balance (model: FEL-500S).
Their shell height, length, and width were measured to the nearest
0.1 mm using callipers. The flesh of the animals was then
dissected out of their shells into a Petri dish. Small portions of
their gonadal material were removed with forceps, smeared on a
slide and observed under a light microscope (Optica B-292PLi;
magnification: 100X) in order to determine the sex.
C. tulipa culture in Nakwa Lagoon
The potential for large-scale farming of C. tulipa in the Nakwa
lagoon was investigated. The oysters were cultured on cultches
constructed from coconut shells because compared to other
materials (e.g. tiles, bamboo, tyres etc.) coconut shells are cheap,
available all year round and can be used for at least 1 crop cycle of
the oyster (Obodai, 1997). The cultches were constructed using 1
m long nylon ropes as described by Obodai (1997). Each rope had
5 pieces of the coconut shells separated ≈10 cm apart; the shells
were held in their respective positions by 2 knots – 1 on each side.
The cultches were tied to the base of 150 cm x 100 cm rectangular
rack constructed with mangrove sticks (diameter ≈ 5 cm) and
nylon ropes. Five cultches were tied, uniformly distributed to a
rack. A total of 21 racks were used, they were placed in the
lagoon at locations previously identified to have populations of the
oyster. The racks were installed in the middle of October, 2015;
within the period of maximum spat fall for C. tulipa in Ghana
(Obodai, 1997). Enough spat of the oyster were found to have
settled on the cultches six weeks after they were installed.
The cultches were culled of fouling organisms once a month
by using a wooden scrubbing brush and a knife. Oysters that
settled on the cultches after this period were removed. Growth of
the oysters was monitored once a month by measuring the shell
height and length using callipers. These measurements began six
weeks after the installation of the racks for a total of 7 months,
consistent with previous studies (Obodai, 1997; De Silva, 1998).
Temperature and salinity were measured in-situ with a digital
multi-parametric water quality meter (YSI; PCB 650) twice every
month at three different demarcated areas within the culture area.
Water depth was also measured twice monthly using a graduated
wooden rule.
Data analysis
The viability of the cultches used in this study was evaluated
by comparing the size of the oysters at the end of the experiment
to that of the wild individuals harvested by fishermen operating in
the Nakwa lagoon. The yardstick used for the size of the oysters
was shell height as it is the most useful parameter for predicting
oyster biomass from field data (Dame, 1972). First, the size
distribution and the modal shell size of the oysters were
determined via a frequency distribution analysis.
The nature of allometric relationship between the shell heights
 Figure 1: Map of Southern Ghana showing Nakwa Community and the Nakwa Lagoon
and lengths was determined using a linearised power function in
line with previous studies (Gimin et al. 2004):
ln(Y) = ln (a) + b×ln(X)
where, Y = shell length; X= shell height. The slope (b) and the
y-intercept (a) were determined using least-squares regression
techniques.
Condition index (K) of the oysters was calculated using the
formula by Quayle and Newkirk (1989):
K = (Dry meat weight / Inner shell volume) × 1000
The inner shell volume was calculated as the difference
between whole live weight and empty shell weight of the oysters
(Obodai, 1997). A one-way analysis of variance (1-way ANOVA)
for unequal sample size was used to compare the condition index
of the oysters collected from the different locations (Sokal &
Rohlf, 1995). The critical p-value for this analysis was taken to be
0.05.
Results
The characteristics of harvested and cultured C. tulipa
The morphological characteristics (shell height, length and
width), live weight and the physiological condition of the wild
oysters harvested by fishers from the Nakwa lagoon and those
Table 1- Morphometric characteristics (mean ± SE) of cultured and wild C. tulipa. The culture duration was seven months; sample size:
wild oysters = 335, cultured oysters = 120.
Shell Height (cm) Shell Length (cm)
Wild Oysters 5.95 ± 0.07 a
Cultured Oysters 7.43 ± 0.12b
Measures on the same column with different alphabets as superscript are significantly different (t-test at α = 0.05)
cultured in this study are shown in Figures 2, 3 and 4 respectively.
On average, the shell lengths and heights of the cultured oysters
and those harvested from the wild were significantly different; the
weights of the two group of oysters were also different (Table 1).
Both the average length and height of the cultured oysters were
bigger than the wild ones. The shell widths of the two groups were
samilar (Table 1). However, with respect to shell height, the modal
size class of the wild oysters harvested by the fishers (5.5-6.9 cm)
were smaller than that of the cultured oysters (6.5-6.9 cm) (Figure
2). Similarly, in terms of shell length, the modal size class of 4.0 –
4.4 cm of the oysters harvested by the fishers was smaller
compared with 5.0 – 5.9cm of the cultured oysters. Indeed, the
length of over 50% of the cultured oysters was 1 – 2 cm bigger
than modal shell length of the individuals harvested by the fishers
(Figure 2). However, the modal width (1.5 – 1.9 cm) for the two
groups of oyster was similar. Even here, a higher proportion (≈46
%) of the cultured oysters had the modal width compared to 35%
of the wild harvests.
In line with the foregoing results, the live weight of the
cultured oysters was heavier than those collected from the wild
(Figure 3; Table 1). Live weight of the majority (55%) of the
wild oysters was ≤ 10 gram. In contrast, live weight for the bulk
(56%) of the cultured oysters was ≥ 30 gram. Furthermore, the
condition index of the cultured oysters was significantly higher
than that of wild individuals (Figure 4; 1-way ANOVA, F279= 2.71,
p = 0.05). This was observed for all except one of the size classes
of the oysters. Therefore, it can be said that C. tulipa in the Nakwa
lagoon can grow
Shell Width (cm) Live Weight (g)
4.02 ± 0.07 a
2.02 ± 0.03 21.82 ± 0.69a
5.20 ± 0.08b 2.07 ± 0.07 32.84 ± 1.75b
 Figure 2: Size frequency distribution of cultured (for 7 months) and wild Mangrove oysters from Nakwa Lagoon.

bigger when cultured than the current sizes exploited by the fishers.
Figure 5 shows the relationship between shell height and shell
length of the oysters. The relationship was linear (i.e. slope ≈ 1 at p
< 0.05) for both the cultured and wild oysters but was significant (R2
> 0.5) for the latter and weak (R 2 = 0.4) for the former. Hence,
shell height and shell length of the cultured oysters were generally
not growing proportionally to each other.

Hydrographic parameters

The hydrographic parameters measured from October, 2015 to

June, 2016 are reported in Table 2. The ranges were 25.4 – 33.7
°C, 0 – 35.9 ‰, and 43.3 – 83.4 cm for temperature, salinity and
water depth respectively.
Figure 3: Live weight frequency distribution of cultured and wild
Participation of Nakwa residents in the oyster fishery oysters from Nakwa lagoon.
A total of 60 individuals were interviewed (Male: Female =
1:4) of which 60 % were involved in oyster harvesting and trading
(Table 3). The remaining 40 % did not participate in oyster
harvesting. The results showed that, of the 60 % involved in oyster
harvesting activities, only 11 % were males with the remaining
being females. This was an indication that more females compared
to males were involved in oyster fishing activities at Nakwa. The
youngest respondent was 17 years old; the oldest was 90 years
old . Those involved in oyster fishing had ages from 20 to 90 years
(this is potentially an overestimation by the interviewee because
Ghanaian elderly rural dwellers mostly do not know their exact
date of birth). The ages of the males involved in oyster fishing
activities ranged from 25 to 54 years while that of the females
ranged from 20 to 90 years. .
The following narrative describes the socio-economics of
the oyster fishery in Nakwa. Analysis of primary and secondary
occupations of the population in the community indicated that,
individuals were engaged in diverse occupations. Seventy percent Figure 4: Condition indices of cultured and wild oysters from
Nakwa Lagoon.
 Table 2- Monthly hydrographic parameters (mean ± SE)
measured over the period of study.

Sampling Temperature Salinity (‰) Water depth

Month (°C) (cm)
2015
October 28.3 ± 0.36 4.1 ± 0.06 48.3 ± 3.06
November 30.8 ± 0.12 16.8 ± 0.06 78.7 ± 4.51
December 26.5 ± 0.15 19.5 ± 0.15 58 ± 4.58
2016
January 25.4 ± 0.06 19.7 ± 0.06 64.3 ± 8.50
February 32.2 ± 0.15 24 ± 0.12 49.6 ± 13.66
March 33.7 ± 0.06 33.6 ± 0.10 83.4 ± 10.07
April 30.9 ± 0.06 34.8 ± 0.15 75 ± 6.56
May 29.6 ± 0.06 35.9 ± 0.16 78 ± 7.94
Figure 5: Shell length–height relationship of cultured and wild
June 27.8 ± 0.07 - 43.2 ± 5.58
oysters from Nakwa Lagoon

(70 %) of the people were engaged in fishing related activities as

their primary occupation. These activities included finfish
harvesting and processing (45 %) and oyster harvesting and
trading (25 %). Of the respondents, 16.4 % and 23 % were
involved in oyster harvesting as primary and secondary
occupations respectively. It can therefore be said that most of the
respondents engaged in oyster harvesting as their secondary
occupation. On the other hand, 8.2 % and 1.6
% were involved in oyster trading as primary and secondary
occupations respectively. Only 18.3% of the respondents relied
solely on oyster harvesting as source of income. Again, 28 (46.7
%) individuals interviewed had secondary occupation; these were
dominated by oyster harvesting and trading (53.6 %). This shows
that, the harvesting and trading of the mangrove oyster was the
second major livelihood opportunity in the community. The study
also showed that, number of the people involved in oyster
harvesting and trading activities decreased with increasing level of
education.
The exploitation of the mangrove oyster was characterized
by two major activities. These are harvesting the oyster from the
lagoon (88.9 %) and trading of the species (11.1 %). Those
involved in the trading bought from others to sell, and they were
not involved directly in the harvesting. Also, the results indicated
that, other activities such as the processing of the oysters were
carried out by the fishers and traders themselves. None of the
individuals engaged solely in oyster processing. Harvesting of the
mangrove oyster was done either daily, weekly, monthly or
occasionally. In general, majority (80.6 %) of the respondents
harvested oysters daily (52.8
%) and weekly (27.8 %). Of the remaining 19.4 %, 2.8 % and 16.7
% did monthly and occasional harvesting respectively. The results
also showed that the exploitation of the oysters was done in
groups. Sixty
eight percent of those involve in oyster harvesting do so in groups.
Thirty-two percent (32 %) of the 68 % operated in groups of more
than 4 people. A similar trend was observed for those who
operated on weekly basis. However, of those who operated
occasionally, 50
% worked individually and the other 50 % in groups. The overall
analysis of the results showed that 28.7 % of the oyster harvesters
operated individually, the rest worked in groups of two, three, four,
and above four. Thus, oyster harvesting in the community is
mainly done in groups.
Harvested oysters were carried from the lagoon to their homes
in trays (metal bowls usually made with silver) at various sizes.
The biggest tray commonly used weighed approximately 30 kg;
while the smallest weighed 15 kg when full of live oysters. The
total number of live oysters per the largest and smallest tray were
estimated to be 2, 057 ± 89 and 1,028 ± 44, respectively. The
results indicated that most of the respondents harvested more than
a tray of oyster per fishing trip. Seventy-five percent (75 %) of
oyster harvesters did so both for sale and consumption, 17 % for
sale only and 8% solely for consumption.
The cost of 15 kg tray of oysters was USD 1.07 and the 30 kg
tray of oysters was sold for USD 2.13 (1GH¢ = 0.21 USD based
on Bank of Ghana Forex Exchange Rate at the time of the
research). A number of the fishers (36 %) sold the oysters either
live in their shell or shucked, while few of the respondents (20 %)
sold the oysters only in the live form. There was however, a ready
market for all forms of oysters produced within the community.
Shucked oysters were measured with a small empty tomato can
and sold for USD 0.11/tomato can. The average number of
oysters/can was
38.33 ± 3.67 and weighed about 71.78 ± 3.47 g (wet weight), and

Table 3 - Socio-economic Characteristics of Nakwa

Residents

Socio-economic Parameter Male Female

Average age 45 years 40 years
Highest level of formal education of the majority Basic level Basic level
Primary occupation of the majority Fishing Fish processing
Secondary occupation of the majority Farming Oyster harvesting
Respondents participating in oyster harvesting 11% 49 %
Daily consumption of oysters 5% 46.7 %
Interest in oyster culture 13.3 % 63.3 %
Experience with oyster culture 0 16.7 %
its equivalent dry weight was 10.48 ± 0.67 g. It was estimated from the average numbers obtained from the tomato can that, a kilogram
(kg) of oyster meat (wet meat) would cost approximately USD
1.49 consisting of about 529 ± 51individual oysters. The
equivalent dry meat weight was 145.99 ± 9.37 g. It is evident that
the shucked (processed) oysters fetched much higher price than
live, shelled oysters.
All the individuals interviewed were regular consumers of
oysters. On monthly basis, 36 % of the respondents spent less than
USD 2.13 while the remaining 64 % respondents spent more than
USD 2.13, with some spending over USD 21.34 every month in
purchasing oyster meat. The amount spent was found to be based
on four main factors: the household numbers i.e. the higher the
numbers the greater the amount spent, other available sources of
protein (fish) to the consumer, the involvement of the individual
in oyster harvesting and the frequency of consumption. It was
found that some of the people involved in harvesting (about
36.1%) normally did not quantify the amount of oysters they ate,
and were unable to give good estimate. Also those involved in
fishing (for finfish) activities only depended on oysters in the
absence of finfish. In general, the overall results depicted the
willingness of the individuals in patronizing oyster meat.
From the survey, the period of high harvest was from August
to March. This is generally the period of low rainfall which
coincides with the dry season in Ghana. On the other hand,
periods of low harvest fell within April to August. This period
normally coincides with the rainy season when the water level is
high and turbid due to freshwater intrusion from the Nakwa-Ochie
River and run-offs. Only few respondents were harvesting during
this period, thereby resulting in low production. Some harvesters
also indicated that, the high water level and high turbidity
interfered with harvesting and created discomfort. The least
duration an individual had been involved in the oyster fishery
was one year whereas some respondents had spent over 30 years
in the business. Majority (97.2%) of the individuals involved in
both oyster harvesting and trading had seen changes in terms of
sizes and quantities of the mangrove oyster caught in recent times.
Local traditional knowledge and interest in oyster culture at Nakwa
Upon assessment of the interest and knowledge of
individuals in oyster culture 68 % of the respondents were aware
that oysters could be cultured, and gave some reasons. For
instance some fishermen mentioned their regular scraping of the
base of their canoes due to continual attachment and growth of
dense oyster populations. Others who were involved in oyster
harvesting had noticed the growth of oysters on the surface of
discarded solid materials in the water such as plastics, clothes,
bags, wood, shells, etc. Only few (16.7 %) individuals, who were
all females, had an idea on how the species could be cultured.
Whereas 53.3 % was categorical on their lack of knowledge on the
culture of the species, 10 % did not see the need to culture the
species since it is readily available in the lagoon. About 7 % of the
individuals did not have any interest to culture the species due to
the difficulty in handling and shucking the species. The remaining
13 % of the individuals said they were actively engaged in other
activities.
As many as 78.3 % respondents (8 males: 39 females) showed
interest in culturing oysters. Out of these, 66 % preferred to work
in groups, while 34 % preferred to work individually. The
youngest respondent who showed interest in the culture of oysters
was 22 years old while the oldest was 90 years old.
Discussion
This study investigated the potential for using the culture of
C. tulipa as an alternative supplementary livelihood activity in
a rural Ghanaian fishing community (Nakwa) by evaluating the
involvement of the community in the harvest and consumption of
the oyster as well as comparing the sizes of oysters harvested from
the wild with cultured ones. Here, we discuss the results in relation
to the sustainable management and culture of the oyster.
Growth and morphometric characteristics of the mangrove oysters
from Nakwa lagoon
A number of factors affect the growth of oysters, the major
one being hydrographic factors (Angell, 1986; Quayle & Newkirk,
1989; Obodai, 1997; Yankson, 2004; Barnes et al, 2007). The
assumption is that, growth of oysters is promoted when these
parameters are within their tolerance range or the animals are not
exposed long enough to extreme changes in the parameters. That
could probably be the case in this study as most of the values
recorded for both temperature and salinity (Table 2) were within
tolerance range, though there were extremes but for brief
moments. Angell (1986) reported that long exposure to extreme
changes in hydrographic factors, particularly temperature and
salinity, affect reproduction, growth and survival of spat. The
salinity and temperature ranges recorded in this study are similar
to those reported for the optimum growth of several oyster species
(Angell, 1986). Therefore, the hydrographic conditions within the
Nakwa lagoon during the study period supported growth and
survival of the oysters.
It was observed that in terms of shell height and length, C.
tulipa in the Nakwa lagoon can grow bigger when cultured for 7
months than the current sizes exploited by the fishers (Figures 2 &
3; Table 1). The condition index of the cultured oysters was also
higher (Figure 4). The sizes of the cultured oysters in this study
are similar to those reported for the wild colonies in Niger Delta
by Ansa and Bashir (2007). The results of the present study are
therefore consistent with natural characteristics of C. tulipa.
Indeed, in the present experiment, the range of shell heights (7 – 8
cm) commonly reported for cultured oysters in the tropic (see
Angell, 1986; De Silva 1998) were also achieved. The results
therefore suggested that
C. tulipa can be cultured in Nakwa lagoon to meet both local and
international market size.
According to Kamara (1982) overcrowding among wild
mangrove oysters and stress induced by high ambient
temperatures and lack of food at low tide when the oysters are out
of water usually cause oysters to be relatively smaller in sizes. The
overcrowding results when spat settle on parent oysters to form
“reefs” with generations layered one above the other (Quayle &
Newkirk, 1989). In the present experiments, overcrowding was
prevented by thinning the cultches once every month. Our results
therefore suggest the thinning to prevent overcrowding can
optimise the growth of cultured C. tulipa. Therefore farming of the
species could be a way of sustaining the stocks. This assertion is in
line with an earlier study where in some of the lagoons of north-
eastern Venezuela, naturally occurring mangrove oysters were
stunted from excessive setting and exposure, but when prevented
from excessive setting through culture, they reached the market
size of 6 cm in less than six months (Angell, 1974; cited in Angell,
1986).
The phenomenon of spat fall on parent oysters may also
explain the occurrence of smaller shell length and shell height
classes (2.0 –
2.4 cm; 2.5 cm – 2.9 cm) among the oysters harvested from the
wild (Figure 2). Generally in tropical waters, food (phytoplankton)
for the growth of oysters is readily abundant (Quayle & Newkirk,
1980). The animals are therefore able to reproduce throughout the
year (Angell, 1986). Hence, as observed in the present study, it is
possible for populations of wild oysters to contain smaller as well
as bigger individuals. In addition to continuous reproduction,
differences in spat settlement time and other inherent factors make
the growth of oysters highly variable, from season to season,
from year to year and from site to site even when colonies are
sited close together (Quayle & Newkirk, 1989). Therefore, further
studies are needed to help understand the environmental factors
that regulate spat settlement and growth of oysters within the
Nakwa lagoon system. This knowledge could be useful for the
timing of spat collections and culture of the species in the lagoon.
Exploitation of mangrove oysters at Nakwa
Results in this study suggest that 49% of the Nakwa residents
participating in the harvesting of C. tuplia were females compared
to 11 % being males (Table 3). This observation conforms to
earlier studies where exploitation of shell fishes including
mangrove oysters have been found to be a traditional occupation
of women. For instance, according to Afinowi (1985); Obodai
(1987); Yankson (2004); Ansah and Bashir (2007); Anyinla et al.
(2011), the fishery of the mangrove oyster is dominated by
women. The exploitation of freshwater oyster, Etheria elliptica
was also found to be a traditional occupation of both young and
older women, sometimes assisted by young men (Ampofo-
Yeboah, 2014). Only reports from few areas found the
involvement of men in bivalve harvesting to be high (see, for
example Ansah and Bashir, 2004). So, the institution of
management practices such as aquaculture to optimise the
production C. tulipa may potentially help improve the livelihood
condition of the women in Nakwa.
Male residents of the community engage mostly in fin fishing
expeditions (Bandoh, 2015). The overall analysis of the
occupation of the respondents indicated that, oyster harvesting was
the second most popular livelihood activity in Nakwa (Table 3). In
a similar study in Benin, Akele et al., (2014) found that oyster (E.
elliptica) was the second main resource collected in Pendjari
Biosphere Reserve after finfish species and asserted that such a
fishery needed to be developed and sustained. The current
observation and several others including Ansa and Bashir (2007);
Akele et al. (2014); Ampofo-Yeboah (2014) strongly agree with
the general assertion made by Costa (1985) cited in Lavinas et al.
(2008) that, initially, bivalve fishery was intended to supplement
the income of the fishers but in recent times, it has become the
main source of income and creating new perspectives to people.
The major activity in the fishery was found to be harvesting.
Trading was only undertaken by few individuals. Most of the
people preferred to do both harvesting and trading possibly for
more income. Processing was carried out by the fishers and traders
themselves. The oysters at Nakwa were available all year round
and were harvested on regular basis as done in the Niger Delta
(Ansa & Bashir, 2007). On the contrary, Ampofo-Yeboah (2014)
found that the harvesting of the freshwater oyster was mainly done
in the dry season when the water level was low. Seasonal
exploitation is key in rejuvenating renewable resources; hence
continuous exploitation of the mangrove oysters as seen in this
study is a problem which needs to be addressed by appropriate
management strategy. Harvesting of the species was mainly done
in groups primarily as a way of maximising catch, especially when
they come from a single home. Even though going in groups, to a
larger extent, provides a sense of security and assistance in
carrying their loads, most of the individuals take more than one
tray of oysters per fishing trip. The implication is that, the oysters
harvested from the lagoon are small in sizes and hence large
numbers are needed to meet demand. The continuous collection of
large numbers of oysters could account for the declining stocks as
indicated by majority of the respondents.
Oyster market and consumption at Nakwa
The overall findings suggest that price of the oyster was
relatively low in the community and that individuals increase their
income by taking more oysters. The amount earned from a tray of
oysters was also influenced by the sizes of the animals, their
extent of processing and availability of finfish on the market. Even
though reports suggest that oyster meat price may be higher in the
wet season than during the dry season (Akele et al., 2014;
Ampofo- Yeboah, 2014; Modupe & Andrew, 2015), the extent of
processing has been found to be the key determinant of oyster
price in Ghana (Ampofo-Yeboah, 2014), Nigeria (Ansa and Bashir,
2007; Modupe & Andrew, 2015) and other West African
communities (Akele et al. 2014). The processing is done by
smoking, sun-drying, frying of freshly shucked oysters. Dried
oyster meat can also be made to last
longer by preserving in ash (Akele et al., 2014). It was found in the
present study that oysters were generally not processed for sale at
Nakwa. Instead, they were sold mainly in the raw unprocessed
form, often after shucking. It is therefore recommended that the
oysters harvested in the community can be processed in order to
optimise income of the fishers.
Several authors (Afinowi, 1985; Yankson, 1990; Obodai, 1997;
Yankson, 2004; Ansa & Bashir, 2007; Anyinla et al., 2011; Akele
et al., 2014) have particularly commented on the regular
consumption of the mangrove oyster in coastal communities where
they are found within the West African sub-region. This suggests
that the development of oyster farm in Nakwa will not face any
marketing problem.
The survey showed that many people in the community
were interested in culturing the oyster but only few were able to
demonstrate knowledge on the culture. Hence, the development
of oyster farming should first focus on building the capacity of the
people. Such a development would require financial assistance in
the form of grant since current revenue from the oyster business
is low.
Acknowledgement
This study was financed by the USAID/UCC Fisheries and
Coastal Management Capacity Building Support Project, grant
number 641-A18-FY14-IL#007.
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 NAMA : Rafly Fadiansyah Siregar
NIM : 2004135400
KELAS : IK-A

TUGAS TERJEMAHAN

Budidaya Tiram Bakau: Prospek Sebagai Mata Pencaharian Tambahan Bagi Komunitas Nelayan
Ghana

ABSTRAK
Menurunnya stok ikan laut kemungkinan karena perubahan iklim dan tekanan lingkungan lainnya memiliki
dampak yang parah pada mata pencaharian masyarakat nelayan pesisir skala kecil. Akibatnya, pengembangan
mata pencaharian tambahan menjadi relevan belakangan ini sebagai cara untuk mengurangi kelaparan dan
menciptakan lapangan kerja. Ada studi pendahuluan yang dilakukan untuk mengidentifikasi teknik budidaya
yang layak yang akan meningkatkan hasil (tingkat pertumbuhan dan ukuran) tiram bakau sebagai sarana mata
pencaharian tambahan bagi masyarakat pesisir di Ghana. Sebagai bagian dari studi lanjutan, makalah ini
menilai status perikanan tiram di komunitas pesisir dan pertumbuhan tiram di laguna terdekat. Kami menilai
karakteristik sosio-ekonomi perikanan, ukuran yang dijual di pasar dan periode yang tepat yang diperlukan
untuk membudidayakan spesies tersebut. Panduan wawancara dan tiram yang dibeli dari pasar lokal digunakan
untuk mengumpulkan informasi tentang status perikanan sementara budidaya kelapa digunakan untuk
mengumpulkan tiram untuk budidaya di laguna Nakwa. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa 60% responden
memanen tiram untuk dijual, dikonsumsi atau keduanya. Tiram tersedia sepanjang tahun meskipun ukuran dan
jumlah yang dipanen dilaporkan berkurang belakangan ini. Ukuran tiram yang ditemukan di pasar dapat
diperoleh dalam waktu tujuh bulan budidaya dan dengan kondisi daging yang lebih baik. Berdasarkan tingkat
pertumbuhan yang cepat, permintaan yang tinggi dan minat responden untuk membudidayakan spesies
tersebut, potensi budidaya tiram formal di Nakwa tinggi dengan kemungkinan memperluas pembelajaran ke
komunitas pesisir lainnya di Ghana.

Pengantar dengan perikanan akses terbuka dan peluang mata

Sumber daya perikanan di seluruh dunia
terancam oleh berbagai pemicu, mulai dari
perubahan iklim global hingga polusi lokal,
hilangnya habitat, dan eksploitasi berlebihan.
Konsekuensi dari tekanan global dan lokal ini
berpotensi menjadi bencana - baik untuk
keanekaragaman hayati laut dan masyarakat yang
bergantung pada perikanan laut untuk pekerjaan,
makanan, dan peluang masa depan
(www.un.org/stainable development/oceans/).
Ancaman bahkan lebih besar di komunitas
nelayan subsisten skala kecil. Menurut Pauly
(1997) dan lain-lain (Aheto et al., 2011),
penangkapan ikan yang berlebihan dan degradasi
habitat telah menyebabkan penipisan yang cepat
dari perikanan makanan konvensional di
komunitas ini. Akibatnya, tingkat kemiskinan dan
kekurangan gizi tinggi, terutama di masyarakat
pencaharian alternatif yang terbatas (Béné & Friend,
2011; FAO, 2014; Baker French, 2015). Di Afrika, lebih
dari 46,3% orang dalam komunitas nelayan skala kecil
miskin dan kurang gizi (FAO, 2006). Ghana tidak
dikecualikan karena laporan Ghana Statistical Service
[GSS] (2014) menunjukkan bahwa lebih dari 5,5 juta
orang dewasa Ghana kekurangan gizi sementara hampir
6,7 juta orang miskin (Sebagian besar dari orang miskin
dan kurang gizi ini tinggal di daerah pesisir (Edgar dkk.,
2016).
Jadi, untuk meningkatkan status sosial ekonomi
nelayan skala kecil, banyak pengelolaan sumber daya
pesisir berbasis proyek masyarakat dan inisiatif
pengelolaan perikanan mencakup pengembangan
peluang mata pencaharian alternatif/tambahan (misalnya
Pet-Soede, 2003; Center, 2009). Inisiatif ini sering
mencakup berbagai bentuk budidaya seperti budidaya
rumput laut (Crawford, 2002), budidaya ikan di keramba
atau di kolam, dan budidaya padi-ikan terpadu
(Center, 2009). Pembenarannya adalah bahwa
akuakultur (i) mengurangi tekanan penangkapan
ikan pada perikanan yang dieksploitasi secara
berlebihan dengan mendiversifikasi produksi ikan
jauh dari stok liar, (ii) memungkinkan para nelayan
untuk menyediakan makanan bergizi bagi keluarga
mereka sambil menghasilkan surplus untuk dijual,
dan (iii) memberikan kesempatan kerja yang baik
melalui berbagai perusahaan (misalnya,
pengolahan dan penjualan ikan) yang terkait
dengan rantai nilai akuakultur (FAO 2014, 2016).
Pada akhirnya, peluang ini mengurangi
ketergantungan pada stok ikan liar dan membatasi
kerentanan individu, rumah tangga, dan komunitas
terhadap efek perubahan global.
Primavera (2006) merekomendasikan
bahwa penggunaan akuakultur sebagai pilihan
mata pencaharian alternatif harus dilakukan
dengan hati-hati untuk menghindari menciptakan
kerentanan baru; misalnya, konversi hutan bakau
menjadi tambak menghancurkan habitat bersarang
dan mencari makan ikan dan meningkatkan
keterpaparan desa-desa nelayan terhadap
gelombang badai. Pembuangan limbah dari
fasilitas budidaya juga dapat menyebabkan
pencemaran nutrisi dan eutrofikasi ekosistem
pesisir (Primavera, 2006). Dalam hal ini, banyak
proyek pengelolaan sumber daya pesisir berbasis
masyarakat yang menekankan budidaya
(marikultur) moluska bivalvia sebagai pilihan mata
pencaharian alternatif berkelanjutan yang dapat
memenuhi tujuan konservasi selain memenuhi
permintaan protein hewani yang murah dan
lapangan kerja di banyak masyarakat pesisir (lihat,
misalnya Pet-Soede, 2003; Center, 2009). Ini
karena budidaya bivalve berbeda secara signifikan
dari budidaya kebanyakan ikan bersirip dan
krustasea (Crawford et al., 2003): tidak melibatkan
masukan pakan eksternal karena bivalvia memakan
yang terjadi secara alami fitoplankton. Untuk
alasan yang sama, budidaya bivalve tidak
mengakibatkan penambahan nutrisi. Sebaliknya,
melalui penyaringan mereka dari partikel
tersuspensi dan pengeluaran kotoran semu dan
kotoran asli kotoran yang tenggelam ke dasar,
bivalvia berkontribusi untuk meningkatkan
kualitas air dan daur ulang nutrisi di wilayah
pesisir dengan menggabungkan transfer nutrisi
terlarut ke sedimen bentik (Untuk diskusi yang
lebih lengkap tentang peran ekologis bivalve
akuakultur, lihat Dumbauld et al, 2009).
Dalam studi ini, potensi budidaya tiram
mangrove Afrika Barat, Crassostrea tulipa
dievaluasi, dengan mempertimbangkan
karakteristik biologis, serta beberapa aspek
ekonomi dan pemasaran, yang mungkin relevan untuk
pengembangan budidaya tiram di masa depan di Ghana.
Tiram ditemukan pada sedimen dasar atau menempel
pada benda keras seperti akar mangrove dan batuan di
zona intertidal muara dan laguna (Angell, 1986;
Yankson, 2004). Daging tiram merupakan sumber
protein hewani yang murah bagi banyak komunitas
pesisir di Afrika Barat; cangkangnya digunakan sebagai
bahan bangunan, bahan pakan unggas dan obat
tradisional (Obodai, 1997; Yankson, 2004).
Kemampuan budidaya C. tulipa telah dibuktikan
secara eksperimental dalam 30 tahun terakhir oleh
Kamara (1982). Teknik budidaya tiram yang
dikembangkan oleh penelitian sebelumnya telah
digunakan oleh Ansa & Bashir (2007) dan Obodai
(1997) dalam penelitian selanjutnya. Tujuan dari
penelitian ini adalah untuk menilai potensi budidaya dari
spesies di laguna 'terbuka', menggunakan teknik
budidaya tersuspensi dan mempertimbangkan beberapa
karakteristik biologis, ukuran yang dapat dipasarkan,
konsumsi dan faktor pemasaran yang relevan untuk
pengembangan budidaya tiram.
Bahan dan Metode
Wilayah studi
Studi ini dilakukan di komunitas nelayan kecil
yang disebut Nakwa, terletak di 0°55'26.05"W dan
5°12'15.77"LU, sekitar 50 km sebelah timur Cape Coast,
Ghana (Gambar 1). Menurut laporan dari GSS (2014)
dan lain-lain (misalnya, Bandoh, 2015), masyarakat
memiliki populasi sekitar 4169 dan tingkat
pengangguran = 30% yang sekitar 6 kali lebih tinggi dari
tingkat pengangguran negara sebesar 5,2% (Dunia
Perbankan, 2013). Keadaan gizi masyarakat juga kurang
baik meskipun -78% masyarakat mengkonsumsi ikan
setiap hari. Misalnya, hanya sekitar setengah dari anak-
anak di masyarakat yang mendapatkan asupan minimum
vitamin dan mineral esensial (Bandoh & Kenu, 2017).
Oleh karena itu, situasi sosial ekonomi di Nakwa serupa,
jika tidak lebih buruk daripada situasi yang terjadi di
komunitas nelayan kecil di seluruh dunia.
Komunitas ini terletak di dekat laguna terbuka
yang disebut Laguna Nakwa yang berfungsi sebagai
tempat pendaratan ikan dan tempat memancing bagi
masyarakat. Laguna ini memiliki luas permukaan 1,2
km² dan kedalaman air rata-rata 64,28 ± 5,04 cm; itu
adalah oligotrofik, dengan masukan nutrisi dari limpasan
pertanian dan kegiatan domestik (Ansa-Asare et al.,
2008). Semua percobaan budidaya tiram yang dilaporkan
dalam penelitian ini dilakukan di laguna. Pekerjaan
laboratorium dilakukan di Departemen Perikanan dan
Ilmu Perairan, Universitas Cape Coast.
Status populasi tiram liar di Nakwa
Mirip dengan komunitas pesisir lainnya di Ghana,
perikanan tiram di komunitas Nakwa didasarkan pada
eksploitasi stok liar (Obodai, 1997; Yankson, 2004).
Oleh karena itu, sebelum percobaan dimulai,
tingkat eksploitasi, karakteristik morfologi (berat
hidup, tinggi cangkang, panjang dan lebar), jenis
kelamin dan kondisi fisiologis C. tulipa liar yang
dieksploitasi oleh nelayan yang beroperasi di
laguna Nakwa dinilai. . Spesimen dibeli dari
nelayan yang dipilih secara acak untuk
memastikan bahwa mereka adalah perwakilan
yang baik dari perikanan tiram Laguna Nakwa.
Selain itu, data untuk menilai minat dan
partisipasi warga Nakwa dalam perikanan tiram
dikumpulkan dengan menggunakan pedoman
wawancara. Data tersebut meliputi informasi
tingkat pendidikan formal yang dicapai penduduk,
preferensi makanan mereka terhadap C. tulipa dan
pekerjaan khususnya di bidang perikanan dan
rantai nilai tiram. Responden dipilih secara acak
dari berbagai bagian masyarakat.
Penentuan ukuran cangkang tiram, jenis kelamin,
dan indeks kondisi
Di laboratorium, masing-masing tiram
dikeluarkan dengan hati-hati dari kelompoknya
(kebanyakan terdiri dari cangkang tiram tua dan
substrat keras lainnya) menggunakan pisau. Hanya
individu yang hidup dan utuh yang tidak memiliki
kerusakan cangkang yang dapat diidentifikasi
selama pemisahan yang dipilih untuk analisis.
Spesimen ini dicuci bersih di bawah air mengalir
dan dilap kering menggunakan kertas tisu. Mereka
ditimbang menggunakan timbangan elektronik
(model: FEL-500S). Tinggi, panjang, dan lebar
cangkangnya diukur hingga 0,1 mm terdekat
menggunakan jangka sorong. Daging hewan
tersebut kemudian dibedah dari cangkangnya ke
dalam cawan Petri. Sebagian kecil dari bahan
gonad mereka dikeluarkan dengan forsep,
dioleskan pada slide dan diamati di bawah
mikroskop cahaya (Optica B-292PLI; perbesaran:
100X) untuk menentukan jenis kelaminnya.
C. tulipa budaya di Laguna Nakwa
Potensi budidaya C. tulipa skala besar di
laguna Nakwa telah diteliti. Tiram dibudidayakan
pada budidaya yang terbuat dari batok kelapa
karena dibandingkan dengan bahan lain (misalnya
ubin, bambu, ban dll) batok kelapa murah, tersedia
sepanjang tahun dan dapat digunakan untuk
setidaknya 1 siklus panen tiram (Obodai, 1997).
Kultus dibangun menggunakan tali nilon sepanjang
1 m seperti yang dijelaskan oleh Obodai (1997).
Setiap tali memiliki 5 buah batok kelapa yang
terpisah = 10 cm; cangkang dipegang di posisinya
masing-masing dengan 2 simpul - 1 di setiap sisi.
Kultur diikat pada alas rak segi empat berukuran
150 cm x 100 cm yang terbuat dari batang
mangrove (diameter = 5 cm) dan tali nilon. Lima
kultus diikat, didistribusikan secara merata ke rak.
Sebanyak 21 rak yang digunakan, ditempatkan di laguna
di lokasi yang sebelumnya teridentifikasi memiliki
populasi tiram. Rak dipasang pada pertengahan Oktober
2015; dalam periode spat fall maksimum untuk C. tulipa
di Ghana (Obodai, 1997). Cukup banyak tiram
ditemukan telah menetap di kultus enam minggu setelah
dipasang.
Kultus dimusnahkan dari organisme pengotor
sebulan sekali dengan menggunakan sikat kayu dan
pisau. Tiram yang menetap di kultus setelah periode ini
dihilangkan. Pertumbuhan tiram dipantau sebulan sekali
dengan mengukur tinggi dan panjang cangkang
menggunakan jangka sorong. Pengukuran ini dimulai
enam minggu setelah pemasangan rak selama total 7
bulan, konsisten dengan penelitian sebelumnya (Obodai,
1997; De Silva, 1998).
Suhu dan salinitas diukur in-situ dengan meteran kualitas
air digital multi-parametrik (YSI; PCB 650) dua kali
setiap bulan di tiga area berbeda dalam area budidaya.
Kedalaman air juga diukur dua kali sebulan
menggunakan aturan kayu bertingkat.
Analisis Data
Kelangsungan budidaya yang digunakan dalam
penelitian ini dievaluasi dengan membandingkan ukuran
tiram pada akhir percobaan dengan tiram individu liar
yang dipanen oleh nelayan yang beroperasi di laguna
Nakwa. Tolok ukur yang digunakan untuk ukuran tiram
adalah tinggi cangkang karena merupakan parameter
yang paling berguna untuk memprediksi biomassa tiram
dari data lapangan (Dame, 1972). Pertama, distribusi
ukuran dan ukuran cangkang tiram ditentukan melalui
analisis distribusi frekuensi.
Gambar 1 : Peta Ghana Selatan menunjukkan
Komunitas Nakwa dan Laguna Nakwa.
Sifat hubungan alometrik antara ketinggian kulit dan
panjang ditentukan menggunakan fungsi daya linier
sejalan dengan penelitian sebelumnya (Gimin et al.
2004):
ln(Y) = ln(a) + b×ln(X)
dimana, Y = panjang cangkang; X = tinggi
cangkang Kemiringan (b) dan perpotongan y (a)
ditentukan dengan menggunakan teknik regresi kuadrat
terkecil.
Indeks kondisi (K) tiram dihitung menggunakan
rumus Quayle dan Newkirk (1989):
K = (Berat daging kering / Volume cangkang bagian
dalam) x 1000
Volume cangkang bagian dalam dihitung sebagai
selisih antara bobot hidup utuh dan bobot kosong
cangkang tiram (Obodai, 1997). Analisis varian satu arah
(ANOVA 1 arah) untuk ukuran sampel yang tidak sama
digunakan untuk membandingkan indeks kondisi tiram
yang dikumpulkan dari lokasi yang berbeda (Sokal &
Rohlf, 1995). Nilai p kritis untuk analisis ini
diambil menjadi 0,05.
Hasil
Ciri-ciri C. tulipa yang dipanen dan
dibudidayakan
Karakteristik morfologi (tinggi, panjang
dan lebar cangkang), bobot hidup dan kondisi
fisiologis tiram liar yang dipanen oleh nelayan dari
laguna Nakwa dan dibudidayakan dalam penelitian
ini ditunjukkan pada Gambar 2, 3 dan 4 masing-
masing. Rata-rata, panjang dan tinggi cangkang
tiram budidaya dan tiram yang dipanen dari alam
berbeda nyata; bobot kedua kelompok tiram juga
berbeda (Tabel 1). Rata-rata panjang dan tinggi
tiram yang dibudidayakan lebih besar dari tiram
liar. Lebar cangkang kedua kelompok sama (Tabel
1). Namun, dalam hal tinggi cangkang, kelas
ukuran modal tiram liar yang dipanen oleh nelayan
(5,5-6,9 cm) lebih kecil daripada tiram budidaya
(6,5-6,9 cm) (Gambar 2). Demikian pula dalam hal
panjang cangkang, kelas ukuran modal 4,0 - 4,4
cm dari tiram yang dipanen oleh nelayan lebih
kecil dibandingkan dengan tiram yang
dibudidayakan sebesar 5,0 - 5,9 cm. Memang,
panjang lebih dari 50% dari tiram yang
dibudidayakan adalah 1-2 cm lebih besar dari
panjang cangkang modal individu yang dipanen
oleh nelayan (Gambar 2). Namun, lebar modal (1,5
- 1,9 cm) untuk kedua kelompok tiram serupa.
Bahkan di sini, proporsi yang lebih tinggi (46%)
dari tiram budidaya memiliki lebar modal
dibandingkan dengan 35% dari panen liar.
Sejalan dengan hasil di atas, bobot hidup
tiram budidaya lebih berat daripada yang
dikumpulkan dari alam (Gambar 3; Tabel 1). Berat
hidup mayoritas (55%) dari tiram liar adalah 10
gram. Sebaliknya, berat hidup untuk sebagian
besar (56%) dari tiram yang dibudidayakan adalah
2 30 gram. Selanjutnya, indeks kondisi tiram yang
dibudidayakan secara signifikan lebih tinggi
dibandingkan dengan tiram individu liar (Gambar
4; ANOVA 1 arah, F₁ 2.71, p = 0,05). Ini diamati
untuk semua kecuali satu kelas ukuran tiram. Oleh
karena itu, dapat dikatakan bahwa C. tulipa di
laguna Nakwa dapat tumbuh lebih besar bila
dibudidayakan dari ukuran saat ini dimanfaatkan
oleh nelayan.
Tabel 1 : Karakteristikmorfometrik (rata-rata
SE) buddaya C. tulipa dan liar. Waktu
budidaya adalah tujuh bulan ukuran sampel :
tiram liar 335, tiram budidaya 120.
Gambar 2 : Distribusi frekuensi ukuran tiram
mangrove budidaya (selama 7 bulan) dan liar
dari Laguna Nakwa.
Gambar 5 menunjukkan hubungan antara tinggi
cangkang dan cangkang panjang tiram. Hubungan
tersebut linier (yaitu kemiringan = 1 pada p <0,05) untuk
tiram budidaya dan tiram liar tetapi signifikan (R² > 0,5)
untuk yang terakhir dan lemah (R² = 0,4) untuk yang
pertama. Oleh karena itu, tinggi cangkang dan panjang
cangkang tiram yang dibudidayakan umumnya tidak
tumbuh secara proporsional satu sama lain.
Parameter hidrografi
Parameter hidrografi yang diukur dari Oktober
2015 hingga Juni 2016 dilaporkan pada Tabel 2.
Rentangnya masing-masing adalah 25,4 - 33,7 °C, 0-
35,9%, dan 43,3 - 83,4 cm untuk suhu, salinitas, dan
kedalaman air.
Partisipasi warga Nakwa dalam perikanan tiram.
Sebanyak 60 individu diwawancarai (Laki-laki:
Betina = 1:4) dimana 60% terlibat dalam pemanenan dan
perdagangan tiram (Tabel 3). Sisanya 40% tidak ikut
panen tiram. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa dari
60% yang terlibat dalam kegiatan pemanenan tiram,
hanya 11% yang berjenis kelamin laki-laki dan sisanya
perempuan. Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa lebih banyak
perempuan dibandingkan laki-laki yang terlibat dalam
kegiatan penangkapan tiram di Nakwa. Responden
termuda berusia 17 tahun; yang paling tua berusia 90
tahun. Mereka yang terlibat dalam penangkapan ikan
tiram berusia antara 20 hingga 90 tahun (ini berpotensi
berlebihan oleh orang yang diwawancarai karena
penduduk pedesaan lanjut usia di Ghana sebagian besar
tidak mengetahui tanggal lahir mereka secara pasti). Usia
pejantan yang terlibat dalam kegiatan penangkapan tiram
berkisar antara 25 hingga 54 tahun sedangkan usia betina
berkisar antara 20 hingga 90 tahun.
Gambar 3 : Distribusi frekuensi bobot hidup tiram
budidaya dan tiram liar dari laguna Nakwa.
Gambar 4 : Indeks kondisi tiram budidaya dan tiram
liar dari Laguna Nakwa.
Gambar 5 : hubungan panjang-tinggi cangkak tiram
budidaya dan tiram liar dari lahuna Nakwa.
Narasi berikut menggambarkan sosial ekonomi
perikanan tiram di Nakwa. Analisis pekerjaan primer dan
sekunder dari populasi di masyarakat menunjukkan
bahwa, individu terlibat dalam pekerjaan yang beragam.
Tujuh puluh persen (70%) orang terlibat dalam kegiatan
terkait penangkapan ikan sebagai pekerjaan utama
mereka. Kegiatan tersebut meliputi pemanenan dan
pengolahan ikan bersirip (45%) serta pemanenan dan
perdagangan tiram (25%). Dari responden, 16,4% dan
23% terlibat dalam pemanenan tiram sebagai pekerjaan
primer dan sekunder. Oleh karena itu dapat dikatakan
bahwa sebagian besar responden melakukan pemanenan
tiram sebagai pekerjaan sampingan mereka. Di sisi lain,
8,2% dan 1,6% terlibat dalam perdagangan tiram diperkirakan masing-masing 2.057 ± 89 dan 1.028 ± 44.
sebagai pekerjaan primer dan sekunder. Hanya Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa sebagian besar
18,3% responden yang hanya mengandalkan panen responden memanen tiram lebih dari satu nampan per
tiram sebagai sumber pendapatan. Sekali lagi, 28 perjalanan memancing. Tujuh puluh lima persen (75%)
(46,7%) orang yang diwawancarai memiliki pemanen tiram melakukannya untuk dijual dan
pekerjaan sampingan; ini didominasi oleh dikonsumsi, 17% hanya untuk dijual dan 8% untuk
pemanenan dan perdagangan tiram (53,6%). Hal konsumsi.
ini menunjukkan bahwa, pemanenan dan Biaya 15 kg nampan tiram adalah USD 1,07 dan
perdagangan tiram mangrove merupakan peluang nampan tiram 30 kg dijual seharga USD 2,13 (1GH¢ =
mata pencaharian utama kedua di masyarakat. 0,21 USD berdasarkan Nilai Tukar Valas Bank of Ghana
Penelitian juga menunjukkan bahwa, jumlah orang pada saat penelitian). Sebagian nelayan (36%) menjual
yang terlibat dalam kegiatan panen dan tiram hidup dalam cangkang atau dikupas, sedangkan
perdagangan tiram menurun dengan meningkatnya sebagian kecil responden (20%) hanya menjual tiram
tingkat pendidikan. dalam bentuk hidup. Namun, ada pasar yang siap untuk
Eksploitasi tiram mangrove dicirikan oleh semua jenis tiram yang diproduksi di masyarakat. Tiram
dua kegiatan utama. Ini adalah panen tiram dari yang dikupas diukur dengan kaleng tomat kosong kecil
laguna (88,9%) dan perdagangan spesies (11,1%). dan dijual seharga USD 0,11/kaleng tomat. Rata-rata
Mereka yang terlibat dalam perdagangan membeli jumlah tiram/kaleng adalah 38,33 ± 3,67 dan beratnya
dari orang lain untuk dijual, dan mereka tidak sekitar 71,78 ± 3,47 g (berat basah), dan berat kering
terlibat langsung dalam panen. Selain itu, hasil ekivalennya adalah 10,48 ± 0,67 g. Diperkirakan dari
penelitian menunjukkan bahwa, kegiatan lain jumlah rata-rata yang diperoleh dari kaleng tomat, satu
seperti pengolahan tiram dilakukan oleh nelayan kilogram (kg) daging tiram (daging basah) akan berharga
dan pedagang itu sendiri. Tak satu pun dari sekitar USD 1,49 yang adalah memiliki harga yang jauh
individu yang hanya terlibat dalam pengolahan lebih tinggi daripada tiram hidup yang dikupas.
tiram. Panen tiram mangrove dilakukan setiap hari, Tabel 3 : Karakteristik sosial ekonomi penduduk
setiap minggu, setiap bulan atau sesekali. Secara Nakwa.
umum, mayoritas (80,6%) responden memanen
tiram setiap hari (52,8%) dan mingguan (27,8%). Semua individu yang diwawancarai adalah
Dari 19,4% sisanya, 2,8% dan 16,7% masing- konsumen tiram biasa. Secara bulanan, 36% responden
masing melakukan panen bulanan dan sesekali. membelanjakan kurang dari USD 2,13 sementara sisanya
Hasil penelitian juga menunjukkan bahwa 64% responden menghabiskan lebih dari USD 2,13,
eksploitasi tiram dilakukan secara berkelompok. dengan beberapa menghabiskan lebih dari USD 21,34
enam puluh delapan persen dari mereka yang setiap bulan untuk membeli daging tiram. Jumlah
terlibat dalam pemanenan tiram melakukannya pengeluaran ditemukan berdasarkan empat faktor utama:
dalam kelompok. Tiga puluh dua persen (32%) jumlah rumah tangga yaitu semakin tinggi jumlah
dari 68% beroperasi dalam kelompok lebih dari 4 semakin besar jumlah pengeluaran, sumber protein (ikan)
orang. Tren serupa diamati pada mereka yang lain yang tersedia bagi konsumen, keterlibatan individu
beroperasi setiap minggu. Namun, dari mereka dalam pemanenan tiram dan frekuensi konsumsi.
yang beroperasi sesekali, 50% bekerja secara Ditemukan bahwa beberapa orang yang terlibat dalam
individu dan 50% lainnya dalam kelompok. pemanenan (sekitar 36,1%) biasanya tidak menghitung
Analisis keseluruhan hasil menunjukkan bahwa jumlah tiram yang mereka makan, dan tidak dapat
28,7% dari pemanen tiram beroperasi secara memberikan perkiraan yang baik. Juga mereka yang
individu, sisanya bekerja dalam kelompok dua, terlibat dalam kegiatan penangkapan ikan (untuk finfish)
tiga, empat, dan di atas empat. Dengan demikian, hanya bergantung pada tiram tanpa adanya finfish.
pemanenan tiram di masyarakat lebih banyak Secara umum, hasil keseluruhan menggambarkan
dilakukan secara berkelompok. kemauan individu dalam menggembalakan daging tiram.
Tabel 2 : Parameter hidrografi bulanan (Rata- Dari survei, masa panen tinggi terjadi pada
rata SE) diukur selama masa studi. Agustus hingga Maret. Ini umumnya periode curah hujan
rendah yang bertepatan dengan musim kemarau di
Tiram yang dipanen dibawa dari laguna ke Ghana. Di sisi lain, periode panen rendah jatuh pada
rumah mereka dalam nampan (mangkuk logam bulan April hingga Agustus. Periode ini biasanya
biasanya dibuat dengan perak) dengan berbagai bertepatan dengan musim hujan ketika permukaan air
ukuran. Baki terbesar yang biasa digunakan tinggi dan keruh karena intrusi air tawar dari Sungai
beratnya sekitar 30 kg; sedangkan yang terkecil Nakwa-Ochie dan limpasan. Hanya sedikit responden
beratnya 15 kg saat diisi tiram hidup. Jumlah total yang memanen selama periode ini, sehingga
tiram hidup per baki terbesar dan terkecil menghasilkan produksi yang rendah. Beberapa pemanen
juga menunjukkan bahwa, tingkat air yang tinggi
dan kekeruhan yang tinggi mengganggu
pemanenan dan menciptakan ketidaknyamanan.
Durasi paling sedikit seseorang terlibat dalam
perikanan tiram adalah satu tahun sedangkan
beberapa responden telah menghabiskan lebih dari
30 tahun dalam bisnis tersebut. Mayoritas (97,2%)
individu yang terlibat dalam pemanenan dan
perdagangan tiram telah melihat perubahan dalam
hal ukuran dan jumlah tiram bakau yang ditangkap
belakangan ini.
Pengetahuan tradisional lokal dan minat pada
budaya tiram di Nakwa
Berdasarkan penilaian minat dan
pengetahuan individu dalam budidaya tiram, 68%
responden mengetahui bahwa tiram dapat
dibudidayakan, dan memberikan beberapa alasan.
Misalnya, beberapa nelayan menyebutkan bahwa
dasar sampan mereka sering tergores karena
pelekatan terus-menerus dan pertumbuhan
populasi tiram yang padat. Orang lain yang terlibat
dalam pemanenan tiram telah memperhatikan
pertumbuhan tiram di permukaan bahan padat
yang dibuang di dalam air seperti plastik, pakaian,
tas, kayu, kerang, dll. Hanya sedikit (16,7%)
individu yang semuanya betina, memiliki gagasan
tentang bagaimana spesies tersebut dapat
dibudidayakan. Sedangkan 53,3%
mengkategorikan kurangnya pengetahuan mereka
tentang budaya spesies, 10% tidak melihat
kebutuhan untuk membudidayakan spesies karena
sudah tersedia di laguna. Sekitar 7% individu tidak
tertarik untuk membudidayakan spesies tersebut
karena sulitnya penanganan dan pengupasan
spesies. Sisanya 13% dari individu mengatakan
mereka secara aktif terlibat dalam kegiatan lain.
Sebanyak 78,3% responden (8 laki-laki: 39
perempuan) menunjukkan minat untuk
membudidayakan tiram. Dari jumlah tersebut, 66%
lebih suka bekerja dalam kelompok, sementara
34% lebih suka bekerja secara individu.
Responden termuda yang menunjukkan minat
terhadap budidaya tiram berusia 22 tahun
sedangkan yang tertua berusia 90 tahun.
Diskusi
Studi ini menyelidiki potensi penggunaan budidaya
C. tulipa sebagai alternatif kegiatan mata
pencaharian tambahan di komunitas nelayan
pedesaan Ghana (Nakwa) dengan mengevaluasi
keterlibatan masyarakat dalam panen dan
konsumsi tiram serta membandingkan ukuran
tiram. tiram yang dipanen dari alam liar dengan
yang berbudaya. Di sini, kami membahas hasil
dalam kaitannya dengan pengelolaan dan budidaya
tiram yang berkelanjutan.
Pertumbuhan dan karakteristik morfometrik tiram
mangrove dari laguna Nakwa.
Sejumlah faktor mempengaruhi pertumbuhan
tiram, yang utama adalah faktor hidrografi (Angell,
1986; Quayle & Newkirk, 1989; Obodai, 1997; Yankson,
2004; Barnes et al, 2007). Asumsinya adalah,
pertumbuhan tiram meningkat ketika parameter ini
berada dalam kisaran toleransinya atau hewan tidak
terpapar cukup lama pada perubahan parameter yang
ekstrem. Hal itu mungkin terjadi dalam penelitian ini
karena sebagian besar nilai yang dicatat untuk suhu dan
salinitas (Tabel 2) berada dalam kisaran toleransi,
meskipun ada ekstrem tetapi untuk saat-saat singkat.
Angell (1986) melaporkan bahwa paparan yang lama
terhadap perubahan ekstrim dalam faktor hidrografi,
terutama suhu dan salinitas, mempengaruhi reproduksi,
pertumbuhan dan kelangsungan hidup spat. Rentang
salinitas dan suhu yang dicatat dalam penelitian ini
serupa dengan yang dilaporkan untuk pertumbuhan
optimum beberapa spesies tiram (Angell, 1986). Oleh
karena itu, kondisi hidrografi di laguna Nakwa selama
masa studi mendukung pertumbuhan dan kelangsungan
hidup tiram.
Telah diamati bahwa dalam hal tinggi dan
panjang cangkang, C. tulipa di laguna Nakwa dapat
tumbuh lebih besar bila dibudidayakan selama 7 bulan
dibandingkan ukuran yang dieksploitasi oleh nelayan
saat ini (Gambar 2 & 3; Tabel 1). Indeks kondisi tiram
yang dibudidayakan juga lebih tinggi (Gambar 4).
Ukuran tiram budidaya dalam penelitian ini mirip dengan
yang dilaporkan untuk koloni liar di Delta Niger oleh
Ansa dan Bashir (2007). Oleh karena itu, hasil penelitian
ini konsisten dengan karakteristik alami C. tulipa.
Memang, dalam percobaan ini, kisaran ketinggian
cangkang (7-8 cm) yang biasa dilaporkan untuk tiram
yang dibudidayakan di daerah tropis (lihat Angell, 1986;
De Silva 1998) juga tercapai. Oleh karena itu, hasil
penelitian menunjukkan bahwa C. tulipa dapat
dibudidayakan di laguna Nakwa untuk memenuhi ukuran
pasar lokal dan internasional.
Menurut Kamara (1982) kepadatan yang
berlebihan di antara tiram bakau liar dan stres yang
disebabkan oleh suhu lingkungan yang tinggi dan
kurangnya makanan pada saat air surut ketika tiram
keluar dari air biasanya menyebabkan ukuran tiram
relatif lebih kecil. Hasil kepadatan ketika spat menetap
pada tiram induk untuk membentuk "karang" dengan
generasi berlapis satu di atas yang lain (Quayle &
Newkirk, 1989). Dalam percobaan ini, kepadatan
dicegah dengan menipiskan kultus sebulan sekali. Oleh
karena itu hasil kami menyarankan penjarangan untuk
mencegah kepadatan dapat mengoptimalkan
pertumbuhan C. tulipa yang dibudidayakan. Oleh karena
itu budidaya spesies bisa menjadi cara untuk
mempertahankan stok. Pernyataan ini sejalan dengan
penelitian sebelumnya di mana di beberapa laguna di
timur laut Venezuela, tiram bakau alami terhambat dari
pengaturan dan paparan yang berlebihan, tetapi
ketika dicegah dari pengaturan berlebihan melalui
budaya, mereka mencapai ukuran pasar 6 cm.
dalam waktu kurang dari enam bulan (Angel,
1974; dikutip dalam Angell, 1986).
Fenomena spat fall pada tiram induk juga
dapat menjelaskan terjadinya kelas panjang
cangkang dan tinggi cangkang yang lebih kecil
(2,0 - 2,4 cm; 2,5 cm - 2,9 cm) di antara tiram yang
dipanen dari alam (Gambar 2). Umumnya di
perairan tropis, makanan (fitoplankton) untuk
pertumbuhan tiram cukup melimpah (Quayle &
Newkirk, 1980). Oleh karena itu, hewan dapat
bereproduksi sepanjang tahun (Angel, 1986). Oleh
karena itu, seperti yang diamati dalam penelitian
ini, ada kemungkinan populasi tiram liar
mengandung individu yang lebih kecil maupun
lebih besar. Selain reproduksi terus menerus,
perbedaan waktu penyelesaian spat dan faktor-
faktor lain yang melekat membuat pertumbuhan
tiram sangat bervariasi, dari musim ke musim, dari
tahun ke tahun dan dari situs ke situs bahkan ketika
koloni ditempatkan berdekatan (Quayle &
Newkirk, 1989). ). Oleh karena itu, penelitian lebih
lanjut diperlukan untuk membantu memahami
faktor lingkungan yang mengatur penyelesaian
spat dan pertumbuhan tiram di dalam sistem
laguna Nakwa. Pengetahuan ini dapat berguna
untuk waktu pengumpulan ludah dan budaya
spesies di laguna.
Eksploitasi tiram bakau di Nakwa
Hasil penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa
49% penduduk Nakwa yang berpartisipasi dalam
pemanenan C. tuplia adalah perempuan
dibandingkan dengan 11% laki-laki (Tabel 3).
Pengamatan ini sesuai dengan penelitian
sebelumnya di mana eksploitasi kerang termasuk
tiram bakau telah ditemukan sebagai pekerjaan
tradisional perempuan. Misalnya, menurut Afinowi
(1985); Obodai (1987); Yankson (2004); Ansah
dan Bashir (2007); Anyinla dkk. (2011), perikanan
tiram mangrove didominasi oleh perempuan.
Eksploitasi tiram air tawar, Etheria elliptica juga
ditemukan sebagai pekerjaan tradisional baik
perempuan muda maupun tua, kadang-kadang
dibantu oleh laki-laki muda (Ampofo-Yeboah,
2014). Hanya laporan dari beberapa daerah yang
menemukan keterlibatan laki-laki dalam
pemanenan bivalve cukup tinggi (lihat, misalnya
Ansah dan Bashir, 2004). Sehingga kelembagaan
praktek pengelolaan seperti budidaya untuk
mengoptimalkan produksi C. tulipa berpotensi
membantu meningkatkan kondisi mata
pencaharian perempuan di Nakwa.
Penduduk laki-laki dari komunitas tersebut
sebagian besar terlibat dalam ekspedisi
penangkapan ikan sirip (Bandoh, 2015). Analisis
keseluruhan dari pekerjaan responden menunjukkan
bahwa, panen tiram adalah kegiatan mata pencaharian
paling populer kedua di Nakwa (Tabel 3). Dalam
penelitian serupa di Benin, Akele et al., (2014)
menemukan bahwa tiram (E. elliptica) adalah sumber
daya utama kedua yang dikumpulkan di Cagar Biosfer
Pendjari setelah spesies ikan bersirip dan menegaskan
bahwa perikanan semacam itu perlu dikembangkan dan
dipertahankan. Pengamatan saat ini dan beberapa lainnya
termasuk Ansa dan Bashir (2007); Akele dkk. (2014);
Ampofo-Yeboah (2014) sangat setuju dengan pernyataan
umum yang dibuat oleh Costa (1985) yang dikutip dalam
Lavinas et al. (2008) bahwa pada awalnya perikanan
bivalve ditujukan untuk menambah pendapatan para
nelayan namun belakangan ini menjadi sumber
pendapatan utama dan menciptakan perspektif baru bagi
masyarakat.
Kegiatan utama dalam perikanan ditemukan
untuk memanen. Perdagangan hanya dilakukan oleh
beberapa individu. Sebagian besar orang lebih suka
melakukan panen dan berdagang mungkin untuk
mendapatkan penghasilan lebih. Pengolahan dilakukan
oleh nelayan dan pedagang itu sendiri. Tiram di Nakwa
tersedia sepanjang tahun dan dipanen secara teratur
seperti yang dilakukan di Delta Niger (Ansa & Bashir,
2007). Sebaliknya, Ampofo-Yeboah (2014) menemukan
bahwa pemanenan tiram air tawar terutama dilakukan
pada musim kemarau ketika ketinggian air sedang
rendah. Eksploitasi musiman adalah kunci dalam
meremajakan sumber daya terbarukan; maka eksploitasi
tiram mangrove secara terus menerus seperti yang
terlihat dalam penelitian ini merupakan masalah yang
perlu. diatasi dengan strategi manajemen yang tepat.
Pemanenan spesies terutama dilakukan dalam kelompok
terutama sebagai cara untuk memaksimalkan tangkapan,
terutama jika mereka berasal dari satu rumah. Meskipun
pergi dalam kelompok, pada tingkat yang lebih besar,
memberikan rasa aman dan bantuan dalam membawa
beban mereka, sebagian besar individu mengambil lebih
dari satu nampan tiram per perjalanan memancing.
Implikasinya, tiram yang dipanen dari laguna berukuran
kecil sehingga diperlukan jumlah yang banyak untuk
memenuhi permintaan. Pengumpulan tiram dalam
jumlah besar yang terus menerus dapat menyebabkan
penurunan stok seperti yang ditunjukkan oleh sebagian
besar responden.
Pasar tiram dan konsumsi di Nakwa
Temuan keseluruhan menunjukkan bahwa harga
tiram relatif rendah di masyarakat dan bahwa individu
meningkatkan pendapatan mereka dengan mengambil
lebih banyak tiram. Jumlah yang diperoleh dari nampan
tiram juga dipengaruhi oleh ukuran hewan, tingkat
pemrosesan dan ketersediaan finfish di pasar. Meskipun
laporan menunjukkan bahwa harga daging tiram
mungkin lebih tinggi di musim hujan daripada selama
musim kemarau (Akele et al., 2014; Ampofo
Yeboah, 2014; Modupe & Andrew, 2015), tingkat
pemrosesan telah ditemukan penentu utama harga
tiram di Ghana (Ampofo-Yeboah, 2014), Nigeria
(Ansa dan Bashir, 2007; Modupe & Andrew,
2015) dan komunitas Afrika Barat lainnya (Akele
et al. 2014). Pengolahannya dilakukan dengan
pengasapan, penjemuran, penggorengan tiram
yang baru dikupas. Daging tiram kering juga bisa
dibuat tahan lama lebih lama dengan
mengawetkannya dalam abu (Akele et al., 2014).
Ditemukan dalam penelitian ini bahwa tiram
umumnya tidak diproses untuk dijual di Nakwa.
Sebaliknya, mereka dijual terutama dalam bentuk
mentah yang belum diproses, seringkali setelah
dikupas. Oleh karena itu disarankan agar tiram
hasil panen masyarakat dapat diolah untuk
mengoptimalkan pendapatan para nelayan.
Beberapa penulis (Afinowi, 1985;
Yankson, 1990; Obodai, 1997; Yankson, 2004;
Ansa & Bashir, 2007; Anyinla et al., 2011; Akele
et al., 2014) secara khusus mengomentari
konsumsi rutin tiram bakau di komunitas pesisir di
mana mereka ditemukan di sub-wilayah Afrika
Barat. Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa pengembangan
budidaya tiram di Nakwa tidak akan menemui
kendala pemasaran.
Survei menunjukkan bahwa banyak
masyarakat yang tertarik untuk membudidayakan
tiram tetapi hanya sedikit yang mampu
menunjukkan pengetahuan tentang budaya
tersebut. Oleh karena itu, pengembangan budidaya
tiram pertama-tama harus fokus pada peningkatan
kapasitas masyarakat. Pengembangan tersebut
membutuhkan bantuan keuangan dalam bentuk
hibah karena pendapatan dari bisnis tiram saat ini
rendah.

Pengakuan
Studi ini dibiayai oleh USAID/UCC Fisheries and
Coastal Management Capacity Building Support
Project, hibah nomor 641-A18-FY14-IL#007.