The Jimoula Initiative


Seaweed farming as a sustainable alternative
for the development of coastal communities in
the Guajira Peninsula, Colombia

Executive Summary

Raúl E. Rincones
Marine Biologist

February 2006

e-mail: agromarina@hotmail.com, agromarina@gmail.com

Tel. +57 310 663 63 29

 Seaweed farming in La Guajira peninsula, Colombia

Background Information

Seaweed farming as an alternative for coastal communities in

developing countries

Coastal communities in many developing countries rely on coastal resources for

their livelihood. Their economy depends on small-scale farming and aquaculture,
subsistence forestry, mangrove harvesting, artisan fishing, lime and salt
production, seaweed farming, livestock husbandry, small-scale trade and
handicrafts. Due to the intensive and permanent exploitation of coastal
resources, some areas can no longer support their growing population, resulting
in increasing vulnerability to food shortages and poverty. Consequently, the
sustainable use of coastal resources and the development of income-generating
activities are critical to poverty alleviation and to improving the well-being and
livelihood of coastal inhabitants (Tanzania Coastal Management Partnership,
2005).

Socially and economically, seaweed farming represents an environmentally

sustainable opportunity for many coastal villagers, especially women, to earn
money. It has increased the standards of living in different coastal communities
in developing countries, with the most notable impact to date being on the
Philippines (Ask & Azanza 2002), Indonesia (Adnan & Porse 1987), Tanzania
(Lirasan & Twide 1993), Fiji (Ask et al. 2003b) and Kiribati; (Luxton & Luxton
1998). Seaweed cultivation is an effective strategy for poverty alleviation for
several reasons: a) starting a farm is a relatively inexpensive proposition; b) the
farming process is relatively simple, requiring no intensive technology and c) due
to the short growing cycles, seaweed farmers enjoy a stable cash flow not shared
by most seasonal farmers who are often only able to harvest once a year.
Seaweed offers steady income and enhanced economic security. In most places,
seaweed farming is usually led by women; it also increases gender equity and
empowers women and their decision-making role over spending choices in the
family.

Due to the overwhelming results obtained with seaweed cultivation development

programs in SE Asia, the Pacific and East Africa, several institutions and
organizations have attempted similar initiatives in the Caribbean and Latin

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 Seaweed farming in La Guajira peninsula, Colombia

America (Muñoz et al. 2004, Areces & Céspedes 1992, Rincones & Rubio 1999,
de Paula et al. 1998). However, only commercial volumes have been reported in
Brazil, Venezuela, Panama and some small island countries in the West Indies
(Smith & Rincones, in press). Local species have been found unsuitable to
sustain commercial volumes through cultivation except in St. Lucia, where some
strains of Gracilaria and Eucheuma are locally farmed and processed as food and
beverages and fetch high prices (>US$ 5.Kg-1).

Close to 20 different species and varieties of agar and carrageenan producing

seaweed have been unsuccessfully tested during the last thirty years (Smith &
Rincones, in press). Although some agar bearing species of Graciliaria have
shown relative good yields, their quality and content have been poor and no
reliable markets or commercial applications have been found. As a result, several
strains of Kappaphycus and Eucheuma have been introduced from Indopacific
region with relative success for the production of carrageenan (Ask et al. 2003a).

About the carrageenan industry

Carrageenan is a polysaccharide widely used in the food, pharmaceutical,

cosmetic and biotechnological industries as a stabilizer and texturant. A total of
43,000 MT of carrageenan valued in US$ 240 millions are produced worldwide,
which requires about 172,000 MT of dried seaweed, composed mainly of
Kappaphycus alvarezii (known commercially as cottonii). More than 95% of the
total production comes from marine farms in the Philippines, Indonesia, Tanzania
and some countries in the Pacific involving close to 50,000 families. Most of the
processing plants are based in Europe, the US and more recently in China and
the Philippines. According to the Seaweed Industry Association of the Philippines
(SIAP), in the year 2005 there was a world shortage of 49,000 MT of K. alvarezii.
This really represents an excellent opportunity for Colombia to become a new
production center

The coastal communities in the Guajira Peninsula, Colombia

The wayuú are the largest indigenous ethnic group in Colombia and Venezuela
with more than 350,000 people. They are descendant from the Arawaks of the
Caribbean basin and are mainly concentrated in the Guajira peninsula and
nearby cities like Maracaibo (Venezuela), Riohacha and Maicao (Colombia).

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 Seaweed farming in La Guajira peninsula, Colombia

Within the wayuú, there is a fishermen clan with more than 10,000 members
known as Apalaanchi, which means “those that lives by the sea”. The Apalaanchi
economy and livelihood relays mainly on subsistence artisan fishing which is
done using very rudimentary and inefficient equipment (Guerra, in press). The
constant pressure of several entrepreneurs that selectively buy spiny lobsters
(Panulirus spp.) and sea turtles on the beach have caused their over-
exploitation. No control on sizes, seasons or reared females is enforced by the
local environmental authorities.

Figure 1. Sea turtle exploitation in the Guajira Peninsula, Colombia

The lack of fishing assistance programs and policies have also caused that, in
spite of the existence and abundance of highly valuable marine resources, the
majority of the local population thrives in conditions of extreme poverty. All of
the coastal wayuú communities living in the Guajira peninsula lack basic services
such as electricity, roads, running water, sanitation and education, even though
the regional and local governments receive considerable inputs from taxes and
royalties paid by multinationals for the exploitation of charcoal and gas.

Previous experiences with the Apaalanchi

In the year 2002, the Apalaanchi communities living in Cabo de La Vela and
Carrizal (Guajira Peninsula, Colombia) worked in a conservation project with the
Alexander von Humboldt Institute (www.humboldt.org.co) and Corpoguajira
(www.corpoguajira.gov.co) in order to reduce the impact caused by the capture
and trade of sea turtles.

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 Seaweed farming in La Guajira peninsula, Colombia

The main goals of this project included the design and implementation of a quote
system (minimum sizes, species and gender), a follow-up and an evaluation of
the natural populations. During this program, the local fisherman showed the
need and interest to explore different productive alternatives to their traditional
fisheries in order to improve their standard of living and contribute to poverty
alleviation. At the same time, they were concerned with the need to reduce the
pressure on the sea turtles and other endangered species protected by
international laws and agreements.

The Jimoula Initiative

The FAO TCP/COL/2901 Project

Jimoula is the name given by the wayuú people in the Guajira peninsula to
seaweeds. As in many other locations of the Caribbean, seaweeds are a total
unexploited resource, considered only as a nuisance material discarded from the
sea. After the implementation of this project, this perception changed entirely.

Due to the previous experience in the sea turtle conservation project with the
Apalaanchi communities in Cabo de La Vela, the Alexander von Humboldt
Institute with support from a FAO’s development program (TCP/COL/2901)
proposed the implementation of the A&DM methodology (analysis & development
markets) in early 2003. This program had support from Corpoguajira and several
local members of the wayuú society who helped on the identification of their
main leaders and a survey of the different fishing activities and methods.

Following the A&DM’s, the promoters of the program were able to know the main
needs and interests of the community (Gallo & Rincones, 2004). Regardless that
no previous uses or applications were known, seaweed farming prevailed over
other suggested alternatives such as the local transformation and
commercialization of fish and lobsters. During more than 6 months of intensive
field work as part the consultancy done by local and foreign experts, the idea and
concepts of seaweed cultivation as a production alternative was introduced and
widely accepted by all members of the clan.

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 Seaweed farming in La Guajira peninsula, Colombia

An attractive price is defined as that required for the income per unit effort of
seaweed farming to be higher than other alternative livelihoods. In this case,
after a sensibility study determined that cottonii production, if done properly and
efficiently, could definitely represent a lucrative alternative for the coastal
villagers of the Guajira peninsula.

In a cooperation agreement done in early 2004 between the institutions involved,

additional funding was granted for the installation and operation of thirty 0.25 Ha
family farms which could be operated by 3-5 people with an expected production
of 1 ton of dried algae.farm-1.month-1. Each farm could yield about 500-600,000
pesos (~US$ 230-260) per harvest and each cultivation cycle last between 4-5
weeks. An efficient operation of a plot of this size will require an input of 3-4
hours per day, 3-4 days a week. The total income could be easily improved by
just expanding the farming plots. For a well operated and organized farm, cash
earnings could be proportionally doubled extending their total area to 0.5 Ha,
which of course will require more attention and commitment.

Main characteristics of the target group and their introduction to

seaweed farming

Among the main outputs of the FAO project was the organization of eleven
working groups distributed along a 30 Km coastline between the villages of Cabo
de La Vela and Carrizal. Most of them were aware of the sea turtle conservation
program and showed interest to get involved in the seaweed cultivation project.
They received training and technical assistance for the installation, operation,
maintenance and expansion of their marine farms. The working groups
designated their own leaders and representatives, who were responsible for the
organization and location of the plots in the sea and the distribution of the
farming materials.

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 Seaweed farming in La Guajira peninsula, Colombia

Figures 2-3. Members of the wayuú community involved in seaweed farming

Seedlings, polypropylene ropes and raffia were given at no cost to each family
group interested to start a farm, and the initial plots were made of ten ropes 5
meters long with a total of 200 implants. A follow up program were implemented
in order to harvest and expand their farming area from 10 ropes to 100 ropes.
The new farmers got their own wooden stakes and posts to secure the ropes
inside the water (Cuartas, 2004).

Figures 4-5. Seaweed farming is a family activity involving women and young people

The training program lasted more than four months and all the families involved
in the program were personally assisted. Female participation was very high, and
in some communities, many farms were only operated by women and young
girls, usually willing to share their spare time after school to help their parents

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 Seaweed farming in La Guajira peninsula, Colombia

with seaweed farming. School desertion is very high, and more than 30% of the
children don’t complete their elementary education (Rincones & Gallo, 2004).

Aim of the Project

General Objetive

Support the process required to alleviate poverty and reduce the environmental
pressure caused by the exploitation and trade of sea turtles in the coastal
communities of the upper and middle Guajira Peninsula, Colombia. This is
expected be done through the implementation of a seaweed farming program
designed for the local villagers who will commercially produce the raw material
required by the carrageenan industry.

Specific Objetives

Capacity building and empowerment of the fishing communities living

within the villages of Cabo de La Vela and Carrizal, Guajira peninsula
(Colombia) for the commercial cultivation of seaweeds.

Installation and commercial production of marine farms operated by local

fishermen and their families, including women and young people for the
production of dried seaweed used in the food, beverage, pharmaceutical and
cosmetic industry.

Products
Evaluation of algal resources and market assessment

After a biological survey and valorization of the local algal resources, a market
study and a chemical analysis of different potential strains; the red alga
Kappaphycus alvarezii (=Eucheuma cottonii) was selected for the farming trials.
This species was collected in Puerto Estrella (upper Guajira peninsula) and
evaluated by two major carrageenan processing plants in France and Chile. Both
companies showed high interest to establish long term contracts and purchase
large quantities (>1,000 ton.year-1), if quality and volumes are secured. K.
alvarezii is the major source of carrageenan in the world and is commercially
farmed in SE Asia and East Africa.

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 Seaweed farming in La Guajira peninsula, Colombia

Agar bearing strains of Gracilaria and Hydropuntia (G. dominguensis, G.

cervicornis and H. cornea) were also evaluated, but their colloid content and
productivity were below average and no reliable markets were found.

Figure 6 Rope cultivated K. alvarezii Fig. 7 Sun dried K. alvarezii ready to sell

Structure and operation of the marine farms

After the cultivation trials and training of the communities, the technical advisors
suggested the implementation of marine farms with mean areas between 0.25-
0.5 Ha so they could get a more attractive income. These farms could be easily
operated by 3-5 members of the same family with growing cycles every 4-5
Figures 8-10. Seedling and farming operations in Cabo de La Vela, Guajira (Colombia)

weeks and yields of 1-1.2 MT of dried seaweed per harvest for each 0.25 Ha plot.
A 0.25 Ha farm is made of 10 modules of 250 m2 with 100 ropes 5 m long,
therefore each plot has a total of 1.000 ropes and 20,000 implants equivalent to
5 Km of polypropylene lines.

Expected income and required investments of the farmers

If a cottonii family farm is properly operated, it could sustainable produce about

1 MT of dried seaweed per harvest and be sold in the beach for US$ 200. This
value has been estimated by using as reference the international standard beach
prices of carrageenan producing seaweeds in SE Asia and the Pacific during the
year 2005. If a total of 10-11 harvesting cycles are done per year, a wayuú
family could earn between US$ 2,000-2,500, a much higher income when
compared to artisan fishing. The total time required for the cultivation and
maintenance of 1,000 ropes is about 12-16 hours a week. The income and yield
could be easily increased by expanding the cultivation area, but it will also
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 Seaweed farming in La Guajira peninsula, Colombia

depend on the site fertility, the agronomic diligence of the farmers and the
selection of suitable areas and strains.

The required investment for each 0.25 Ha farm is about US$ 1,300-1,500,
including polypropylene ropes, raffia, stakes, floats, rafts, sun driers, working
shelters on land and a small storage room for equipment and the harvested
algae. The life span of UV-protected ropes is expected to be 2-3 years, if
properly used and maintained; the raffia must be changed at each harvest and
the wooden stakes lasts 3 to 5 months.

Figure 8-10. Seedling and farming of cottonii by the wayuú people

The promoters have proposed to create a revolving fund to the farmers during
the first 3 years of operations for the capital investment required to start
commercial family plots. The main inputs consist of ropes, raffia, floats and a
small rowing boat, as well as plastic nets for the dryers, the working place and
shelter. This fund has been proposed to be run by the local community after
receiving the proper technical support from the local government, the promoters
and international cooperation agencies.

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 Seaweed farming in La Guajira peninsula, Colombia

For cottonii production, a secured and reliable international market exists due to
the expansion and demand of new processing plants in Asia and Latin America
(Chile, Mexico and Brazil). Forward price fixing between farmers and the
integrating companies must be done under fair trade agreements using the mean
international beach prices as reference. Training and technical assistance should
also be granted in order to secure the sustainable and reliable production of
biomass. This could eventually lead to the local transformation and processing of
phycocolloids within the next 4-5 years.

Post-harvesting and commercialization of dried seaweeds

The harvested seaweeds are sun dried for about two days when they loose about
6-8 times their original weight. The arid climate and low precipitation of the
Guajira Peninsula allow the algae to dry in less than two days. To meet the
international standards, the algae should have a maximum of 30% humidity, no
more than 5% impurities and be free of plastics and raffia. The selected
seaweeds are cleaned, pressed and covered with polyethylene material in bails of
50-100 Kg that are tare and shipped in 20 or 40’ containers.

Problems and constrains

Seaweed cultivation is a novel activity in Colombia with a strong socioeconomic
effect that demands the support and inputs from different members of the
society, mainly the regional and national government, international
developmental agencies, NGO’s, universities, research institutions, the private
sector and the local communities. This support must include specific policies to
facilitate the permits and requirements for water rights and the operation of the
marine farms.

At the present time (February 2006), regardless of all the achievements and
successful experiences gained in the Jimoula initiative, the project has been
temporarily suspended since an EIA is required to get clearance from the local
environmental authorities. They are claiming that K. alvarezii is not a local
species so its impacts to the local ecosystem are unknown. However, this alga
has been introduced and farmed in more than 40 different locations around the
world and is the main source of carrageenan. Except for a local impact caused by
a different strain in Kane’ohe bay, Hawaii USA (where it was introduced only for

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 Seaweed farming in La Guajira peninsula, Colombia

research purposes), K. alvarezii have shown no harm to the new marine

environments. It has been very well documented by several scientific reports and
field studies that nowhere in the world where K. alvarezii has been introduced for
cultivation over the last 30 years have shown any blatant negative impacts.

In any case, a clear and reasonable balance between the current problems
caused by the over-exploitation of sea turtles and the potential effects of
seaweed farming in the local ecosystems must be urgently addressed. Decision
making institutions and all the parties involved must conduct a thoughtful
evaluation of the main environmental and socioeconomic impacts generated by
seaweed farming in order to assure its sustainability.

Aid inputs from different public and private sources must be established for at
least 3-4 years to secure the implementation of training, technical assistance and
R&D programs.

Expected outputs and benefits of the Project

New sources and means of employment for different coastal villagers in
the Guajira Peninsula (Colombia) through the development and
commercial operation of marine farms including gender diversification and
empowerment of the local villagers, particularly those usually excluded
from the traditional means of livelihood.

Environmental stewardship of the local community for the conservation

and preservation of their natural resources such as the sea turtles through
their participation in new projects and initiatives. This must be done
without altering their cultural heritage and traditional beliefs.

Seaweed cultivation also represents a feasible ecological and productive

alternative. The marine farms improve the water quality of the local
ecosystems and increase their biodiversity by serving as substrates and
shelters to many species of fishes and invertebrates.

The introduction of mariculture activities generates a sustained cash flow

and increase the income and standard of living of the stakeholders.

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 Seaweed farming in La Guajira peninsula, Colombia

Capacity building and active participation of more than 100 families,

equivalent to more than 500 people in a region where most of the
population are unemployed and lives in conditions of extreme poverty.

The development of a seaweed industry in Colombia that includes the build

up and support of the production chains, leading to the eventual
transformation and industrialization of phycocolloids and other seaweed
derived products.

References
Adnan, H., Porse, H., 1987. Culture of Eucheuma cottonii and Eucheuma
spinosum in Indonesia. Proc. Int.Seaweed Symp. 12, 355– 358.

Areces, A.J. and N. Céspedes. 1992. Potencialidad productiva de algunas

carragenófitas del Indopacífico en aguas del Caribe. Boletín de la red de
acuicultura 6(2):13-16.

Ask, E., Azanza, V., 2002. Advances in cultivation of commercial eucheumatoid

species: a review with suggestions for future research. Aquaculture 206,
257–277.

Ask, E., Batibasaga A., Zertuche-González, J.A., de San, M., 2003. Three
decades of Kappaphycus alvarezii (Rhodophyta) introduction to non-
endemic locations. Proc. Int. Seaweed Symp. 17, 49– 57.

Ask, E, Ledua E, Batibasaga A, Mario S, 2003. Developing the cottonii

(Kappaphycus alvarezii) cultivation industry in the Fiji Islands Proc. Int.
Seaweed Symp. 17, 81-85.

Cuartas, A. 2004. Programa de Capacitación en el cultivo de algas marinas a las

comunidades del Cabo de La Vela, Península de La Guajira. Informe Final
Consultoría Corpoguajira (www.corpoguajira.gov.co). 50 pp.

de Paula EJ, Pereira RTL & Ostini S, 1998. Introdução de espécies exóticas de
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maricultura no litoral brasileiro: abordagem teórica e experimental. In: IV
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Pupo Santos D, Fujii M, Plastino EM & Yokoya N (eds.), II Reuniao Ibero-

Americana de Ficologia e VII Reuniao Brasileira de Ficologia: 340–357.

Gallo, H.M. & R.E. Rincones, 2003. Factibilidad del cultivo de algas marinas
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desarrollo de empresas rurales a partir de productos de la biodiversidad en
el Cabo de la Vela, Departamento de La Guajira. FAO TCP/COL/2901. p. 52.

Guerra, W. El mar cimarrón: Conocimiento sobre navegación y pesca entre los

wayuú. Manuscript 192 pp.

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Hydrobiologia 260/261: 353–355.

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production in the Line Islands, Central Pacific. Hydrobiologia 398/399:
477–486.

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alvarezii (Rhodophyta, Solieriaceae) color strains in tropical waters of
Yucatán, México

Rincones RE & Rubio JN, 1999. Introduction and commercial cultivation of the
red alga Eucheuma in Venezuela for the production of phycocolloids. World
Aquaculture Magazine. 30: 57–61.

Rincones, R.E. & H.M. Gallo, 2004. Programa de Capacitación en el cultivo de

algas marinas “Jimoula” a las comunidades del Cabo de la Vela, Península
de La Guajira. Informe Final. Proyecto Fortalecimiento para el desarrollo de
empresas rurales a partir de productos de la biodiversidad en el Cabo de la
Vela, Departamento de La Guajira. FAO TCP/COL/2901. p. 192.

Smith AH, Rincones RE, 2006. Seaweed resources of the Caribbean In: Seaweed
resource of the world (in press).

Tanzania Coastal Management Partnership, 2005. Seaweed development

strategic plan ISBN No. 9987-680-09-7. 64 pp.

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