1. Declaration of the Democratic Republic of Azerbaijan by the National Council.

The
Declaration of Independence and its concept. Ganja period of ADR. The first laws by the
government
Introduc on:

The Declara on of the Democra c Republic of Azerbaijan in 1918 marked a significant milestone in
the history of Azerbaijan, as it represented the aspira ons of the Azerbaijani people for
independence and self-determina on. Led by the Na onal Council, the declara on paved the way for
the establishment of the first independent government in the Turkic-speaking world and the en re
Islamic world. This essay explores the concept of the Declara on of Independence, the role of Ganja
during the Azerbaijan Democra c Republic's early period, and the government's adop on of the first
laws.

The Declara on of Independence and Its Concept:

The Declara on of Independence, proclaimed on May 28, 1918, emerged as a culmina on of the
struggle for self-rule and libera on from foreign domina on. The Na onal Council, led by M.A. Rasul-
zadeh, played a pivotal role in this momentous event. This declara on symbolized the collec ve
desire of the Azerbaijani people to form their own na on, free from external influences, and to
assert their right to sovereignty and self-governance. It established the Azerbaijan Democra c
Republic (ADR) as an independent state, signaling the dawn of a new era for the na on.

Ganja Period of the Azerbaijan Democra c Republic:

Ganja, a city with rich historical significance, played a vital role during the early period of the
Azerbaijan Democra c Republic. Situated in a picturesque loca on at the north-eastern foot of the
Lesser Caucasus Mountains, Ganja had been an essen al center of cra , trade, and cultural exchange
in the region for centuries. The city's significance extended further when the Na onal Council and
the ADR government ini ally convened in Ganja a er the disbanding of the Transcaucasian Seim in
Tbilisi.

During this period, Ganja became the focal point of cri cal developments in the forma on of the
ADR's government and the adop on of founda onal laws. The first Cabinet of Ministers, headed by
Fatali Khan Khoysky, consisted of prominent figures from the na onal libera on movement, who
diligently worked to build a centralized and independent state.

Adop on of the First Laws by the Government:

The early days of the ADR in Ganja saw an array of crucial decisions taken by the government in
shaping the state. More than 120 decisions were adopted, emphasizing state-building and city life,
showcasing the ADR's determina on to establish a strong administra on and foster a sense of
na onal iden ty. One of the significant decisions was the adop on of state symbols, including the
na onal flag ini ally designed with a red background, white crescent, and eight-pointed star. Later,
the three-color (blue, green, and red) flag, symbolizing unity and diversity, became the official
emblem of the ADR.

Language and cultural iden ty played an integral role in the na on-building process. Ganja became
the epicenter for the affirma on of Azerbaijani (Turkic) as the state language, solidifying the
country's unique cultural iden ty. Addi onally, a na onal anthem, with lyrics by Ahmad Javad and
music by Uzeyir Hajibeyov, was adopted, symbolizing the ADR's commitment to cultural and ar s c
expression.
Furthermore, public administra on in Ganja was established, and the city's historical name was
restored on July 30, 1918. The government also declared a state of mar al law over all of Azerbaijan,
reflec ng the challenging circumstances faced by the country in its fight for independence.

The Role of the Army of Islam:

Another essen al aspect of the Ganja period was the establishment of the Army of Islam, tasked
with libera ng Baku from Bolshevik and Dashnak forces and establishing governmental authority in
the regions. General Aliaga Shikhlinsky and later Nuru Pasha led the Army of Islam to decisive
victories, culmina ng in the libera on of Baku on September 15, 1918. This military success
bolstered the ADR's posi on and paved the way for the government's move to Baku on September
17, 1918, where it became the capital city.

Con nued Significance of Ganja:

Despite reloca ng to Baku, Ganja remained a pivotal center in the ADR's efforts to build the new
state. The city con nued to be instrumental in the forma on of a na onal army a er Turkish forces
le Azerbaijan. This exemplifies Ganja's significance, not only as the first capital city but also as a
symbol of resistance, governance, and na onal iden ty during the crucial early years of the
Azerbaijan Democra c Republic.

Conclusion:

The Declara on of the Democra c Republic of Azerbaijan by the Na onal Council was a seminal
moment that shaped the des ny of the Azerbaijani people. The Ganja period of the Azerbaijan
Democra c Republic witnessed remarkable developments in state-building and the adop on of
founda onal laws, firmly establishing the na on's sovereignty and self-governance. Ganja, as the first
capital city, played a crucial role in this process, embodying the spirit of resistance and serving as the
cradle of the struggle for independence. The establishment of the Azerbaijan Democra c Republic
marked the realiza on of the Azerbaijani people's aspira ons for independence and laid the
groundwork for the country's future as an independent state.

2. “Azerbaijan Issue” at the foreign policy of the Soviet Russia. Invasion of Baku by XI
Army (28 April, 1920), decline of ADR and its place in history. Political pursuits of
Bolsheviks against political party chairmen and intelligentsia (1920s).

The "Azerbaijan Issue" in the foreign policy of Soviet Russia during the early 1920s was
a critical aspect of its expansionist objectives and ideological pursuits. The invasion of
Baku by the XI Red Army on 28 April 1920 marked a turning point in the region's history,
leading to the decline of the Democratic Republic of Azerbaijan (ADR) and the
consolidation of Soviet power. The Bolsheviks, driven by their revolutionary zeal, sought
to assert control over Azerbaijan, leading to a series of political repressions against
political party chairmen and the intelligentsia.

The ADR's quest for independence posed a challenge to Soviet Russia's ambition to
spread communism and extend its sphere of influence in the Caucasus region. Unlike
Poland, Finland, and the Baltic Republics, which were de jure recognized by Soviet
Russia, the states in the Caucasus, including Azerbaijan, were not recognized as
independent entities. Denikin's nationalist regime had already acknowledged Azerbaijan's
independence, which further complicated the geopolitical dynamics in the region.

In response to the ADR's attempts at recognition and its refusal to support the fight against
Denikin's army, the Soviet government under the leadership of Lenin and Chicherin
adopted a tactical approach. They emphasized the military campaign against Denikin's
forces, presenting it as a priority over recognizing the independence of neighboring states.
This strategic move allowed the Red Army to increase pressure on the South, gradually
advancing towards Azerbaijan.

By February 1920, the Soviet government, through its "fifth column" of local Bolsheviks
in Azerbaijan, was actively working to orchestrate a coup against the ADR government.
They aimed to undermine the existing leadership and establish a Soviet regime in Baku.
The bolsheviks sought to exploit divisions within Azerbaijan, including the Armenian-
Tatar relationship, to create instability and pave the way for the Red Army's occupation.

The invasion of Baku by the XI Red Army and the subsequent coup resulted in the decline
of the ADR. The government, facing internal turmoil and an external threat, decided to
peacefully hand over power to the Bolsheviks, hoping to prevent further bloodshed.
However, the establishment of Soviet rule in Azerbaijan led to mass terror and the
execution of thousands of Azerbaijanis who had been active in the ADR's political and
social life. This marked the beginning of the brutal repression of political opponents and
intellectuals in the early 1920s.

The Soviet regime, under the pretext of establishing a dictatorship of the proletariat,
embarked on a campaign against political party chairmen and the intelligentsia. The
Bolsheviks targeted individuals who had supported the ADR government and its ideals of
social progress, democratic principles, and universal values. They viewed the
intelligentsia as a potential threat to their rule and sought to eliminate any opposition to
their ideology.

Notably, N. Narimanov, who had initially supported Bolshevism, later came to regret his
earlier stance, realizing the negative consequences of the Soviet occupation and the
suppression of Azerbaijan's independence.

The Bolsheviks also disregarded Azerbaijan's territorial integrity by granting the

mountainous part of Karabakh the status of an Armenian autonomy, further complicating
the political landscape in the region.

In conclusion, the "Azerbaijan Issue" in Soviet Russia's foreign policy during the early
1920s was a complex and critical chapter in the country's history. The invasion of Baku
and the subsequent decline of the ADR marked the beginning of Soviet rule in Azerbaijan
and the suppression of political opponents and intellectuals. The pursuit of communism
and expansionist objectives drove the Bolsheviks to exploit internal divisions in
 Azerbaijan and establish their dominance in the region, ultimately leading to profound
changes in Azerbaijan's political landscape and its place in history.

3. New claims against territorial integrity of Azerbaijan (beginning of 1920s). Zangezur

problem.

The territorial disputes between Azerbaijan and Armenia in the early 1920s were a
complex and contentious issue that remained unresolved after the Paris Peace Conference.
The disagreement revolved around the regions of Nakhchivan, Zangezur, Karabakh, and
parts of Kars and Gazakh districts. The present article seeks to provide an in-depth
explanation of the Zangezur problem and the new claims against the territorial integrity
of Azerbaijan during this period. The analysis will be based on the texts presented earlier,
which detail the historical events and diplomatic activities surrounding these disputed
territories.

The collapse of the Russian Empire in 1917 and the subsequent turmoil in the South
Caucasus region created an opportunity for Azerbaijan and Armenia to assert their claims
over certain territories. Following the Paris Peace Conference, the issue of borders
between Azerbaijan, Armenia, and Georgia was left unresolved and postponed until an
agreement could be reached between the parties. As a result, the Zangezur problem
became a focal point of contention between Azerbaijan and Armenia in the early 1920s.

The Azerbaijani government engaged in extensive diplomatic activities to address the

territorial disputes. It sought support from British, Turkish, American, and Italian
representatives in the region, who showed sympathy for Azerbaijan's position. However,
the ADR government was willing to compromise and agreed to transfer Erivan and
surrounding territories to the Armenians. This move was an attempt to foster peaceful
relations and find a resolution to the conflicts.

The Zangezur region was among the territories considered disputed between Azerbaijan
and Armenia. Both sides claimed historical and cultural ties to the area, leading to heated
disagreements. The issue of Zangezur's ownership remained unresolved in the
international arena, and diplomatic negotiations failed to reach a definitive resolution.

The concessions made by the Azerbaijani government to transfer Erivan and surrounding
territories to Armenia had significant social, economic, and political consequences. The
territorial concessions resulted in large refugee populations, civilian massacres, economic
crises, famines, and epidemics. These issues led to social and psychological problems that
persisted in the region even to this day.

The article suggests that the diplomatic activity of the ADR government can be considered
a historical experience that provides valuable lessons for the normalization of relations
between Azerbaijan and Armenia. Both parties are urged to resolve territorial disputes at
 the international level, respecting each other's territorial integrity and seeking peaceful
solutions.

In the contemporary context, meetings and negotiations between Azerbaijan and

Armenia, with the involvement of the European Union, Russia, and Turkey, aim to resolve
border issues peacefully. Commissions have been established to address territorial
disputes, indicating a willingness on both sides to find a resolution that respects the
territorial integrity of each nation.

The territorial disputes between Azerbaijan and Armenia in the early 1920s, particularly
the Zangezur problem, were a complex and enduring issue that arose after the Paris Peace
Conference. The diplomatic activities of the ADR government attempted to find a
peaceful resolution but resulted in significant consequences for both sides. Today, the
parties continue to negotiate and seek a peaceful resolution to these disputes, indicating
the importance of finding solutions based on mutual respect for territorial integrity and
international law. Understanding the historical context and diplomatic efforts is crucial
for promoting lasting stability and peace in the South Caucasus region.

4. Political Repressions in 1930s. The common fate of national and non-national communists.
Introduc on:

The 1930s marked a tumultuous period in the history of Azerbaijan, as it experienced poli cal
repressions under the rule of Joseph Stalin. This era saw the rise of Stalin's totalitarian regime,
characterized by fear, suspicion, and the elimina on of perceived threats to his power. The common
fate of na onal and non-na onal communists of Azerbaijan was one of persecu on, imprisonment,
and even death. This essay explores the poli cal repressions in Azerbaijan during the 1930s, focusing
on the plight of both na onal and non-na onal communists and the notable figures who suffered
under Stalin's iron-fisted rule.

Poli cal Repressions in Azerbaijan:

In the 1930s, the Soviet leadership under Stalin began to ghten its grip on the Communist Party and
the na on as a whole. The objec ve was to enforce absolute loyalty to the regime, leading to the
purging of any real or perceived opponents. Poli cal repressions were carried out on a massive scale,
targe ng individuals who were seen as poten al threats, both na onally and within the Communist
Party.

Azerbaijan, like other Soviet republics, faced the brunt of these repressions. Na onal and non-
na onal communists in the country were subjected to surveillance, arbitrary arrests, and show trials.
This campaign aimed to s fle any form of dissent, opposi on, or na onalist sen ments that could
undermine Stalin's authority.

Fate of Na onal Communists in Azerbaijan:

Among those affected by the repressions in Azerbaijan were prominent na onal communists who
had been advoca ng for greater autonomy and cultural rights for Azerbaijanis within the Soviet
system. However, such demands were viewed with suspicion by the central Soviet leadership, who
feared the disintegra on of the Soviet Union and the rise of na onalist movements.

One notable figure who fell vic m to the poli cal purges was Mammad Amin Rasulzadeh, a
prominent Azerbaijani statesman and a founding member of the Azerbaijan Democra c Republic.
Rasulzadeh, an intellectual leader advoca ng for the rights of Azerbaijanis, was arrested in 1937 on
charges of na onalist and an -Soviet ac vi es. He was subsequently executed, leaving a significant
void in the na onal communist movement in Azerbaijan.

Other na onal communist leaders, such as Sultan Majid Afandiyev, Mir Jafar Baghirov, and Huseyn
Sadig, also faced accusa ons of na onalist leanings and were either executed or imprisoned during
the repressions. Their ideas of autonomy and cultural preserva on clashed with Stalin's vision of a
centralized Soviet state.

Fate of Non-Na onal Communists in Azerbaijan:

The purges extended beyond na onal communists to include members of the Communist Party who
were not of Azerbaijani ethnicity. These individuals, despite their loyalty to the Soviet regime, were
deemed poten al threats if they displayed any signs of devia on from the official party line.

One prominent non-na onal communist who faced persecu on in Azerbaijan was Lavren y Beria.
Beria, originally from Georgia, was a high-ranking Soviet official and a close confidant of Stalin.
However, despite his loyalty to the central government, he was well-known for his ruthless behavior
and harsh treatment of perceived enemies. He oversaw the repression of countless individuals, both
na onal and non-na onal, in Azerbaijan and other regions of the Soviet Union.

Conclusion:

The poli cal repressions in Azerbaijan during the 1930s had a devasta ng impact on the na on and
its communist leadership. Na onal and non-na onal communists alike experienced a common fate
of imprisonment, execu on, and exile due to Stalin's paranoid and oppressive regime. Prominent
figures who advocated for na onal rights and cultural preserva on, as well as those who were loyal
to the Soviet cause, were not spared from the wrath of the poli cal purges.

The loss of these intellectuals and leaders had a long-las ng impact on Azerbaijan's poli cal and
cultural landscape. The repressions silenced opposi on and suppressed na onal iden ty, leaving a
legacy of fear and silence. However, remembering and acknowledging these dark chapters in history
is crucial to ensuring that such atroci es are never repeated. The tragic fate of na onal and non-
na onal communists of Azerbaijan stands as a stark reminder of the dangers of totalitarianism and
the importance of safeguarding individual rights and liber es.

5. Attack of the Fascist Germany to the USSR. Azerbaijan in the plans of the warring
countries. Baku oil during the World War II. Azerbaijani Units on the German side.
Azerbaijani legions (Aserbaidschanische Legion).
Introduc on:

The a ack of Fascist Germany on the Soviet Union during World War II had significant implica ons
for various regions, including Azerbaijan. As one of the world's largest producers of oil, Azerbaijan
played a crucial role in the conflict, drawing the a en on of warring countries seeking to secure
strategic resources. This essay explores the importance of Baku oil during World War II and the
involvement of Azerbaijani units on the German side, specifically focusing on the forma on and
ac ons of the Azerbaijani Legions (Aserbaidschanische Legion).

Baku Oil and Its Strategic Significance:

Prior to World War II, Soviet Azerbaijan was a major oil-producing region, contribu ng substan ally
to the Soviet Union's oil produc on, rivalling the United States and Canada. Baku, the capital of
Azerbaijan, remained the primary provider of fuels and lubricants, sending millions of tons of oil for
military needs during the war. Its vast oil reserves made it a cri cal target for warring countries
seeking to secure crucial resources to sustain their war efforts.

A ack of Fascist Germany on the USSR and Azerbaijan's Role:

When Fascist Germany launched Opera on Barbarossa, the invasion of the Soviet Union, in 1941, it
led to a rapid defeat of Soviet forces and the capture of thousands of Soviet prisoners of war (POWs).
Among these prisoners were many Azerbaijanis and other ethnic groups from the Caucasus region.
The German command recognized the value of these volunteers as poten al fighters against the
Soviet regime.

Forma on of Azerbaijani Legion and Collabora on with Germany:

In December 1941, the Kaukasische-Mohammedanische Legion (Muslim Caucasus Legion) was

formed on the Eastern Front, which included Azerbaijani volunteers and others from the region.
Recognizing the poten al of the Muslim popula on in the Soviet Union, the German command
created two separate legions, the North Caucasian Legion, and the Azerbaijani Legion. The
Azerbaijani Legion, also known as Aserbaidschanische Legion, was primarily composed of former
Azerbaijani POWs who volunteered to serve in the German forces.

Baku Oil and German Strategic Interests:

The German cour ng of Muslim soldiers, including Azerbaijanis, was driven by Hitler's schemes to
gain support from Turkey and to advance control over strategic resources, par cularly the oil fields in
the Middle East and Baku. The vast reserves of Baku oil were of immense importance to Germany's
war machinery, and securing access to this valuable resource was a priority for the German High
Command.

Azerbaijani Units on the German Side:

The Azerbaijani Legion, along with other foreign legions, was organized to replenish the dwindling
German manpower on the Eastern Front. These units were used to "save German blood at the
front." Approximately 40,000 Azerbaijanis fought for Nazi Germany, although this number should be
considered in the context of the much larger number of Azerbaijani conscripts serving in the Soviet
armies during the war.

Ac ons of the Azerbaijani Legion:

The Azerbaijani Legion par cipated in several military engagements alongside German forces.
However, its most infamous involvement was during the Wola massacre in Warsaw, where
Azerbaijani soldiers, along with other units, were part of the notorious Waffen SS penal unit led by
Oskar Dirlewanger. The legion's par cipa on in the systema c killing of thousands of Polish civilians
in Warsaw highlights the controversial and complex nature of Azerbaijan's involvement in the war.

Conclusion:
The a ack of Fascist Germany on the Soviet Union during World War II brought Azerbaijan's vast oil
reserves into the spotlight, a rac ng the a en on of warring countries. The importance of Baku oil
for sustaining military opera ons led to its strategic significance in the conflict. As part of the German
strategy to secure support from various ethnic groups in the Soviet Union, the Azerbaijani Legion was
formed, composed of former Azerbaijani POW volunteers. This legion's ac ons during the war,
par cularly its involvement in the Wola massacre, underscore the complexi es and controversies
surrounding Azerbaijan's role in World War II.

6. Recovery and Resurgence after Baghirov (1954-1969). Imam Mustafayev’s (1954-1959)

Fight for National Recovery. Politics and History: Rehabilitations. Meaning of
Rehabilitation. History and Politics: Rewriting the past. Struggles over education and
Ideology.

Introduction:
The period following the dominance of Mir Jafar Baghirov in Azerbaijan (1954-1969)
marked a significant phase in the nation's history. This era witnessed an attempt at national
recovery and resurgence, led by Imam Mustafayev (1954-1959). During this time, politics
and history intertwined, leading to rehabilitation efforts and rewriting the past.
Additionally, struggles over education and ideology played a crucial role in shaping the
path towards independence. This essay delves into the context of these events, exploring
how they contributed to Azerbaijan's emergence as an independent state.

National Recovery under Imam Mustafayev (1954-1959):

Following Baghirov's oppressive rule, Imam Mustafayev emerged as a prominent figure
leading the fight for national recovery in Azerbaijan. The 1950s were a time of regression
for the economy, both in industry and agriculture, which had a negative impact on social
life. However, Mustafayev recognized the need for an alternative approach and initiated
extensive reforms across all spheres of life. Under his leadership, Azerbaijan aimed to
become a progressive state within the Soviet Union, despite the totalitarian regime's
challenges.
Imam Mustafayev's reform programs focused on economic development, structural reforms
in agriculture and industry, and the application of scientific and technical advancements to
drive growth. These initiatives led to significant progress, making Azerbaijan one of the
leading republics in terms of industrial production and economic performance within the
Soviet Union.
Rehabilitations: Meaning and Impact:
During Mustafayev's leadership, efforts were made to rehabilitate historical figures and
events that had been unjustly criticized or erased from the official narratives under
Baghirov's rule. The term "rehabilitation" refers to the process of restoring the reputation
and rights of individuals or groups that were previously unjustly targeted by the government
or party. In the context of Azerbaijan, this meant acknowledging the contributions and
sacrifices of figures such as Javid, Mushfig, and others who were victims of repression and
purges.

The rehabilitation of historical figures was essential in restoring national pride and identity,
promoting a sense of unity among the Azerbaijani people. By acknowledging the role of
these individuals in shaping the nation's history, the regime sought to create a stronger sense
of nationhood and identity.

Politics and History: Rewriting the Past:

In the pursuit of national recovery, the role of politics and history became intertwined.
Under the leadership of Heydar Aliyev, the Azerbaijan Encyclopedia, led by Rasul Rza,
played a crucial role in this process. The encyclopedia sought to provide objective
evaluations of historical events and figures, emphasizing the decisive role of Turkic ethnic
groups in Azerbaijan's formation. It also shed light on the figures of the Democratic
Republic of Azerbaijan and the occupation of April 1920, bringing historical truths to the
forefront.

However, these efforts faced opposition, particularly from those who sought to maintain
the status quo and suppress Azerbaijan's national awakening. Traitors informed Moscow
about the historical maps published in the encyclopedia, leading to scrutiny from Armenian
historians and attempts to exploit the situation against Azerbaijan. Nevertheless, Heydar
Aliyev's wisdom and courage prevailed, safeguarding the Encyclopaedists and intellectuals
from persecution.

Struggles over Education and Ideology:

A critical aspect of Azerbaijan's resurgence was the struggle over education and ideology.
The regime's attempt to change language requirements in schools sparked conflict, as it was
perceived as undermining the republics' autonomy and cultural identity. Heydar Aliyev's
policy of emphasizing native-language study while maintaining Russian instruction aimed
to strike a balance between preserving cultural heritage and preparing Azerbaijan for all-
union careers.

Furthermore, Heydar Aliyev prioritized the development of trained personnel and

specialists on rare professions to ensure the country's independent future. The focus on
military education and training pilots highlighted the regime's commitment to national
defense and security.
Conclusion:
The period of recovery and resurgence in Azerbaijan following Baghirov's rule witnessed
significant changes in various aspects of life, including the economy, history, education,
and ideology. Under Imam Mustafayev's leadership, the nation embarked on a journey of
progress and development, becoming one of the most advanced republics in the Soviet
Union.

Rehabilitation efforts played a vital role in restoring national pride and identity, while
rewriting history aimed to bring historical truths to light and counter oppressive narratives.
Struggles over education and ideology reflected the regime's efforts to balance cultural
preservation with preparation for an independent future.

In conclusion, the transformative period after Baghirov marked a turning point towards
national recovery and the emergence of Azerbaijan as an independent state. The efforts of
 leaders like Imam Mustafayev and Heydar Aliyev laid the foundation for the nation's
continued progress and resilience on its path to independence and beyond.

7. Veli Akhundov in power (1959-1969). Launch of the watershed in socio-economic and

political life of Azerbaijan. The first leadership period of Heydar Aliyev in Azerbaijan
(1969-1982).
During the tenure of Veli Akhundov from 1959 to 1969, Azerbaijan experienced a transforma ve
phase characterized by significant changes in the socio-economic and poli cal landscape. This period
marked a departure from the repressive rule of Baghirov, and Akhundov ini ated reforms to
revitalize the na on.

Under Akhundov's leadership, Azerbaijan faced challenges stemming from a previous period of
economic regression. The country's industrial and agricultural sectors were struggling, and there was
a no ceable decline in overall produc vity and efficiency. However, Akhundov demonstrated
determina on to address these issues and embarked on a program of extensive reforms aimed at
boos ng the economy and improving people's lives.

One of the key aspects of Akhundov's rule was the focus on economic development. He recognized
the need to diversify industries beyond the oil sector, which had historically been dominant in
Azerbaijan. Akhundov's government invested in other areas such as manufacturing, trade, and
crea ng a na onal bourgeoisie and proletariat. By fostering industrial growth and capitalizing on
scien fic and technological advancements, the economy witnessed progress during this period.

In addi on to economic reforms, Akhundov also emphasized the importance of educa on and
cultural development. Recognizing the significance of preserving Azerbaijan's cultural iden ty, he
encouraged the study of na ve languages in schools alongside Russian, despite some resistance from
central authori es. This stance sought to strike a balance between acknowledging the Soviet
regime's importance and safeguarding Azerbaijani tradi ons and heritage.

Furthermore, the rewri ng of history played a crucial role in shaping na onal consciousness. The
Azerbaijani scholars, led by figures like Oktay A. Efendievs and Sara B. Ashurbeyli, delved into the
country's historical development before and a er Russian conquests. They aimed to restore the truth
that had been distorted during Baghirov's reign. The Encyclopedia, edited by Rasul Rza, served as an
instrumental pla orm to highlight the contribu ons of Turkic ethnic groups, the importance of the
Democra c Republic of Azerbaijan, and the atroci es of the April 1920 occupa on.

The struggle for na onal recovery and the rehabilita on of historical figures were intertwined. Imam
Mustafayev, in his leadership from 1954 to 1959, fiercely fought for the recogni on and restora on
of rights of individuals unjustly persecuted during the Baghirov era. This struggle for rehabilita on
was not just a symbolic act; it carried immense poli cal significance. It represented a break from the
totalitarian regime's oppressive policies and an effort to restore jus ce and na onal iden ty.

The poli cal landscape during this period was shaped by ideological ba les. On one hand, there
were a empts to maintain centralized control and enforce conformity to the Soviet ideology. On the
other hand, Azerbaijan's intellectual-poli cal leadership, led by figures like Heydar Aliyev, sought to
assert local autonomy and promote progressive policies.

Heydar Aliyev's ascension to power in 1969 marked the beginning of a new era for Azerbaijan. He
was a great fana c of his people, dedicated to transforming Azerbaijan into a progressive state within
the Soviet Union. Heydar Aliyev immediately set forth a program of comprehensive reforms, seeking
to strengthen all aspects of society, including the economy, educa on, and culture.

Under Heydar Aliyev's leadership, Azerbaijan witnessed a period of resurgence and progress. He
recognized the need for alterna ve approaches to development, introducing structural reforms in
agriculture and s mula ng industrial growth. The country's economy thrived, and Azerbaijan
became a leader in various industrial sectors within the USSR.

Furthermore, Heydar Aliyev's focus on educa on was instrumental in shaping the future of the
na on. He emphasized the importance of training professionals in various fields, ensuring that
Azerbaijan had the exper se to drive its development. He championed the educa on of young
Azerbaijanis in various schools and facilitated their training abroad.

Heydar Aliyev's leadership was also marked by a strong emphasis on the na onal consciousness and
cultural pride. He spearheaded efforts to rehabilitate historical figures and promote an accurate
narra ve of Azerbaijan's history. This included restoring monuments and recogni on of those who
had suffered during previous repressive periods.

During this period, Azerbaijan witnessed a moral-na onal awakening. The rewri ng of history and
the acknowledgment of the na on's historical contribu ons fueled a sense of na onal pride and
iden ty among the Azerbaijani people. This growing consciousness laid the founda on for
Azerbaijan's future struggles for independence and sovereignty.

The first leadership period of Heydar Aliyev from 1969 to 1982 saw the country emerging as a
dynamic and progressive na on within the Soviet Union. His visionary policies, focus on economic
development, and dedica on to na onal pride set the stage for Azerbaijan's con nued growth and
resilience. Today, Azerbaijan stands as an independent and prosperous na on, and much of this
success can be a ributed to the transforma ve leadership of Veli Akhundov and Heydar Aliyev
during their respec ve periods of rule.
8.‘Reconstruction policy’ and its reflection in Azerbaijan (1985).

The "Reconstruc on policy" in the context of Azerbaijan refers to a period of significant changes and
reforms that took place in the country during 1985 and beyond, coinciding with the leadership of
Mikhail Gorbachev in the Soviet Union. These reforms were part of Gorbachev's broader agenda to
modernize the Soviet system, address economic stagna on, and encourage poli cal and social
changes. The texts provided earlier shed light on the context of poli cal, economic, and social
transforma ons occurring in Eastern European socialist countries during the late 1980s and early
1990s, which also had implica ons for Azerbaijan as a cons tuent republic of the Soviet Union.

Economically, the Soviet Union, including Azerbaijan, faced numerous challenges during the early
1980s. The planned economy, which had been a cornerstone of the Soviet system, proved inefficient
and unresponsive to the changing global economic landscape. Economic stagna on, coupled with
increasing debt levels, signaled the need for urgent reforms.

In Azerbaijan, the economic problems were no different. The inefficiency of the planned economy led
to a decline in produc vity and a decrease in living standards for the popula on. The lack of
diversifica on and development of science and technology hindered progress and prosperity.
Addi onally, the focus on heavy industry at the expense of agriculture resulted in decreased
agricultural output, leading to food shortages and infla on.

The "Reconstruc on policy" sought to address these economic challenges by introducing the
principles of glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring). Glasnost allowed for greater
transparency and openness in public discussions, fostering debates about the economic problems
and poten al solu ons. This openness also enabled ci zens in Azerbaijan to express their grievances
and call for reform, leading to the rise of opposi on movements demanding greater poli cal
liberaliza on.

Perestroika aimed to modernize the economy by allowing some market mechanisms and
decentralizing decision-making processes. In Azerbaijan, this meant some economic reforms were
introduced to promote efficiency and innova on. However, the implementa on of these reforms
faced resistance from entrenched interests within the Communist Party and other powerful groups.
As a result, the process of economic restructuring in Azerbaijan was slower and faced more
challenges compared to some other Eastern European countries.

Poli cally, the "Reconstruc on policy" also had its reflec ons in Azerbaijan. The policy of glasnost
encouraged public discussions and debates on poli cal issues, leading to demands for greater
poli cal pluralism and democra za on. The texts men oned that in countries like Hungary,
Czechoslovakia, and Romania, opposi on movements gained momentum and sought to challenge
the one-party rule.
Similarly, in Azerbaijan, the call for poli cal liberaliza on grew stronger. The texts did not specifically
men on major poli cal movements, but the policy of glasnost allowed for public expressions of
dissa sfac on with the exis ng poli cal system. This resulted in demands for poli cal reforms and
respect for human rights, as ci zens sought greater representa on and a more open and accountable
government.

The rela onship between the Soviet Union and Iraq during the Gulf War also reflected the
"Reconstruc on policy." The Soviet Union's support for the interna onal coali on against Iraq
signaled a shi away from its tradi onal alliances and a willingness to cooperate with the West on
certain issues. This marked a departure from the previous foreign policy stance and showed the
Soviet Union's willingness to engage in diploma c efforts to address interna onal conflicts.

Overall, the "Reconstruc on policy" in Azerbaijan was part of a broader series of reforms ini ated by
Mikhail Gorbachev with the aim of modernizing the Soviet system and addressing its inherent
challenges. The policy of glasnost and perestroika had profound effects on the poli cal, economic,
and social landscape of Azerbaijan. While it encouraged greater openness and public debate, it also
faced resistance from vested interests within the Communist Party and other powerful groups. This
resistance, combined with external factors such as the Gulf War and geopoli cal shi s, eventually led
to the dissolu on of the Soviet Union and the end of socialist regimes in Eastern Europe.

In Azerbaijan, the legacy of the "Reconstruc on policy" is mul faceted. On one hand, it opened up
avenues for public expression and demands for poli cal change. On the other hand, the slow pace of
economic reforms and resistance to poli cal liberaliza on hindered significant transforma ons.
Nonetheless, the "Reconstruc on policy" was a pivotal moment in Azerbaijan's history, laying the
groundwork for subsequent developments that eventually led to its independence following the
dissolu on of the Soviet Union in 1991.

9. Worsening of the Nagorny Karabakh problem. Attempts to annex the Nagorny Karabakh
to Armenia, 1987-1989. The incident around Topkhana nature preserve. Sumgait events.
The biased position of USSR leadership. Establishment of the Special form of
Administration in NKAO.
Introduc on:

The Nagorno-Karabakh problem, a long-standing territorial dispute between Azerbaijan and

Armenia, escalated drama cally between 1987 and 1989. This period witnessed a empts by
Armenian forces to annex the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast (NKAO) to Armenia, leading to
a series of events that further exacerbated tensions in the region. This paper will explore the
underlying factors and key incidents during this me, including the incident around the Topkhana
nature preserve, the Sumgait events, the biased posi on of the USSR leadership, and the
establishment of the Special form of Administra on in NKAO.

1. A empts to Annex Nagorno-Karabakh to Armenia (1987-1989):

The dispute over Nagorno-Karabakh can be traced back to historical grievances and compe ng
territorial claims. During the late 1980s, calls for unifica on with Armenia gained momentum among
the Armenian popula on residing in the Nagorno-Karabakh region. These demands fueled ethnic
tensions and heightened hos li es between the Azerbaijani Turks and the Armenian community.

2. The Incident Around Topkhana Nature Preserve:

One of the flashpoints in the escala ng conflict was the incident around the Topkhana nature
preserve in NKAO. The Armenian aluminum factory, with the apparent support of the local Armenian
party leadership, undertook unauthorized construc on within the preserve. This act was viewed by
Azerbaijanis as a viola on of their cultural and environmental heritage, further deepening the divide
between the two communi es.

3. The Sumgait Events:

In response to the growing unrest in Nagorno-Karabakh, an -Armenian sen ments also emerged in
Azerbaijan, par cularly in the industrial city of Sumgait. The Sumgait events in February 1988 saw
violent clashes between Azerbaijanis and Armenians, leading to widespread casual es and
displacement of communi es. The Sumgait events further exacerbated ethnic tensions and widened
the divide between the two communi es.

4. Biased Posi on of the USSR Leadership:

Throughout the crisis, the USSR leadership's stance remained ambiguous and o en biased, favoring
the Armenian perspec ve over that of Azerbaijan. Moscow's failure to adequately address the
territorial dispute and its preference for the Armenian side led to a loss of trust in central authority
among Azerbaijanis. The USSR's perceived lack of impar ality added fuel to the fire, aggrava ng the
already tense situa on.

5. Establishment of the Special Form of Administra on in NKAO:

In an a empt to restore order, the USSR Supreme Soviet established a "special form of
administra on" in NKAO in January 1989. However, this measure undermined Azerbaijan's
sovereignty and fueled suspicions of poten al territorial transfer to Armenia. The move only served
to intensify the demands for autonomy and self-determina on from the Azerbaijani side.

Conclusion:

The period from 1987 to 1989 witnessed a significant escala on in the Nagorno-Karabakh problem,
characterized by territorial claims, ethnic tensions, and biased responses from the USSR leadership.
The incident around the Topkhana nature preserve and the Sumgait events added fuel to the already
vola le situa on. The establishment of the Special form of Administra on in NKAO further fueled
suspicions of poten al annexa on to Armenia. The failure of the USSR to address the crisis
impar ally exacerbated distrust and intensified the struggle for autonomy and self-determina on.
These events set the stage for the subsequent violent conflict that erupted in the early 1990s, leaving
a las ng impact on the region. Resolving the Nagorno-Karabakh problem would require addressing
the historical grievances of both sides and finding a las ng and equitable solu on that respects the
rights and aspira ons of all par es involved.
 10. The massive demonstrations of November-December of 1988, the main demands that
sounded in the Lenin (Freedom) Square. Formation of political parties in Azerbaijan (end
of 1980-beginning of 1990s). APF (Azerbaijan People Front) and its program. The crisis
peaks: Was Moscow losing control? ‘Black January’ 1990. Restoration of the state
independence in Azerbaijan. The International Organizations which Azerbaijan became a
member.

The period between the late 1980s and early 1990s was a tumultuous and transforma ve me for
Azerbaijan. It witnessed massive demonstra ons, the forma on of poli cal par es, a crisis in
Moscow's control, the tragic "Black January" events, and eventually the restora on of Azerbaijan's
state independence.

The massive demonstra ons that took place in November and December 1988 were a response to
the Nagorno-Karabakh problem, which was a longstanding territorial dispute between Azerbaijan
and Armenia. The people of Azerbaijan, par cularly those in the NKAO, expressed their demands for
the region to remain within Azerbaijan's borders and for an end to discrimina on against
Azerbaijanis living in Armenia. The demonstra ons also highlighted broader calls for democra za on,
human rights, and poli cal sovereignty.

In the wake of these demonstra ons, poli cal par es began to form in Azerbaijan. The Azerbaijan
People's Front (APF) emerged as a prominent organiza on, quickly gaining support across the
republic. The APF's program was comprehensive, aiming to achieve democra za on, local control
over elec ons, poli cal, economic, and cultural sovereignty for Azerbaijan within the USSR, and more
equitable treatment for all na onali es. The APF's broad membership, including intellectuals and
representa ves from various social strata, reflected its mass appeal.

As the crisis peaked, it became evident that Moscow was losing control over the situa on in
Azerbaijan. The biased posi on of the USSR leadership, favoring Armenia and neglec ng Azerbaijan's
concerns, deepened distrust and frustra on among the Azerbaijani people. This loss of trust in the
central authority and the perceived infringement on Azerbaijan's sovereignty led to further demands
for autonomy and self-determina on.

In January 1990, the crisis reached its tragic climax during the "Black January" events. Soviet troops
were deployed to Baku to suppress peaceful protests, resul ng in the deaths of hundreds of civilians.
This brutal response by the Soviet authori es further fueled na onalist sen ments and intensified
the demand for independence.

Amid growing unrest, Azerbaijan managed to restore its state independence on October 18, 1991,
following the dissolu on of the Soviet Union. The country's Declara on of Independence marked a
significant turning point in its history, paving the way for na on-building and the establishment of a
sovereign state.

As an independent na on, Azerbaijan sought to integrate into the interna onal community. It
became a member of several interna onal organiza ons, contribu ng to its recogni on and
engagement on the global stage. Some of these organiza ons include the United Na ons (UN), the
Organiza on for Security and Co-opera on in Europe (OSCE), and the Commonwealth of
Independent States (CIS).
In conclusion, the late 1980s and early 1990s were a period of upheaval and transforma on for
Azerbaijan. The massive demonstra ons, the forma on of poli cal par es like the APF, and the tragic
"Black January" events highlighted the people's struggle for freedom, democracy, and sovereignty. As
the crisis peaked, it became evident that Moscow was losing control over the situa on, and
Azerbaijan eventually restored its state independence. This newfound independence allowed
Azerbaijan to par cipate ac vely in the interna onal community and join various interna onal
organiza ons. The events of this period shaped the country's path towards na on-building and its
role in the global arena.

11. Aggravation of the political situation in the Republic (spring, 1992). Khojaly Massacre.
The First Karabagh War (1992-1994). Invasion of Shusha and Lachin. Taking the control
of the country by Azerbaijan Popular Front Party.
Introduc on:

The spring of 1992 witnessed a significant aggrava on of the poli cal situa on in the Republic of
Azerbaijan. This period marked the beginning of the First Karabakh War, a brutal armed conflict
between Armenia and Azerbaijan over the disputed Nagorno-Karabakh region. During this me, the
Azerbaijan Popular Front Party (APFP) emerged as a prominent poli cal force in the country. This
essay will explore the events leading up to the escala on of tensions, the Khojaly Massacre, and the
First Karabakh War, as well as the APFP's rise to power and its impact on Azerbaijan's poli cal
landscape.

1. The Aggrava on of the Poli cal Situa on (Spring, 1992):

The early 1990s witnessed a vola le poli cal climate in Azerbaijan following its declara on of
independence from the Soviet Union. Amidst the struggle for sovereignty, various poli cal fac ons
vied for power, leading to increased tensions within the country. The Popular Front movement for
Azerbaijan's na onal independence emerged as a significant force, bringing together academics,
university students, and dissidents in the fight for self-determina on.

2. The Khojaly Massacre (February 1992):

The escala ng conflict between Armenia and Azerbaijan over the Nagorno-Karabakh region resulted
in the tragic Khojaly Massacre. In February 1992, Armenian forces a acked the town of Khojaly,
resul ng in the death of hundreds of Azerbaijani civilians, including women, children, and the elderly.
The massacre deeply affected the Azerbaijani popula on and further heightened tensions between
the two countries.

3. The First Karabakh War (1992-1994):

The Khojaly Massacre marked a turning point in the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, leading to an all-out
war between Armenia and Azerbaijan. The First Karabakh War lasted un l 1994, with both sides
engaging in intense military confronta ons. This war resulted in significant territorial gains for
Armenian forces, including the occupa on of the key Azerbaijani ci es of Shusha and Lachin.

4. Invasion of Shusha and Lachin:

In May 1992, Armenian forces launched a military offensive and successfully invaded Shusha, an
ancient and culturally significant city in Nagorno-Karabakh. The fall of Shusha was a devasta ng blow
to Azerbaijan, as it held significant symbolic and strategic value. Following the loss of Shusha,
Armenian forces con nued their advance and captured the town of Lachin, further solidifying their
territorial gains.

5. Taking Control by the Azerbaijan Popular Front Party:

Amidst the turmoil of war and territorial losses, the APFP emerged as a significant poli cal force in
Azerbaijan. In 1992, the APFP re-established itself as a party and ac vely par cipated in the country's
na onal elec ons. The party's leader, Albufaz Elchibey, declared himself President of Azerbaijan a er
winning the elec ons. However, his rule was short-lived as he was overthrown in a coup in 1993,
leading to the rise of Heydar Aliyev to power.

6. Impact of APFP's Rise to Power:

A er the death of Elchibey in 2000, the APFP split into different fac ons, including a "classical" wing
led by Mirmahmud Miralioglu and a "reformist" fac on led by Ali Karimli. Despite challenges and
government crackdowns, Karimli's APFP remained a legi mate opposi on party and a vocal cri c of
the ruling regime. The party's goal was to establish a func onal democracy, decrease dependence on
oil, and strengthen es with Western na ons.

Conclusion:

The aggrava on of the poli cal situa on in Azerbaijan in the spring of 1992 was marked by the
outbreak of the First Karabakh War and the devasta ng Khojaly Massacre. During this tumultuous
period, the Azerbaijan Popular Front Party emerged as a significant poli cal force, advoca ng for the
country's na onal independence and democracy. The First Karabakh War led to territorial losses and
changed the poli cal landscape in the region. Despite facing government repression, the APFP
con nued to be an influen al opposi on party, reflec ng the complexi es of Azerbaijan's poli cal
dynamics during this me. The legacy of this period con nues to shape Azerbaijan's poli cs and
foreign rela ons to this day.

12. June events of 1993. Civil confrontation. Role of H.Aliyev in elimination of the threat of
civil war in Azerbaijan. The ceasefire of 1994.
Introduc on:

The events that unfolded in Azerbaijan in June 1993 were pivotal moments in the country's history,
marked by a civil confronta on that threatened to escalate into a full-blown civil war. Amidst this
chaos, Heydar Aliyev emerged as a prominent leader and played a crucial role in aver ng the
impending disaster. This essay delves into the events of June 1993, the civil confronta on, and
Aliyev's ac ons that led to the elimina on of the threat of civil war in Azerbaijan. Furthermore, it
explores the subsequent ceasefire of 1994 that brought some stability to the region.

I. Background:

To understand the events of June 1993, we must first examine the context in which they occurred.
Azerbaijan had recently gained independence from the Soviet Union in 1991 but found itself in a
state of poli cal, economic, and social turmoil. The country was grappling with internal and external
challenges, including ethnic tensions, economic instability, and the rise of poli cal fac ons vying for
power.

II. June Events of 1993:

a. Poli cal Crisis:

In June 1993, Azerbaijan was facing a poli cal crisis, with former President Abulfaz Elchibey being
ousted by a fac on of the Azerbaijani military. This led to a power vacuum, with compe ng groups
a emp ng to fill the void and gain control over the country's leadership. The situa on quickly
escalated into a civil confronta on, with armed clashes spreading in various regions, par cularly in
Ganja and Nakhchivan.

b. Escala on of Ethnic Tensions:

Adding fuel to the fire, the poli cal crisis also took on ethnic dimensions, with the Armenian-
Azerbaijani conflict over Nagorno-Karabakh intensifying. The separa st tendencies in Nagorno-
Karabakh and its predominantly Armenian popula on further complicated the situa on. This ethnic
conflict exacerbated the internal instability and increased the likelihood of a full-scale civil war.

III. Heydar Aliyev's Role:

In the midst of this turmoil, Heydar Aliyev, a seasoned poli cian with a background in the Soviet
poli cal system, emerged as a key player. Aliyev, who had previously served as the First Secretary of
the Communist Party of Azerbaijan, was a widely respected and influen al figure.

a. Appeal for Calm and Unity:

Recognizing the gravity of the situa on, Heydar Aliyev made a series of public appeals for calm and
unity. He urged the Azerbaijani people to priori ze the preserva on of their newly independent
na on above all else. Aliyev's reputa on as a unifying figure bolstered his message and resonated
with a significant por on of the popula on.

b. Nego a on Efforts:

Aliyev understood that a peaceful resolu on was the only way to prevent the country from
descending into a devasta ng civil war. He engaged in back-channel nego a ons with various par es
involved in the conflict, including military leaders and influen al poli cians. His diploma c skills and
ability to find common ground were instrumental in the de-escala on efforts.

c. Assump on of Presiden al Powers:

As the poli cal situa on worsened, the Azerbaijani parliament turned to Aliyev for leadership. In
June 1993, he assumed the powers of the presidency to stabilize the country. This move was widely
supported by both the public and the interna onal community.

IV. Elimina on of the Threat of Civil War:

Thanks to Heydar Aliyev's mely and resolute ac ons, Azerbaijan began to see a gradual reduc on in
hos li es. His influence over key power brokers and his commitment to dialogue facilitated an
environment conducive to conflict resolu on. The trust he garnered from various ethnic and poli cal
groups was crucial in elimina ng the threat of civil war.

V. The Ceasefire of 1994:

The groundwork laid by Aliyev for peace and stability set the stage for the eventual ceasefire in 1994.
A er months of nego a ons, Azerbaijan, Armenia, and the separa st forces reached a ceasefire
agreement in May 1994. Although the conflict over Nagorno-Karabakh was not fully resolved, the
ceasefire brought an end to the ac ve hos li es and ushered in a period of rela ve stability that
con nues to this day.
VI. Legacy:

Heydar Aliyev's role in aver ng the civil war and his subsequent efforts in stabilizing Azerbaijan
earned him immense respect both domes cally and interna onally. He would go on to serve as the
President of Azerbaijan from 1993 to 2003, steering the country through its post-independence
challenges and leaving a las ng impact on its poli cal trajectory.

Conclusion:

The events of June 1993 were a cri cal juncture in Azerbaijan's history, with the na on on the brink
of a devasta ng civil war. Heydar Aliyev's emergence as a unifying leader and his diploma c efforts
played a vital role in elimina ng the threat of civil war. His legacy as a peacemaker and stabilizer
con nued with the 1994 ceasefire, which provided a founda on for rela ve tranquility in the years to
come. While challenges persisted, Aliyev's contribu ons during this period significantly shaped
Azerbaijan's poli cal landscape and its path as an independent na on.

13. “Contract of the Century” of 1994 and the representatives of the foreign investment in the
economy.
The "Contract of the Century" signed in 1994 and the representa ves of foreign investment in the
Azerbaijani economy have played a pivotal role in shaping the country's trajectory of development
and establishing its posi on as a key player in the global energy market. The contract, officially
known as the "Produc on Sharing Agreement" (PSA), was a landmark deal that paved the way for
the explora on and exploita on of Azerbaijan's vast oil and gas reserves, leading to significant
economic growth and strengthening the country's sovereignty.

The origins of the "Contract of the Century" can be traced back to the early 1990s when Azerbaijan
gained independence following the collapse of the Soviet Union. In this period of transi on, the
country faced numerous challenges, including poli cal instability and economic hardships. However,
under the visionary leadership of Heydar Aliyev, who returned to power in 1993 a er the people's
call for his leadership, Azerbaijan began to chart a new course.

Heydar Aliyev recognized the importance of the country's oil and gas resources and embarked on
efforts to a ract foreign investment and technology to develop these valuable assets. The PSA was
the result of strategic nego a ons with major interna onal oil companies, aiming to exploit
Azerbaijan's vast hydrocarbon reserves while ensuring the country's fair share of the revenues.

In this endeavor, Heydar Aliyev's son, Ilham Aliyev, played a crucial role as the First Vice President of
the State Oil Company of Azerbaijan (SOCAR) and a member of the Na onal Assembly. He ac vely
par cipated in the nego a ons and discussions related to the PSA, advoca ng for the u liza on of
oil revenues not only for economic development but also for the welfare of the Azerbaijani people.

The PSA, also known as the "Contract of the Century," was signed in September 1994 at the Gulustan
Palace in Baku. It involved the par cipa on of eight countries, including Azerbaijan, the United
States, the United Kingdom, Russia, Turkey, Norway, Japan, and Saudi Arabia, and thirteen major
interna onal oil companies, such as BP, ExxonMobil, Chevron, and Lukoil.

The contract set the groundwork for the development of three major oil fields: Azeri, Chirag, and
Gunashli (ACG). It aimed to explore and exploit oil reserves in the Caspian Sea's deepwater areas,
se ng the stage for significant advancements in the country's oil and gas industry. The PSA provided
a blueprint for how the revenues from oil and gas explora on would be shared between the
Azerbaijani government and the interna onal oil companies involved in the project.

The successful implementa on of the "Contract of the Century" marked a turning point for
Azerbaijan's economy. It led to the construc on of vital energy infrastructure, such as the Baku-
Tbilisi-Ceyhan (BTC) oil pipeline and the Baku-Tbilisi-Erzurum (BTE) gas pipeline, enabling Azerbaijan
to export its oil and gas resources to interna onal markets. This not only brought substan al
revenues to the country but also enhanced Azerbaijan's geopoli cal importance in the global energy
landscape.

The revenue generated from oil and gas exports fueled significant economic growth and
development across various sectors of the Azerbaijani economy. It enabled the country to invest in
infrastructure projects, modernize industries, and improve social services, such as healthcare and
educa on. Addi onally, the PSA facilitated foreign direct investment (FDI) inflows, leading to the
transfer of advanced technology and exper se into the country.

The "Contract of the Century" also played a pivotal role in enhancing Azerbaijan's interna onal
standing. It posi oned Azerbaijan as a reliable energy partner and a cri cal player in regional energy
security. The successful implementa on of the PSA a racted further foreign investment into the
country, leading to the development of other energy projects and increasing Azerbaijan's presence
on the global energy stage.

Moreover, the PSA was a testament to Azerbaijan's ability to establish and maintain mutually
beneficial partnerships with interna onal companies, showcasing the country's commitment to
transparency, rule of law, and respect for contractual obliga ons. This bolstered confidence among
foreign investors, further contribu ng to the country's economic growth and stability.

Over the years, Azerbaijan's energy sector con nued to evolve, with new projects, expansions, and
diversifica on efforts. The "Contract of the Century" served as a founda on for these subsequent
developments, reflec ng Azerbaijan's steadfast commitment to u lizing its natural resources
responsibly and sustainably.

Furthermore, the PSA has been subject to revisions and extensions, reflec ng the ever-changing
dynamics of the global energy market and the evolving priori es of the Azerbaijani government.
These updates have ensured that the contract remains relevant and con nues to support
Azerbaijan's long-term energy objec ves.

In conclusion, the "Contract of the Century" signed in 1994 has been a transforma ve force for
Azerbaijan, catalyzing economic development, a rac ng foreign investment, and establishing the
country as a significant player in the global energy arena. It was a product of visionary leadership,
strategic nego a ons, and the shared commitment of Azerbaijan and interna onal partners to
unlock the poten al of the country's vast hydrocarbon resources. As a result of the PSA's successful
implementa on, Azerbaijan has achieved remarkable economic growth and stability, with its energy
sector serving as a crucial pillar of its na onal economy and an essen al element of its interna onal
standing.
 14. The President election of 2003 – continuation of Heydar Aliyev’s political course. Ilham
Aliyev elected as a president of Azerbaijan
The presiden al elec on of 2003 in Azerbaijan was a pivotal moment in the country's poli cal
landscape. The ques on of who would succeed the influen al leader, Heydar Aliyev, was a subject of
considerable public interest. Amidst various specula ons, Heydar Aliyev declared that his son, Ilham
Aliyev, would be the one to con nue the poli cal course set by him. This endorsement from the
elder Aliyev played a crucial role in shaping the outcome of the elec on and garnered significant
support for Ilham Aliyev.

Heydar Aliyev's legacy as a prominent leader was deeply ingrained in the minds of the Azerbaijani
people. His poli cal acumen, strong leadership, and na on-building efforts had le a las ng impact
on the country. He had laid the founda on for Azerbaijan's statehood and economic development,
and his policies had garnered widespread support.

With his endorsement of Ilham Aliyev as his successor, Heydar Aliyev essen ally presented the
younger Aliyev as the con nua on of his poli cal legacy. The people believed that Ilham, who had
been nurtured and mentored by Heydar Aliyev, possessed the quali es necessary to lead the na on
and uphold the principles of stability and prosperity that his father had established.

During the 2003 presiden al elec ons, Ilham Aliyev received significant public support, and his
victory can be a ributed, in part, to the people's belief in the con nuity of Heydar Aliyev's poli cal
course. They saw him as the inheritor of his father's poli cal vision, and they trusted that he would
safeguard the poli cal stability and statehood principles laid down by the elder Aliyev.

Ilham Aliyev's leadership quali es played a pivotal role in consolida ng public trust during the
elec ons. He was known for his intellect, pragma c thinking, and understanding of global poli cs
and economics. His deep-rooted patrio sm and entrepreneurial spirit further endeared him to the
people.

As the newly elected President, Ilham Aliyev wasted no me in taking significant steps towards the
na on's progress. He understood the importance of strengthening Azerbaijan's independence and
ideological founda ons. Under his leadership, the na on witnessed a strengthening of social
cohesion among ci zens, and his well-thought-out foreign policy ini a ves expanded Azerbaijan's
network of allies and friends.

Economic development was a primary focus during Ilham Aliyev's presidency. The dissolu on of the
old economic system required adop ng new models for growth, and he successfully laid the
groundwork for vital economic projects. The "Contract of the Century" and the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan
oil pipeline were instrumental in bringing substan al capital to Azerbaijan, contribu ng to the
country's emergence as a key player in the interna onal energy industry.

Oil revenues played a crucial role in financing social and economic development programs,
infrastructure projects, and the crea on of over two million new jobs. This influx of resources led to
the improvement of educa on, healthcare, and social welfare systems, significantly enhancing the
quality of life for Azerbaijani ci zens.

Ilham Aliyev's presidency also priori zed strengthening the na onal defense capabili es,
modernizing the armed forces, and enhancing military infrastructure. His leadership during the 44-
day Patrio c War demonstrated his commitment to defending the na on's territorial integrity and
achieving victory in libera ng the occupied territories.
Another aspect of his presidency was inves ng in human capital. Ilham Aliyev focused on educa on,
offering scholarships to young talents to study abroad and fostering intellectual and professional
growth.

As a leader, Ilham Aliyev skillfully navigated Azerbaijan's foreign policy, ensuring a balanced approach
with both Western and Eastern partners. The country's ac ve involvement in interna onal
organiza ons and successful ini a ves led to Azerbaijan's elec on as a non-permanent member of
the UN Security Council and the presidency of the Non-Aligned Movement.

His unyielding stance on na onal interests and principled diplomacy enhanced Azerbaijan's
interna onal standing and influence. Ilham Aliyev's leadership successfully foiled a empts to
ins gate chaos and confronta on in Azerbaijan, protec ng the na on from external interference and
poten al conflicts.

In conclusion, the presiden al elec on of 2003 in Azerbaijan marked the con nua on of Heydar
Aliyev's poli cal course. Ilham Aliyev's victory was a testament to the public's belief in his ability to
uphold his father's poli cal legacy and ensure the na on's stability, prosperity, and progress.
Throughout his presidency, Ilham Aliyev demonstrated strong leadership quali es, leading Azerbaijan
on the path of economic development, social progress, and interna onal recogni on. His
accomplishments, especially the libera on of the occupied territories, have solidified his legacy as a
leader who accomplished the grand victory of his homeland. The people's trust in him as the
successor to Heydar Aliyev's legacy was instrumental in shaping Azerbaijan's poli cal landscape
during this cri cal period.

15. Oil as a determinant factor in the foreign policy of the Azerbaijan Republic. – TAP, TANAP, SGC
(South-Gas Corridor).

Oil has been a defining factor in shaping the foreign policy of the Azerbaijan Republic, as evident
from its strategic focus on major energy projects such as the Trans Adria c Pipeline (TAP), Trans
Anatolian Natural Gas Pipeline (TANAP), and the Southern Gas Corridor (SGC). The country's
substan al oil reserves and its geographically advantageous posi on between Europe and Asia have
posi oned Azerbaijan as a significant player in the global energy landscape. Under the leadership of
President Ilham Aliyev, Azerbaijan has skillfully u lized its oil resources to advance its foreign policy
objec ves, foster interna onal coopera on, and enhance its geopoli cal influence.

The TAP project, a vital component of the Southern Gas Corridor, exemplifies Azerbaijan's oil-centric
foreign policy. It facilitates the transporta on of natural gas from Azerbaijan's Shah Deniz II field to
European markets, significantly enhancing the energy security of European countries and diversifying
their energy sources. The successful comple on of TAP has solidified Azerbaijan's posi on as a
reliable energy supplier to Europe, further strengthening its diploma c es with European na ons
and increasing its geopoli cal clout in the region.

Similarly, the TANAP project is another cri cal element of the Southern Gas Corridor, designed to
transport natural gas from Azerbaijan through Turkey to Europe. By promo ng energy coopera on
between Azerbaijan and Turkey, TANAP has not only strengthened bilateral rela ons but also
elevated Azerbaijan's role as a key energy player in the region. This energy corridor has posi oned
Azerbaijan as a significant transit country for energy resources, enhancing its status as a regional
energy hub and fostering economic and diploma c es with neighboring countries.
The Southern Gas Corridor, encompassing TAP, TANAP, and other pipelines, epitomizes Azerbaijan's
pivotal role in regional energy dynamics. It serves as a channel for energy diversifica on and
coopera on among countries in the South Caucasus, Europe, and beyond, contribu ng to regional
stability and prosperity. By becoming a central conduit for natural gas transporta on, Azerbaijan has
bolstered its diploma c rela ons with both suppliers and consumers, strengthening its geopoli cal
standing and facilita ng economic partnerships.

Azerbaijan's foreign policy approach extends beyond regional coopera on and also emphasizes
interna onal energy ini a ves. President Ilham Aliyev has been proac ve in fostering global
partnerships and promo ng Azerbaijan as a reliable energy partner. The country's oil resources have
enabled it to engage with various interna onal organiza ons and forums to strengthen energy
security and promote sustainable development. Azerbaijan's ac ve involvement in the Extrac ve
Industries Transparency Ini a ve (EITI) and its commitment to open dialogue with interna onal
partners demonstrate its dedica on to responsible resource management and transparency in the
energy sector.

Furthermore, Azerbaijan's strong foreign policy focus on energy has been instrumental in enhancing
its influence in interna onal organiza ons. The country's elec on to the United Na ons Security
Council as a non-permanent member in 2012 and its selec on as a non-permanent member of the
United Na ons Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) reflect its growing geopoli cal significance.
Through these pla orms, Azerbaijan has advocated for global energy security and sustainable
development, amplifying its voice in the interna onal arena.

Azerbaijan's oil-centric foreign policy has also been underlined by its commitment to regional
stability and conflict resolu on. The resolu on of the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict stands as a
testament to Azerbaijan's dedica on to peace and its ability to leverage its energy resources to
bolster its diploma c efforts. As the country emerged as a regional energy power, it gained more
leverage in nego a ons, allowing it to effec vely advocate for its na onal interests and territorial
integrity.

Moreover, Azerbaijan's oil wealth has been used to support its domes c development and social
welfare programs. The government's prudent management of oil revenues has contributed to
significant infrastructure projects, including modern schools, hospitals, and transporta on systems.
The improved quality of life for ci zens has bolstered domes c stability and enhanced Azerbaijan's
reputa on as a responsible and prosperous na on in the eyes of the interna onal community.

While oil has been a crucial determinant of Azerbaijan's foreign policy, the country has also
recognized the importance of diversifying its economy. President Ilham Aliyev's vision of transi oning
from "oil capital to human capital" underscores the government's commitment to developing its
non-oil sectors, promo ng innova on, and inves ng in human resources. Ini a ves like sending
young Azerbaijanis to study abroad and fostering intellectual and scien fic development at home
highlight Azerbaijan's aspira on to become a knowledge-based economy.

In conclusion, oil has played a central role in shaping the foreign policy of the Azerbaijan Republic.
Through major energy projects such as TAP, TANAP, and the Southern Gas Corridor, Azerbaijan has
strategically leveraged its oil resources to enhance its diploma c rela ons, strengthen regional and
interna onal coopera on, and bolster its geopoli cal influence. The country's commitment to
responsible resource management, global energy security, and regional stability has posi oned it as
a key player in the global energy landscape. However, Azerbaijan's foreign policy is not solely
centered around oil, as it also emphasizes economic diversifica on, social development, and conflict
resolu on, demonstra ng its vision for a prosperous and sustainable future beyond its oil-rich
resources.

16. Membership of Azerbaijan to the Non-Alignment Movement (NAM).

Membership of Azerbaijan in the Non-Alignment Movement (NAM) holds significant importance in
the country's foreign policy and its engagement with the global community. The NAM is a prominent
interna onal organiza on comprising states that advocate for independence, neutrality, and non-
interference in the affairs of other na ons. Azerbaijan's involvement in the movement highlights its
commitment to upholding its sovereignty, promo ng peace, and fostering coopera on on the world
stage.

Azerbaijan's engagement with the NAM dates back to its independence in 1991 a er the dissolu on
of the Soviet Union. Since then, the country has ac vely par cipated in various NAM events,
showcasing its dedica on to the principles of the movement. Notably, during the Presidency of
Azerbaijan, the country took ini a ves to enhance the role of youth in its membership, emphasizing
the importance of the younger genera on in shaping the na on's future.

One notable event that showcased Azerbaijan's commitment to the NAM principles was the "COVID-
19 Response through Equal, Affordable, Timely, and Universal Access" resolu on adopted during the
46th session of the United Na ons Human Rights Council. Azerbaijan's leadership in spearheading
this resolu on demonstrated its dedica on to addressing the global pandemic in an equitable and
inclusive manner.

Addi onally, Azerbaijan has ac vely par cipated in NAM's parliamentary networks, emphasizing the
role of parliamentarians in advancing the objec ves of the movement. The crea on of a
parliamentary network to address the post-pandemic era further underlines the country's
commitment to collabora ng with other NAM member states to tackle global challenges collec vely.

Azerbaijan's ac ve par cipa on in NAM summits and mee ngs, both at the ministerial and heads of
state levels, has provided a pla orm for the country to discuss cri cal global issues and showcase its
posi on on ma ers such as human rights, peacekeeping, and interna onal coopera on. By taking
part in these events, Azerbaijan has strengthened its es with other NAM members and increased its
visibility on the world stage.

The importance of the NAM's principles to Azerbaijan is evident in the country's hos ng of various
NAM events, including the Simula on Exercise of the NAM Model and the Network of Young
Parliamentarians. By organizing these events, Azerbaijan demonstrated its commitment to
empowering the youth, involving them in shaping the na on's future policies, and promo ng
peaceful coopera on among na ons.

Furthermore, Azerbaijan's presidency during the COVID-19 pandemic showcased its dedica on to
addressing global challenges, such as public health crises, through the lens of NAM's principles. The
country's ac ve role in advoca ng for equal access to vaccines and mely response to the pandemic
further solidified its commitment to NAM's core values.

Azerbaijan's involvement in the NAM is not merely symbolic; the country has u lized this pla orm to
promote regional stability, peace, and coopera on. The NAM provides Azerbaijan with an
opportunity to engage in diploma c dialogue, build alliances, and develop partnerships that can
benefit its na onal interests.
Overall, Azerbaijan's membership in the Non-Alignment Movement is a reflec on of the country's
commitment to an independent and principled foreign policy. By par cipa ng in various NAM events
and ini a ves, Azerbaijan has showcased its dedica on to upholding sovereignty, advoca ng for
peace and coopera on, and addressing global challenges in a mul lateral framework. The country's
ac ve role in promo ng the par cipa on of youth and parliamentarians in NAM's ac vi es
underscores its vision for a prosperous and inclusive future.

As Azerbaijan con nues to engage with the Non-Alignment Movement, it can further strengthen its
posi on as a key player in global affairs, contribute to interna onal efforts in addressing pressing
issues, and work towards a more just and equitable world order. By adhering to NAM's principles of
independence and non-interference, Azerbaijan can play a crucial role in fostering coopera on,
stability, and progress on the interna onal stage.

17. The role of Azerbaijan in the strategy ‘One Belt One Road’ (OBOR), also known as BRI
(Belt Road Initiative). Revival of the Great Silk Road.
The role of Azerbaijan in the strategy of 'One Belt One Road' (OBOR), also known as the Belt and
Road Ini a ve (BRI), and the revival of the Great Silk Road is of great significance and strategic
importance. The texts provided above shed light on the strengthening bilateral rela ons between
Azerbaijan and China, which play a pivotal role in the implementa on of OBOR and the realiza on of
the modern-day Silk Road.

The Belt and Road Ini a ve, proposed by China in 2013, aims to promote economic coopera on,
infrastructure development, and connec vity among countries across Asia, Europe, and Africa. OBOR
consists of the "Silk Road Economic Belt," which is a land-based corridor connec ng China to Central
Asia, the Middle East, and Europe, and the "Mari me Silk Road," which is a sea route connec ng
China to Southeast Asia, South Asia, and Africa.

Azerbaijan, as a key transit country in the South Caucasus region, stands at the crossroads of major
trade routes between East and West. Its geographical loca on makes it a crucial link in the OBOR
project and the revival of the historic Silk Road. The texts highlight the high-level engagements
between Azerbaijan and China, with both countries expressing a strong commitment to further
enhance and consolidate their coopera on.

In 2015, President Ilham Aliyev's official visit to China demonstrated China's inten on to expand and
strengthen its partnership with Azerbaijan. This high-level mee ng resulted in reaffirming the 'One
China' policy, which Azerbaijan adheres to, and China's sa sfac on with Azerbaijan's support for this
policy. Such poli cal understanding sets a posi ve tone for their coopera on in the broader OBOR
framework.

Moreover, Azerbaijan's defense minister's visit to China in 2019 further solidified the military
coopera on between the two na ons. The mutual commitment to military collabora on and
exchange of exper se on defense ma ers indicate a growing partnership in the security domain.

The texts also highlight China's collabora on with Azerbaijan in the defense industry, where
Azerbaijan has shown interest in acquiring advanced military technology from China. This
coopera on has resulted in Azerbaijan showcasing Chinese weapons systems in its military parades
and adop ng various Chinese military equipment, including the JF-17 fighter jets.
The economic es between China and Azerbaijan are vital for both countries' development and
regional connec vity. Azerbaijan is seen as an important partner for China's ambi ous OBOR project,
especially in the South Caucasus region. Azerbaijan's strategic loca on and stable poli cal
environment provide opportuni es for China to establish a reliable and efficient land-based trade
route from China to Europe, further strengthening its economic es with countries along the route.

The revival of the Great Silk Road, which historically facilitated trade and cultural exchange between
East and West, is a concept that resonates with both China and Azerbaijan. Azerbaijan, through its
ac ve involvement in OBOR, aims to contribute to the revival of the ancient Silk Road spirit by
promo ng regional connec vity and economic integra on.

The partnership with China also enables Azerbaijan to upgrade its defense capabili es, ensuring its
security and sovereignty in a vola le region. Azerbaijan's military procurement from China includes
advanced weaponry, electronic warfare systems, and missile defense systems, strengthening its
posi on as a regional security player.

Furthermore, Azerbaijan's involvement in OBOR enhances its significance in the South Caucasus
region and beyond. By facilita ng the Yeni İpək Yolu (New Silk Road) economic corridor, Azerbaijan
gains trac on as a transit hub for China's trade with Turkey, Russia, Georgia, Iran, and other regional
partners. This contributes to the region's economic development and energy security.

In conclusion, Azerbaijan plays a crucial role in the implementa on of the 'One Belt One Road'
(OBOR) strategy and the revival of the Great Silk Road. Its strategic loca on, poli cal stability, and
growing partnership with China enable it to serve as a vital link in China's ambi ous OBOR project.
The strengthening of bilateral rela ons between Azerbaijan and China, especially in the defense and
economic sectors, further cements Azerbaijan's significance in regional connec vity and
development. By ac vely par cipa ng in OBOR, Azerbaijan contributes to the realiza on of the
modern-day Silk Road, fostering economic coopera on and cultural exchange between East and
West and promo ng stability and development in the region.

18. The impact of the opening of the Zangezur Corridor on regional transportation and
communication lines
The opening of the Zangezur Corridor has the potential to significantly impact regional
transportation and communication lines, as highlighted in the comprehensive analysis
provided earlier. This strategic corridor, connecting Azerbaijan and its exclave Nakhchivan
to Turkey, is expected to reshape the transportation landscape in the South Caucasus region
and beyond. To better understand the impact of this development, let's examine the key points
discussed in the previous texts.
1. Enhancing Connectivity and Economic Opportunities:
The Zangezur Corridor's opening will directly benefit Azerbaijan by reconnecting its
Nakhchivan exclave to the mainland. Previously blocked due to the Nagorno-Karabakh
conflict, Nakhchivan will now have direct access to the rest of Azerbaijan, bolstering
economic and social development in the region. Additionally, the corridor will create a direct
land route between Azerbaijan and Turkey, boosting bilateral trade and transportation
opportunities. This improved connectivity is also expected to enhance regional economic
integration and cooperation.
2. Strengthening Russia's Position and Reducing Dependencies:
For Russia, the corridor provides crucial advantages. It allows Russia to establish a direct
land route to Armenia, reducing its reliance on transit through Georgia, which has proven to
be a sensitive issue in the past. By controlling the corridor, Russia gains influence over one
of the key gateways in the South Caucasus, bolstering its regional position. Moreover, the
corridor also offers Russia an additional exit point to Iran, further diversifying its
transportation options and geopolitical leverage.
3. Impact on Regional Dynamics:
While the corridor presents opportunities for Azerbaijan and Russia, it also raises concerns
for other regional players. Iran and Georgia, which previously benefited from their positions
in the North-South Transportation Corridor, may see their transit roles weaken. With the
Zangezur Corridor offering an alternative path, Iran might be incentivized to revive the Iran-
Armenia-Georgia-Russia railway project to safeguard its interests and maintain its strategic
position in regional trade routes.
4. Potential for Geostrategic Competition:
The competition over the corridor's control and influence could further impact regional
dynamics. As Azerbaijan, Russia, and Iran seek to maximize their advantages, tensions and
rivalries may arise, especially considering the broader geopolitical context of the South
Caucasus. Additionally, any future realization of the Iran-Armenia-Georgia-Russia railway
could intensify competition among regional actors and lead to complex negotiations over
transit and trade rights.
5. Balance of Interests and Mitigating Risks:
For Azerbaijan and Russia, the corridor represents a favorable opportunity to enhance their
geopolitical and economic positions. However, both countries must be cautious to not
jeopardize their interests by fueling conflicts or disagreements with other regional players,
particularly with Iran. Maintaining a delicate balance and engaging in constructive dialogue
will be essential to manage potential risks and ensure regional stability.
6. Regional Development and International Trade:
Overall, the opening of the Zangezur Corridor will have a transformative impact on regional
development and international trade. It will facilitate the movement of goods, people, and
resources more efficiently, promoting economic growth and prosperity for the participating
countries. Furthermore, the corridor's establishment will enhance regional connectivity,
creating new opportunities for collaboration, trade, and investment among neighboring
countries.
In conclusion, the opening of the Zangezur Corridor is poised to significantly reshape regional
transportation and communication lines in the South Caucasus. While it offers promising
opportunities for Azerbaijan and Russia, it also introduces challenges and potential
geopolitical competition among regional players. Mitigating risks, promoting cooperation,
and finding common ground will be crucial in harnessing the corridor's potential to foster
regional development and prosperity in the years to come.