The Development of a Concept of Modulation in Theory From the 16th to Theearly 18th Century (科研通-Ablesci.com)

THE DEVELOPMENT OP A CONCEPT OF MODULATION IN THEORY
PROM THE 16TH TO THE EARLY 18TH CENTURY
BY
O L I V E
HELEN ROGERS
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements

for the Doctor of Philosophy degree
in the Graduate School
Indiana University
June, 1955
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout permission.
Accepted by the faculty of the Graduate School of
Indiana University, in partial fulfillment of the require
ments for the degree Doctor q p ^ B h llo ,
Director' of Thesis
Doctoral Committee; Chairman
ii
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish to take this opportunity to acknowledge my ap
preciation for the special assistance given to me by the fol
lowing people: to Miss Josefa Claudio, for her kindness in
reading my translations from Spanish sources; to Dr. Lawrence
Wilson of Oberlin College, for checking the translations from
Zarlino’s L ‘istltuzlone; to Dr. Henry Remak for help with the
other Italian sources and translations from German critical
studies; and finally, to Dr. H. J. Meesen, for giving so gen
erously of his time to criticism and correction of transla
tions from the original German sources. Also, I should like
to thank Dr, Remak, Dr. Fuerst, and especially Dr. Meesen, of
the German faculty of Indiana University, for their sincere
interest and kind encouragement in the process of this stuSy,
To my major professor, Dr. Roy T. Will, of the Indiana
University School of Music, I wish to express my deepest ap
preciation for his many acts of personal kindness, his unlimit
ed patience and constant encouragement, and for his invaluable
criticism given in the preparation of this dissertation.
Finally, I wish to thank my mother and other members
of my family, for their practical assistance in so many ways,
as well as for their persistant faith in my efforts to bring
this project to a successful conclusion.
H. R.
lii
with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter Page
Introduction ............... ........................
I. THE EIGHT MODE SYSTEM IN RENAISSANCE THEORY . . . 1
II. THE TWELVE MODE SYSTEM IN RENAISSANCE THEORY . . . 58
III. THE USE OF THE TWELVE MODES IN MUSIC ACCORDING

TO 16TH AND 17TH CENTURY T H E O R Y ................... 112
IV. THE MIXTURE OF MODES IN PLAINSONG MELODY ACCORD

ING TO 16TH AND 17TH CENTURY T H E O R Y .............. 201
V. THE CHANGE FROM ONE MODE TO ANOTHER IN POLYPHONIC

COMPOSITION ACCORDING TO 15TH AND 17TH CENTURY
T H E O R Y ......... . ............ 254
VI. TONALITY AND MODULATION IN ENGLISH THEORY . . . . 304
VII. THE EMERGENCE .OF THE MAJOR-MINOR TONAL SYSTEM IN

17TH AND EARLY 18TH CENTURY T H E O R Y ...............339
VIII. MODULATION IN THE LATE 17TH AND EARLY 18TH CEN

TURY T H E O R Y ........................................ 384
IX. SUMMARY AND C O N C L U S I O N S ............................ 429
Suggestions for Further Study .............. 444.
B I B L I O G R A P H Y ...................................... 446
iv
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
1. The Compass of the Tones ......................... 4
2. The Repercussions of the T o n e s ................. 6
3. Species of the Modes from Aron's Trattato . . . . 9
4. The Q-Mode System in N o t a t i o n .................. 23
5. The Characteristic Intervals of the Modes . . . . 26
6. The Two-Octave System of the G r e e k s ............ 61
7. Representation of the Twenty-Four Combinations of •

the 4th-5th Species, Twelve to be Retained,
Twelve .to be R e j e c t e d ........................ 66
8. The Seven Octave Species, Each with Its Two-Fold

D i v i s i o n ........................................67
9. The Twelve Mode System Represented on the Staff . 74
10. The Twelve Modes on the Great Staff: Six Harmoni

cally Divided, and Six Arithmetically Divided,
and the Combination of These with the Seven Oc
tave Species ................. 80
11. The Twelve Modes Through the Combination of the

S p e c i e s .......................... 87
12. The Twelve Modes Through the Division of the Oc

tave ................................................ 90
13. The Finals of All the M o d e s .....................93
14. Die Verblndung dei* M o d i ............. 210
15. The Division of the O c t a v e ................. 314

.
16. The Division of the F i f t h ...................... 315
17. Division of the F i f t h .......................... 324
18. The Usual Flat and Sharp K e y s .................. 325
Figure Page
19. The Diatonic S c a l e ................................... 326
20. The "Cromatic Scale” ........................ 326
21. The Common Keys of the "Major and Minor Modes"

Used in Q-asparini's Time ............ 357
22. Illustration of the Transposition of Scales by

Changing the Position of the Halftone According
to Werckmeister1s Explanation ................. 364
23. The Formal Clausulae for the Ionian and Dorian

M o d e s ............................ 365
24. The Keys in the Major and Minor Modes . . . . . . 372
25. The Circle of Cadences of the First Order . . . . 390
26. The Circle of Cadences of the Second Order . . . . 392
27. The Circle of Cadences of the Third Order . . . . 393
28. The Circle of Cadences of the Fourth Order . . . . 394
29. The Enharmonic Relations between the Sharp and

Flat Keys in the Cadences E s t r a v a g a n t l .......... 396
30. Tables of Modulations in the Major and Minor Keys 420
31. The Circle of K e y s ........... 423
vi
LIST OP- EXAMPLES
Examples Page
1. The Authentic and Plagal Tones of the First Mode 16
2. "A Beautiful Example in which is Shown the Cor

rect Manner, Nature and Melodey of All the
Modes" . ..................................... .. 19
3. The Eight Modes in Plainsong ................... 28
4. The Closes of the Verses; Showing the First

Only, for Each of the Modes ................. 33
5. Formulae of the Church Liturgy from Dodecachor-

don ............................................ 35
6. Formulae of the Church Liturgy from the Micro-

logus ......................................... 37
7. Formulae of the Church Liturgy from Musical Cho-

ralls Deudsch, in Four Part Setting ......... 38
8. The Differences for the First Mode According to

Glarean ........... ............................ 40
9. The Tonus Peregrinus According to the Theorists 42
10. Transposition of a Melody to Avoid Conjuncts . . 45
11. Another Melody, with Transpositions a Fifth and

a Fourth Higher .............................. 46
12. Extension of the Modal Ambitus According to

A g r i c o l a ........... . . .................... .. . 53
13. The Dorian Mode; Salve Regina (Responsory) . . 115
14. The Hypodorian Mode; Emendemus in melius

(Responsory) . ........................ .. . . . 115
15. The Phrygian Mode; Surge virgo . . . . . . . . 118
16. The Hypophrygian Mode; From a Te Deum of

Ambrosius and St. Augustine ................. 118
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Example Page
17a. The Lydian Mode: Use of the ambitus F-f . . . . 120
17b. The Lydian Mode: A second example with the

halftone added below the octave F . . . . . . 120
18. The Hypolydian M o d e ............... 121
19. The Mixolydian M o d e ..............................123
20. The Hypomixolydian Mode. Sequence, Sanote

Splritus adsit nobis gratia ................. 125
21a. The Aeolian Mode: The Pater Noster, Praefation,

and Nloean O r e e d ................................ 127
21b. The Aeolian Mode: Transposed a 4th higher with

B flat, in the Initlum of Ev. Matthel . . . . 127
22a. The Hypoaeolian Mode: Ciroumdederunt me . . . . 129
22b. The Hypoaeolian Mode; A second example with the

ambitus F - f ............... 129
23. The Ionian Mode: Sanctus Domlnus Deus . . . . . 131
24. The Hypoionian Mode: Homo quidam fecit . . . . 131
25a. The Dorian and Hypodorian Modes: Plenl sunt

Coell by J o s q u i n ................................ 134
25b, The Dorian and Hypodorianj A second example,

Domlne non secundum facet by Vaqueras . . . . 135
26a. The Phrygian and Hypophrygian; Klagelleder

Magdalena am Grabe des H e r r n ................... 137
26b. The Phrygian and Hypophrygian: A second ex

ample, Magnus es T u , Dornine by Josquin . . . . 138
27. The Lydian and Hypolydian; Os J u s t l ............. 140
28. The Mixolydian and Hypomixolydian; Agnus Del

from Mass, De Nostra D o m l n e ................... 141
29. The Aeolian and Hypoaeolian. From the Mass

Pange Lingua by Josquin .................143
vili
Example Page
30a. The Ionian and Hypoionian. Vere Passum Immola-

tum by Adam l u y s .............................. 145
30b. The Ionian and Hypoionian.- Pleni Sunt Ooell

by Antonius F e v i n ............................ 146
31a. The Intonation of the Greater Psalm in the Aeo

lian Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
31b. The Gloria Patrl in the Aeolian M o d e ............ 152
32. Antiphon: Nos Q,ul Vlvlmus......................... 152
33. Intonation of the Lesser p-salm in the Hypo

aeolian M o d e ............... 152
34. The Use of B Flat as an Accidental. (Accord

ing to Z a r l i n o ) ......................... 158
35a. A Melody in the Ninth Mode ................ 159
35b. The Same Melody, Changed from the Ninth to the

Third Mode, with the Latter in Transposed
Position with B Flat as a S i g n a t u r e .......... 160
35c. The First Melody Above, Moved from Its Trans

posed Position to its Regular Octave . . . . . 160
36a. Transposition by the Use of Musica FIeta, and

First, with F l a t s ............................. 162
36b. The Same Melody Transposed with Sharps . . . . . 162
37. The Third Mode Perfect; Introit, Rorate coell

de s u p p e r ........................................ 174
38. The Ninth Mode Imperfect; Introit, Puer Natus

est ..................................174
39. The Third Mode Superfluous; Introit, Justus es

Domlne ..................... . . . . . . . . . 175
40a. The Phrygian Mode in the Octave Below, D-d . . . 179
40b. The Hypomixolydian Mode in its Own Octave . . . 179
41a. Re-la in the Dorian; Introit, Ssto Mlhl . . . . 182
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Example Page
41b, Re-la in the Hypophrygian: Introit, Justl

a u t e m ............... 182
41c, Re-la in the Hypolydian; Responsory ........... 182
41d. Re-la in the H y pomixolydian: ................... 182
42a, Ut-sol in the D o r i a n ............................. 182
42b, Ut-sol in the Phrygian or H y p h r y g i a n ............ 182
42c, Ut-sol in the Mixolydian ....................... 182
43, Composition in the First Mode, from Zarlino,

Showing the Finals of the M o d e .................191
44, 0 Salutarls Hostla by Adrian Willaert (Illus. of

Cadence in Polyphonic Music, in the First
M o d e ) .......................................... 192
45, Mixture of the Fifth and Sixth Tones (Agricola,

Musica Choralis Deudsch, n.p.) ............... 206
46, Mixture of the First and Second Modes in the

Sequence, Vlctimae Paschall Laudes............. 208
47, First Tone Commixed with the Seventh . . . . . . 218
48, Second Tone Commixed with the E i g h t h ........ 218
49, Third Tone Commixed with the S e v e n t h ........ 220
50, Fourth Tone Commixed with the E i g h t h ........ 221
51, Seventh Tone Commixed with the Fifth and Sixth , 223
52, Several 4th-5th Species Mixed with the Eighth

Tone 223
53, Polyphonic Example with Commlxtlo .... . . . . . 225
54, Antiphonj A solis ortus. Phrygian Mode with

Irregular Ambitus, and the Species of the First
and Third Modes Mixed ..... ................. 233
55, A Second Closing for the Antiphon, A soils ortus

assigned to the Dorian with the Final, D. . . . 233
Example Page
56. The Introit, Gaudeamus, with Irregular Ambitus,

and the Phrasis and Final of theDorian . . . 235
57.The Introit, Spiritus DominiHeplevit. Modo

Mixto according to Z a r l i n o .................. .. 238
58. Comixtion Perfeta; First Tone Commixed with the

HJhird Perfect R e g u l a r ..................... . . 241
59« Oomixtion Perfeta: First Tone Commixed with the

SeventE Perfect R e g u l a r ............... 242
60. Comixtlon mayor imperfeta; Tu puer propheta.

Second Tone Commixed with HEe Seventh I 7 . . 246
61. Comixtlon mayor imperfeta; Antiphon, Dixit

Dominus . . . . . . . . . . 246
62. Comixtlon menor imperfeta; Introit, Dominus 11-

luminatio mea. SeconcT’Tone Commixed with tEe
Fifth T".” .................................... 248
63. Comixtlon mixta: The Verse of an Alleliua with

t'ne Seventh "Tone Commixed with the Fifth . . . 250
64. De Profundls by Josquin des Prez. Mixture of

the Dorian and Phrygian Modes in Polyphony . . 265
65. Ave Marla Stella by Palestrina. Showing Change

of Mode at the Cadences According to Cerone . 287
66. The Tenors of the "Eight Tunes" from Morley . . 306
67. The Closes for G, According to the Fifth and Its

D i v i s i o n s ................................... 316
68. The Closes in the Key of G with B Sharp. . . . 317
69. Aire Showing Exceptional Close in Upper Third

of a Sharp K e y ................... " ............. 320
70. Closes Proper to a Flat K e y .................. 329
71. Closes Proper to a Sharp K e y .................. 329
72. Transition or Passing From One Key to Another . 401
xi
Example Page
73. An Illustration Showing the Natural Sixes and

Proper Cadences in a Sharp Key .............. 402
74. Connection of a Key to That a Whole Step Above . 404
75. The Connection of a.Key to That a Major Third

B e l o w ................... 404
76. The Connection of a Key to its Lower Dominant . 405
77. The Connection of a Key to its Relative Major . 405
78. Transition from A to & major, and Return to the

Original Key ..................... 407
79. "Variations from One Tone to Another11 . . . . . 409
xii
INTRODUCTION
It is clear that modulation with the generally accept
ed meaning of change of key, as understood today, is a tech
nique based on the harmonic principles inherent in the tonal
relations of the major-minor key system. Therefore, it may
be assumed that this technique and likewise the theoretical
concept could not be clearly defined until the tonal system
on which this is based is clarified in practice and systema
tized in theory. It is generally recognized that this pro
cess, i.e. the evolution and development of the major-minor
tonal system, took place in the musical practice of the period
roughly defined as the late 16th and early l?th centuries.
Thus it may be presumed that the concept of harmonic modula
tion also had its inception at this time. The source materi
als in which these developments may be observed are the trea
tises of the period defined, and the musical practice with
which the theorists are concerned.
The purpose of the present study is to investigate the
treatises and the specific practice which they represent, with
the intention of determining at what point the theorists give
a clear recognition to modulation or the change of key in the
musical practice. It is evident that the practice of modula
tion is inextricably bound with the tonality in which it
occurs. Of necessity, then, a study of modulation in these
treatises must be accompanied by a thorough investigation of
xiii
the tonal system projected by the theorists in these works.
In connection with this, It may be pointed out that In the
earlier works of this period, i.e. those of the 16th century,
the tC’-I system representative of practice is that of the
ecclesiastical modes. However, it has been emphasized that
the concept of modulation as a harmonic technique is based
on the tonal relations of the major-minor scale system.
Therefore, it is logical to assume that the proposed study of
tonality in these treatises will reveal a transition .from the
older modal to a newer tonal system which is culminated with
the emergence of the major-minor key system as a tonal basis
for music, toward the close of the period encompassed by this
study.
The theoretical literature of the period represented
by the 16th, 17th and early 18th centuries is of such an ex
tensive nature as to make an investigation of all the sources
highly impracticable. The basis for a selection was deter
mined primarily by two factors; First, the accessibility of
the treatises concerned; and second, the relative importance
given in these treatises, to the specific developments in
tonality and modulation. Concerning the first factor, though
collections of the treatises are available in several loca
tions, it was not always practical to consult the original
sources, particularly in connection with the developmental
xiv
phase of this study.1 However, it may he pointed out that
this difficulty has now become almost negligible because of
the recent trend toward making these sources available through
the relatively inexpensive method of micro-card reproduction.
The second factor, that of determining the relative im
portance of the treatment of tonality and modulation in speci
fic theoretical works proved more difficult of solution. In
the first place, there has been comparatively little investi
gation of these treatises, and further, such studies as have
been made are not always easily accessible. Moreover, the ex
tensive musicological examination of the practical literature,
carried on in recent years, has caused some of the conclusions
reached in these studies concerning the relation between the
ory and practice to be somewhat unreliable. Therefore, while
a choice of the more important treatises was based to some ex
tent on evidence of their importance as revealed in the sec
ondary sources, an attempt was also made to consult as many
of the original sources as would prove feasible. Thus, the
present study will Include those treatises which seem to have
f a t h e r complete collection of the treatises of the

16th and 17th centuries may be found in the following loca
tions; The Library of Congress in Washington, D.C., where
most of the original investigation for this study was done;
the New York Public Library; the Isham Memorial Library of
Harvard University, and the Sibley Memorial Library of the
University of Rochester. With little difficulty, microfilm
reproductions of most of the original sources may be obtained
from the first two libraries mentioned, and micro-card repro
ductions of many of these sources are available at a very
reasonable cost from the University of Rochester.
xv
the greatest importance in relation to the general musical
developments of the period with which this study is concerned*
A summation of the problems encountered in the study
would not be complete without reference to the difficulties
imposed by the necessity for examining some of the musical
literature of the period. It is clear that a detailed study
of this literature is highly unfeasible, for the same reasons
mentioned in connection with the examination of the treatises.
Therefore the observation of the musical practice represented
will be limited to that described by the theorists. More spe
cifically, the illustrations used will be almost entirely con
fined to those found in the treatises. Likewise, a consider
ation of secondary source material in relation to both the
theory and practice will be given as much attention as its
importance to the study seems to warrant.
In connection with the investigation of the development
of tonality and modulation in the theoretical treatises, this
study will be divided into two main sections. The first will
be entirely concerned with the theory in which the modal sys
tem is the accepted tonal basis for music, and in which prac
tice is regulated according to the traditional principles of
modal theory. In the second section, beginning with the
English treatises of the early 17th century, attention will
be focused on those works in which there is a clear perception
of the transition from the modes to the major-minor system,
xvi
and consequently, emphasis on the harmonic principles upon
which change of key in this system is based.
It may be pointed out that the terminology used to de
fine the theoretical concepts found in these treatises is
often highly specialized, and logically since it is based on
the characteristic features of the musical practice with which
it is concerned. One of the more Important evidences of such
specialization may be observed in the use of the hexachord
syllables to define and refer to the elements of the modal
system. Since this study is not concerned with the hexachord
as a theoretical problem, a brief explanation of the use of
this device in relation to the modes may be given at this
time. The hexachord may be defined as a system of solmisa-
tion consisting of six vocable syllables applied as a nomen
clature for the tones of the diatonic system represented in
the modes. It was conceived before the time of a practical
written system of notation and applied as a device which en
abled the earlier singers to read new music and to aid them
in the retention of that which was already familiar. Its
importance in this respect may be surmised from the following
brief statement concerning its use probably close to the time
of its original discovery.
G-uido in a letter to his friend, the monk Michael,

reports that the association of one of the syllables
with each of six successive degrees has enabled his
xvii
choirboys to learn In a few days what it formerly re
quired them many weeks to master. 2
The six syllables of this system are* ut-re-mi-fa-sol-
la. As conceived originally from the tone c, and shortly ap
plied to similar series beginning on G, and on P with B flat,
it is clear that the hexachord presents an invariable pattern
of tones and semitones represented as follows; T T 8 T T,
The system which had its origin in medieval practice was uti
lized for the purpose described throughout the entire period
of modal theory persisting in somewhat modified form even into
the 18th century,*'
In medieval theory, it was not long before it was dis
covered that a practical extension of the system could be made
by applying the series to each of the diatonic tones of the
modal octaves and using chromatic tones to obtain the neces
sary pattern of the hexachord. There is considerable evidence
in the treatises of the 16th and early 17th century that this
system undoubtedly had some significance for the developments
^Gustave Reese, Music in the Middle Ages, p. 150. A

clear discussion of the probable origin and early use of the
system is given by Reese at the beginning of Ch. 6 in the
work mentioned.
^Modifications of the system, besides its extension

were the addition of a seventh tone sometime in the 16th cen
tury, and the reduction of the system to an invariable
tetrachord pattern, characteristic of our major scale, by the
English theorists of the early 16th century. The persist
ence of the system may be observed in the modern systems of
solroizatlon in use at the present time.
xviii
of the concepts of tonality and modulation.4 However, for
the purpose of the present study, no further attention to
this is necessary beyond the practical demonstration of the
system as applied to the compass of the diatonic system used
in 16th century theory. This may be represented in the follow
ing manner;5
------- -0-Mtt---
---- *t-fe-
k
In connection with modal theory, the syllables given
in the above diagram, as already mentioned, were used to define
4Reese points out that the practice of mutation, i.e.

shifting from one series to another in a melody having a more
extended range than the hexachord itself, was a medieval
equivalent of our modulation. (Reese, Music in the Middle
Ages, p. 151.)
5Sympson, A Compendium, or Introduction to Practical

Music (1678), p. 3. The actual compass" utlffzecT’for poly
phonic music was more extended than that given in the figure.
Nevertheless, in the application of the hexachord to the
diatonic system, this is the compass defined even by the
later theorists.
xix
and refer to the elements of modal structure, and also to the
characteristic features of the modes in use. In addition to
the hexachord, it may be pointed out that there are many other
specialized terms found in the theoretical literature of the
16th and 17th century. However, since such terminology is
best understood in relation to the specific elements of prac
tice with which it is used, the definition and illustration
of all other such terms will be given as they are needed in
the study of modal theory. Finally, it may be stated that it
is recognized that a particular application of modern terminol
ogy to certain concepts peculiar to the older practice may not
be entirely valid. Therefore, where such a procedure seems to
be necessitated by a lack of other means suitable for convey
ing the ideas intended, the use of modern terms will be Justi
fied by an explanation of the limitations involved, and by an
exact interpretation of such terminology in relation to its
use at the time. -- ----
xx
1
CHAPTER I
THE EIGHT MODE SYSTEM IN RENAISSANCE THEORY
At the beginning of the 16th century, the 8-mode sys
tem was accepted by all of the theorists as the tonal basis
for the music of their time. The purpose of the present
chapter is to examine this system and the principles which
regulated its use in music, in four theoretical treatises
representing the first half of the 16th century. The first
three of these treatises, which are by Ornlthoparcus, Aron,
and Agricola, are typical of the traditional medieval outlook
with which the 15th century closes. These theorists show in
dividual variations in their expositions of the modes, and in
addition, an awareness of irregularities in the use of the
modes in contemporary practice. The latter fact gives evi
dence that they recognize the disparity between modal theory
and the musical practice on which, presumably, this theory is
based. Nevertheless, beyond such evidence in these particular
treatises, there is no development of new ideas in connection
with the theory of the modes and their use in music.
In tSgg fourth treatise to be examined, that of Glarean,
only the f i r s ^ p a r t may be compared to the three treatises
preceding it, since only this section is concerned with the
8-mode system. In his discussion of the eight modes, Glarean
clearly indicates the main differences which he observes be=
tween theory and practice at this time. As a result of his
2
observation, he emphasizes the necessity for changes in modal
theory which will bring the theory into closer conformity
with the practice. Furthermore, it is clear that the defini
tion of the necessary changes, and a justification of these
according to contemporary practice are the objectives which
Glarean has set for himself in the remainder of his treatise.
In examining the 3-mode system according to these
four treatises, emphasis will be placed on two things: first,
on the exposition of the structure of the modes and their
characteristic use in the music of this time; second, in view
of the above-mentioned disparity between theory and practice,
attention will be given to the irregularities in modal usage,
which are treated in more or less detail in the works under
consideration. Through a comparison of the basic ideas on
structure and the use of the modes found in these four trea
tises, the 3-mode system of the early 16th century will be
more clearly defined. At the same time, such a study of the
3-mode system should provide the background necessary for
understanding the modification of the modal system which
takes place during the 16th century, and which will be con
sidered at length in subsequent chapters.
Ornithooarcus: Microiogus^
In beginning his exposition of the modes which he
calls "tones," Ornithoparcus gives the following definition:
Ândreas Ornithoparcus, Musice active micrologus

(Leipzig, 1516); translated by John Dowland (London, 1609).
In its exposition of modal theory, the simplicity of style
3
"A tone, as Guido saith, is a rule judging the song in the
end, or it is a knowledge of the beginning, middle, and end

2
of every song, showing the rising and falling of it." Con
cerning the number of tones Ornithoparcus refers to earlier
writings of the Greek and Roman theorists, as well as to the
work of Guido, and to that of his immediate predecessor,
Gafurius. From the earliest sources, he gives the oldest
nomenclature for the tones, which is the numbering of the
modal scales in pairs; and from the later period, the Greek
names Dorian, Phrygian, etc. This may be seen in the fol
lowing paragraph:
By the authorities of the Graecians, we should ob

serve only four Tones, saith Guido . . . 1. Proton,
2. Deuteron, 3. Triton, 4. Tetarton. But the Latines
considering the rising and falling, and dividing each
of the Greek Tones into Authentiche and Plagall; do
conclude everything that is sung within eight Tones.
. . . For it is not amisse, that everything which is
sung, may be comprehended within eight tones. . . .
Now the eight Tones (as Franchinus saith) are by au
thors thus named: The first, Dorian; the second, Hypo-
dorian; the third, Phrygian; . . . the fourth, Hypo
phrygian; the fifth, Lydian; the sixth, Hypolydian; the
seventh, Mixolydian; the eighth, some call Hypermixoly-
dian; others say it hath no proper name.3
in this treatise suggests that it was probably written for

the purpose of teaching the fundamentals of music to the
youth and amateurs of this time.
2
Ornithoparcus, p. 10.
3
Ibid,, p. 10-11. The closing statement of this para
graph gives evidence of the difficulty experienced by the
theorists in the attempt to name and classify the eighth mode
with any certainty.
4
Next, Ornithoparcus defines the finals, giving the
number and listing them for each tone.
Finals . . , are the letters which end the songs.

For in these must be ended every song which is regular
and not transposed, and are in number foure. (as Guido
writeth in the Dialogue of his Doctrlnall),
D sol-re 'jin which ends (is t 2nd!\
i
E la-mi / every \3rd and 4th/Tones
F fa-ut 1 song of the 15th 6th\

G sol-re-utl /7th 8thJ
Ornithoparcus illustrates the compass of the eight tones in
the figure which is given below.

Figure 1, The Compass of the Tones, (Ornithoparcus, p, 12,)
..,1a
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
10 9
Ja
7^ 71 6
■ S'" r
9 f 7 7
i /3 jL /
7 6 s
7 7 4 L j- r A J
J 1
Ambitus i I S J
,f i A1
4i 4
a 1 -y)- Ambitus
Autnenticus T J -y-H Plagales
4 4 J 3 A A / /
f % 3 A J 'T' -v-i “K -
A j / / A / .3
4A i 2 j A
A A 3 s
3 -4- 1
* s
L7 »C
Protos Deuteros T r i tos Tetartos
The First-The Second-The Third-The Fourth

f
40rnithoparcus, p, 11.
5
The compass of the modes represented in the preceding figure
is explained briefly.
The compass is nothing else, but a circuite or

space allowed by the authorities of the musltians to
the tones for their rising and falling. Now to every
tone there are granted but ten notes or Voices, where
in he may have his course. . . . Although at this time
the licentious ranging of our modern musitians, doth
add an 11th.5
Ornithoparcus follows the discussion and illustration
of the compass of the tones by stating three rules which he
says are useful for regulating the tones in music.
1. All the odd tones are authentlcall, all the even

plagall; these are so called because they descend more
under the final key; the former, because they do more
ascend above the final key,
2. Every song in the beginning rising straightway

beyond the final note to a fifth is authentlcall; but
that which falls straightway to a third or a fourth un
der the final key is plagall.
3. A song not rising in the middle beyond the fi

nal note to an eighth, although it have a fifth in the
beginning is a plagall; unless the Repercussion of an
authentlcall be there found, preserve it,5
The term "Repercussion" mentioned in the third rule
has been explained by Ornithoparcus at an earlier point in
his discussion. Here, he says that it is called a trope by
Guido, and "is the proper and fit melodle of each tone. Or
it is the proper interval of each tone, as in the examples
50rnithoparcus, p. 11.
6Ibld., p. 13.
6
following appeareth.11^
Figure 2. The Repercussiona of the Tones. (Ornithoparcus, p. 12.)
Re f* the second)
.i a S
I
Ut-ja) uncJm (cUri'ti, nt-U kttky'c ftcjust-
Since these Repercussions are usually found at or near the be
ginning of a song in any mode, they are an important means of
identifying the respective modes in composition, and are so
treated in modal theory.
In conclusion to his discussion of tone, Ornithoparcus
gives a summary of the ways of identifying the mode, or tone,
in music. In this summary he combines a suggestion of his
earlier definition of tone, with the rules given above for the
use of the tones in music. It is important to point out that
such a summary of the means of identification is very charac
teristic of the treatises for the entire period of modal
theory.
7
We may know the tones by three ways; By the begin

ning, the middle and the end. By the beginning for a
song rising in the beginning straight-wayes above the
final key to a 5th is authenticall. . . . By the middle,
and first, by the rising. For the song which toucheth
an eighth in the middle, is authenticall; that song
which doth not, is plagall; Secondly, by the Repercus
sion, which is proper to every tone, as before was
said; by which at first hearing you may judge what kind
a song is. By the end, as before we spake of the fi-
nall notes,8
With this presentation of the modal system from Ornithoparcus,
we may compare the work of an Italian theorist of the same
period.
Pietro Aron; Trattato9
In contrast to the treatise of Ornithoparcus, that of
Aron is somewhat difficult to follow and seems to be addressed
to one already familiar with the modal system. The reason for
this difficulty may be inferred from the statement which
follows: "For it is clear thart no writers of our age have ex
plained how the many different modes are to be recognized,
80rnithoparcus, p. 13, In modal theory, the word 'tald-

dle" as used in this quotation has a specific meaning. In
reference to its use by Tinctoris, this meaning is explained
as follows: "It does not mean 'middle' in the usual sense,
•beginning, middle, and end1; rather, Tinctoris uses the word
as a musical-technical concept in the sense of ambitus. . . .
Ambitus means embrace, or compass of a tone defined by the
highest and lowest tones of the scale." (Lucie Balmer, Ton
ey stem und Klrchentone bel Johannes Tinctoris, BVzM, I I :127,
H e r n , 192*?.1
9Pietro Aron, Trattato della natura e cognlzlone di

tuttl gll tonl di canto figurato (Venice, 1525). The Library
of Congress edition was consulted, but the discussion and all
quotations are from the translation by Oliver Strunk, Source
Readings in Music History (New York, 1950), pp. 205-215.
8
although to their greater credit they have treated of matters
which can be readily understood, "-1-0 In other words, Aron is
more concerned with the principles for recognition of the
modes and the problems encountered in identifying them in mu
sic, and less interested in structure and related matters
which can be more easily explained and understood. Proceeding
in his attempt to alleviate the problems or difficulties in
the recognition of the modes, he explains the meaning of the
two words "final" and "species," and then discusses their im
portance in identification,
Pinal is defined as follows* "A final is simply a
magisterial ending in music, introduced in order that the tone
may be recognized. Musicians conclude such an ending regular
ly . . . in order that the nature and form of each tone may
be better understood, As in most of the treatises, the
positions D, E, P, and G- are given as the regular finals or
ending steps for the four pairs of modes, and in accordance
with the regular use of each tone which ends on the steps giv
en above. Since Aron is not more specific about the two modes
of each pair and the differences between them, we must con
clude that songs ending on the finals, D, E, P, and G, are to
be identified as either of the two modes regularly assigned
to each of these finals. However, other factors must be con-
sidered as well,' one of the most important of these being
10Strunk, pp. 206-207.
ilIbid,, p. 207,
9
the species, to which Aron now turns his attention.
By species, Aron means the characteristic 4th and 5th
intervals which compose every mode. They are defined as the
arrangement of the sounds of the genus (i.e. the 4th and 5th),
and are varied in definite prescribed ways for the eight modes
as may be observed in the following figure.
Figure 3. Species of the Modes from Aron's Trattato. (Strunk,

p. 207.)
------ ----------- o <?

------ ... ... a nr.
-v - -— V5 fj --- 0 ------ & ----
-0 — ---------
1 n - . . . " a—
1 s t J D ia p e n te 2nd D ia p 'e n te 3 rd D la p e n te 4 t h D ia p e n t e
and D i a t e s s a r o n and D i a t e s s a r o n and D i a t e s s a r o n and D ia te s s a r o n .
Although the final is necessary for the identification of the
modes, the knowledge of species is just as important and parti
cularly necessary in the cases described as irregular. This
is evident in the following discussion:
If a composition ends in the position called A la-

ml-re and there is no flat in the signature, the final
will be common to the first and second tones with re
spect to confinality and also with respect to differ
ence, provided , . . that the procedure in the compo
sition be suited and appropriate to confinality or
difference. But if the composition has a flat in the
signature, the final will be in my opinion neither
necessary nor rational with respect to confinality, for
it is clear that the form xylll differ from its previous
state. For this reason, such compositions are to be
judged by their species.
12Strunk, p. 207. The term confinality is defined by

Strunk in a footnote (see p. 208), in which he says the con-
finals are the tones a 5th above the finals. Willi Apel,
Harvard Dictionary, p. 211, says that differences are defined
as the various endings of a Psalm Tone.
10
Aron continues with still more specific instructions
for the recognition of the tone, directing them to the singers
and composers. He says that the mode of composition must be
judged by the tenor part alone, which, being the most firm and
stable, is the part that "holds and comprehends the whole con-
centus of the harmony. . . 1,13 Aron points out that the natu
ral form of the mode is more easily found in the tenor than
in the soprano.14 For the composer, Aron gives the instruc
tion that in all compositions, whether written upon a plain-
song or without regard for one, and whether for five, six,
seven, and more voices, it is the custom to write a first and
principal tenor. Each of the parts added is then to be gov
erned by the nature of the tenor, and by means of the tenor
the tone will be recognized, unless the plainsong itself, which
is the basis of the composition and therefore principal to such
a recognition, is in some other part.
Continuing his discussion, Aron considers the finals
and species which are determinative for specific modes. These
are the same as the finals and species given earlier, but here
the finals are seen to determine the species. "In so far as
compositions end in the positions D sol-re, E la-mi, F fa-ut,
l3Strunk, p. 209.
14Strunk says the reason for this is that if a tenor

and its cantus belong to the same tone, they will be far apart,
and the texture will be disagreeable. It is usual to make the
tenor authentic, the cantus plagal, or the opposite, leaving
the tenor as the sole determining factor of the mode (see
Strunk, p. 208, fn. 2).
11
and G- sol-re-ut, they are to he judged according to their
finals, and by means of these, their true and proper species

1C
will be recognized." The species for each of the modal oc
taves are summarized below.
n
From D to A and from A up to d.]
From E to B 4th species .and from B up to e.
From F to C and from G up to f.
^From Gr to and from D up to e.J
In the general discussion which follows, Aron considers
the relative importance of the final, or of the species, for
the recognition of the mode in use, showing under what condi
tions one is predominant over the other, or when both may be
necessary. However, for the clearest idea of the way in which
the mode is to be recognized, we may turn to the latter part
of his treatise where he discusses each pair of tones separate
ly. From this section, I have summarized the most important
principles which are given for the identification of the modes
in use.
Explanation of the first and second tones;
Every composition in which the tenor ends on re is as
signed to the first and second tones, especially if the sopra
no ends on D sol-re with the regular final. This is true even
if B flat is used, for in such a case only the 4th is altered,
the 5th, the primary interval of the tone being unchanged. As
15Strunk, p . 210. Aron means the notes D , E , F , and Gl

are the regular finals of the paired modes, viz., 1st and 2nd,
3rd and 4th, 5th and 6th, and 7th and 8th in this order.
12
for the second tone, we are told, ". . . in figured music, you
will very seldom find a tenor with the procedure and downward
range . . . appropriate to the second tone as ended in this
way, i.e. on D. 1,16
Explanation of the third and fourth tones;
Aron objects to the random assigning of compositions
ending in E to the fourth tone, which is the plagal of the
mode, for the ending E is common to the third mode also. It
is necessary to consider not only the final, hut the upward
and downward range, procedures, intonations, etc.
Explanation of the fifth and sixth tones;
Compositions ending on P fa-ut are to be assigned to
the fifth or sixth tones. Aron points out that even though
such compositions have b flat, thus altering the form of the
5th species, they are still assigned to the fifth and sixth
tones because the older composers preferred the b flat to
avoid the tritone.
Explanation of the seventh and eighth tones;
The compositions ending regularly on gam-ut or G sol-
re-ut are assigned to the seventh or the eighth tones with re
gard to their proper final and also to their natural form.
lSStrunk, p. 213. This and the following paragraphs

concerning the recognition of the modal pairs are summarized
from Strunk's translation.
13
There are no plalnsong melodies, nor polyphonic compo
sitions showing the use of the modes given by Aron. However,
he does Include short four-part passages to show characteris
tic progressions for each mode, and he mentions many polyphon
ic compositions by contemporary composers as illustrations of

1 7
the modes, both for regular and irregular c a s e s . I t is
clear from the discussion, that Aron's ideas on the structural
elements of the 8-mode system, the species and finals, agree
with those of Ornithoparcus. Though little is said of compass
(only the octave ambitus is defined), there is evidence in
Aron's concern with the many problems of identifying the modes,
that irregularities in the compass in the use of modes, must
be rather common. In conclusion, it may be said that in his
emphasis on knowledge of basic principles for recognition of
the mode, and his attempt to include certain apparently com
mon irregularities within this framework, Aron acknowledges
his awareness of the changes taking place within the modal
system.
l7It is entirely possible that this omission of exam

ples in notation occurs because he has included such examples
in his other theoretical works. Also, it is apparent that
Aron is addressing an informed reader who will have knowledge
of the problems of which he is speaking and, being familiar
with the corrpositions mentioned, he can make specific study
of this matter for himself.
14
Agricola: Musica Choralls PeudschlQ
In the third work of the early 16th century group,
there is an echo of Ornithoparcus in Agricola's definition of
tone as, "s. certain rule, which shows the heighth and depth of
every song clearly; it may be at the beginning, middle, or at
the end.1,19 In addition, he states that the kind, nature,
melody, and solmizatlon of any song can not be known, unless
one knows beforehand to which tone the song .will be assigned.
As in the work of Ornithoparcus, the first four tones are
attributed to the Greeks, and are called Protum, Deuterum,
Trltum, and Tetardum, the tones which ruled above; while the
Latins found the four lower ones by dividing the first four
in two parts. This is represented in a diagram which shows
the odd-numbered scales from the Greeks, the even-numbered
from the Latins.
18Martin Agricola, Muslca,Ghoralls Peudsoh (Wittemberg,

1532). Since this edition has no paging, the source of refer
ences cited will not be given in footnote, but may be found in
the original under the heading under which they are discussed
in this study*
ISSolmizatlon refers to the hexachord syllables. These

are given earlier in connection with finals in the works of
both Aron and Ornithoparcus, and in the latter are used to
outline the intervals of the Repercussions.
15
A Diagram of the Tones from the G-reeks and Latins according
to Agricola is represented in the following manner.
Tetardos ^
Discovered by
Tritos the Latines.
Deuteros I Which the Latines
1 have divided. ’From the G-reeks

Protos J
Continuing his discussion, Agricola divides the tones
into authentic and plagal according to custom. He calls the
authentic or odd-numbered, the Obersten or ruling tones, and
the plagal or even-numbered, the Unterthanen or the subject
tones. The analog;; supports a relation betitfeen the activity
and the relative importance of position of each two modes.
Thus, the ruling or authentic modes have the power to rise an
octave and at times even a 9th or 10th, while they go below
only a 2nd, On the other hand, the subject modes, or plagals
find their ambitus below that of the authentlcs, usually ri
sing a 5th above the final’and fpolling a 4th below, thus nor
mally filling the compass of an octave. This is illustrated
20Agricola's reference to the modes in this manner re

flects the practice in medieval theory in which the authentic-
plagal relation was commonly symbolized by such names. For
example, Aurelian (9th century) calls them magistrl-dlsclpul1 ,
as does Tinctoris; while Aribo (11th c entury) call s' them rich-
poor. For discussion of this see Balmer-Tinctoris,
pp. 182-183.
16
In a four part example from Agricola1s treatise, in which the
"bass voice uses the compass of the plagal mode described above,
while the tenor uses the authentic.
Example 1. The Authentic and Plagal Tones of the First Mode.
rJ-J-. * ^1 ' - *— j-f =4=

p H j 1
* -»L T * r V J' ^ * )
I
1
i------ --- F t
-,------ 1------ f-x— = -
1 J J '.»'•) J *
“#• 1
1
\ (tj)- 1 ■i - '[""1---
i , | IJ'J | l / -I— M- » ♦ ,, .|— \
■--- \£---- I# r>- « J- 4 —
— *-— * — h -& * .
u h u
TAc t o ii'f je of ti e Fii-t
. . -/!?>-;« . *— r ~ * 41- , * -R-

J i * *mx ^
i-+~i- 1 I T T !| 1 ^ .-4 = ^
'The c tmr-se of *hc See.on.d Co/ic.
As in the two preceding treatises considered, Agricola
gives a simple summary of the modal finals: A song which ends
in D is the first or second tone; in E, the third or fourth;
in F, the fifth or sixth; and in G-, the seventh or eighth tones,
These are the regular finals of the tones whether they are be
ing used in Chorgesang (plainsong sung by a group of singers),
or figured song.81 In addition to the knowledge of the finals
and compass of the mode given earlier, there are three ways of
^•According to Agricola's illustration of.these two

types of song, the distinction seems to refer solely to rhythm.
1?
recognizing the tone or mode in music. As observed in connec
tion with the definition of tone (see p. 14), these bear a
close resemblance to the rules given earlier by Ornithoparcus.
They are summarized below:
1. In the first place, at the beginning of a song,

a tone will be observed to be of the authentic mode if
it ascends immediately a 5th above the Initial note of
the mode (i.e. above the final). If it falls a 3rd or
4th below the final, it is the plagal.
2. In the second place, the middle of the song is

also important for determining the distinction of the
two forms for, if it rises an octave over its final,
then it is the authentic, while if it falls a 4th below,
and climbs only a 5th above, then it is the plagal.
Also, in the middle of a melody, the mode can be recog
nized from its melodey or clauseln, for each mode has
its own.*-2
3. In the third place, however, each tone will be

known by its ending because it is customary to end each
mode on its own final.
In conclusion to this discussion of the main things to
be observed in recognition of the tones, Agricola gives three
short rules or principles which summarize knowledge that is
basic for the correct use of the modes; First, every song
that ends in re will be the first or second mode; those that
end in mi will be the third or fourth mode; those that close
in fa, will be the fifth or sixth mode; and finally, those
ending in sol, the seventh or eighth. Second, it is important
to emphasize the treatment of the note b. In the first and
22sy clauseln, or melodey, Agricola means the charac

teristic Interval of the mode, which Ornithoparcus calls
repercussion (see p. 5). These intervals are marked in a
later example.
18
second inodes, in the untransposed song, b is always mi, even

23
if the song goes to the mi a 2nd above the la in a. The
other songs, those of the third, fourth, seventh, and eighth
modes, also have mi, or b natural in the untransposed posi
tion. Third, in the fifth and sixth modes, the fa is always
found in b, i.e. b flat, unless the natural or the sign,
sharp (#), which signifies mi, is found. To illustrate the
characteristic use of the modes, Agricola gives a four-part
composition in which he has indicated the Important features
discussed in connection with the modes.
23Accordlng to rule "una nota ascendente super la, sem

per est canendum fa*" if in singing the hexachord natural or
soft, one ascended even a single tone above the la, i.e. either
to a in the natural, or d in the soft, it was necessary to sing
fa Ti.e. b and e flats), to avoid the trltone.
19
Example 2. "A Beautiful Example In which is Shown the Correct

Manner, Nature and Melodey of all the Modes.H
t,* I* 5.fei-fft 1 S. ut •Jo I
* . 1 I, i 11
4.>•»«- /«• L . h i-
-~t" r v - ^ z i i n
£ — n-t--rr f\~ j
t i J...s ...jj ;, *
j i
*v J j ........... — ""
s - j ' - } ■ ' 1 ■; 1 f
i
i
J l---------- 1— = £ / ? ■ ! r > r ,,,

....... ................ :
H -» ' ’ ■ 1J ; * D * 1 1
1
1
— , * f f\ . * • ---4— j-4----- ----------------------
----J— f— *— -4 + -U t r * >--------------------------- :----------------
t' 7. \u C - i
i
..... » r *
- m - f ------ h — j- r ,-»• .f] j 1 if— ' ■ H --------------------------------------------
__ L i*
^ t. ut- - {■*.. ■d V'f ....
With this example, we conclude the brief survey of the
8-mode system as it is found in the three treatises which,
as pointed out, are representative of the early 16th century
20
treatment of the modes and their use in music. It may he em
phasized that in these treatises, though there is a reference
to the octaves and 4th-5th species as elements of modal struc
ture, this aspect of the discussion was minimized. In place
of this, the theorists concerned have given more attention to
the origin of the modes, their characteristic use in music,
and the basic principles necessary for identifying them. In
contrast, in the next treatise to be considered, we shall find
an emphasis on the structure of the modes and an elaboration
of the principles already discussed.
Glarean; The Eight-Mode System in the Dodecachordon^4
As mentioned above, in contrast to his predecessors
G-larean shows immediate preoccupation with the structure of
the modes. Mode is defined as "nothing other than the conso
nant species of the octave itself, which on the other hand
arise from the various species of the 4ths and 5ths as we have
mentioned above In connection with the intervals,"25 According

t
to G-larean, if the principle of the harmonic and arithmetic
24Heinrlch G-lareanus, Dodecachordon (Basle, 1547), trans,

by Peter Bohn, published as Vol. XVI of Publlkatlonen alterer
praktlscher und theoretlscher Musikwerke (Leipzig, 1885)'.
25&larean, p. 22, In this reference to an earlier dis

cussion of intervals, G-larean explains the harmonic and arith
metic division characteristic of modal theory, and described
in most of the treatises. He says of this; "The octave rises
from the connection of the 4th and 5th, and will be divided in
the middle in a two-fold manner, by means of the same inter
vals. For, sometimes the 5th will be placed below the 4th;
sometimes inversely, the 4th below the 5th. The former divi
sion is called the harmonic division by the musicians of our
times, the latter, the arithmetic division." (Glarean, p. 16).
21
division of the octave is understood, as explained in connec
tion with the intervals of the aforementioned reference
(fn. 25), the nature of the modes should be clear. At this
point, G-larean presents the eight modes as he finds them in

26
the writings of his time.
Some \ o t the modesj are of the uneven numbers,

thus, the first, third, fifth, and seventh; the others
are of the even numbers, as the second, fourth, sixth,
and eighth. The former are called authentic, the
latter, however, plagal or subject. . . . All, however,
rest in an octave species, nevertheless with the dis
tinction, that those of the uneven number have the
entire octave above the final, but those of the even
numbers have, to be sure, their 5ths above, however,
the 4ths below the final tone. . .27
The modes are defined within their octave range by the
closes which, according to G-larean, have been dictated by the
older musicians, and which for all modes lie in the lowest
tone of the 5th, If it is realized that this lowest note of
the 5th species is the initial note of the interval common to
every two modes, then it will be clear that this tone is com
mon to each two modes, and therefore serves as the final for
each. There are four pairs of modes and thus there are also
four closes which, as we have seen earlier, are D, E, F, and
G-. These notes are named the finals because they are the
26(}f "fcke "writings of his time" in connection with the

first book of his treatise, G-larean refers specifically, only
to those of Gafurius, and Seybald Heyden. However, it is
quite possible that he was acquainted with others including
the first three treatises considered above.
27Glarean, p. 23.
22
proper endings for the songs in the regular modes. Glarean
gives a summary of the closes and the two modes assigned to
each, in the following manner; on D, the first and second
modes; on E, the third and fourth modes; on F, the fifth and
sixth modes; and on G, the seventh and eighth modes.
Since, as it has been pointed out, the mode is "nothing
more than one of the seven octave species," it is clear that
the compass of each mode will be that of an octave. In four
of the modes, the compass will be the octave generated above
the final of the mode. In the other four modes, however,
which have the 4th species below and the 5th above, the com
pass of the mode will be the octave, extending from the low
est tone of the 4th up to the highest tone of the 5th, and
will have its final in the middle. Glarean explains this
clearly by giving the authentic modes first, then the plagal:
The first mode reaches, therefore, from great D to

small d, the third mode from great E to small e, the
fifth from great F to small f, the seventh from great &
to small g. The plagal modes, which have the 5th in
common with the latter ([I.e. the authentics] , have the
5th above the final but the 4th below. Thus the second
mode reaches from great A to small a, the fourth from
great B to small b, the sixth from great C to small c,
the eighth from great D to the small d, but from which
it is not distinguished according to the nature of the
system [i.e. of the octave species], but only that it
is turned around, because it has the 5th over the 4th.
Following this description, the modes are given on the staff
as in Figure 4, showing the division into species, and the
finals for the paired modes.
^G-larean, p. 23.
23
Figure 4. The 8-Mode System in Notation. (Glarean, p. 23.)
D I I B IV F V I a V I I I
Up to this time, C-larean has defined the octave species
for each of the modes, and has also indicated the 4th and 5th
species into which the octaves are divided. Nevertheless, he
distinguishes the specific 4th and 5th species for each mode
in still another manner, according to the hexachord syllables.
This may be observed at the close of the paragraph below,
where the species proper to each mode are shown as they are
defined by the syllables.
Many distinguish also, the 5ths and 4ths' of all the

modes through the voices £die Stlmme], a discovery
which is not without use for recollection [of the modes] ,
and whereby one begins with the naming from above in the
odd-numbered modes, giving the 4ths first and then the
5ths; inversely in the even-numbered modes, first the
5ths and then the 4ths in the manner which follows;
— — „, ,
Tirst Mode sol-re, la-re. Fifth Mode fa-ut, sol-ut.
Second Mode la-re, sol-re. Sixth Mode sol-ut, fa-ut.
Third Mode la-mi, mi-mi. Seventh Mode sol-re, sol-ut.

^ " ---- -------- - /■ ^ OQ
Tourth Mode mi-mi, la-mi. Eighth Mode sol-ut, sol-re.
29Glarean, p. 23. To denote species in this manner is

characteristic of modal theory, and is used by G-larean in the
24
For the identification of the mode in use G-larean
refers to both final and species, and in general, in the same
manner as in the first three treatises considered. Consider
ing the finals first, he says: "These closes or notes, D, E,
F, G-, are called finals because every song that is not irre
gular, and not transposed, must end in t h e m . F o l l o w i n g
this he gives the finals again, but this time in the Stlmme,
for according to him, this is the way they are found in the
treatises of his time.
Every song ends either in re, in mi, in ut, or in

ut, i.e. both the joined and the disjoined. The for
mer will name ut as the final, if it has b flat; the
latter, if it has b natural. A song of the first and
second modes ends in re; a song of the third and fourth
modes ends in mi; a song of the fifth and sixth modes
ends in the Joined ut as they Q-.e. these two modes]
are now used; a song of the seventh and eighth modes
ends in the disjoined ut.1-1
discussion throughout his treatise. G-larean calls these

syllables the "Stimme," or "voices."
30G-larean, p. 22.
3^G-larean, pp. 25-24. The x-rords "Joined" and "disjoin

ed" come from the two tetrachords of the G-reek system which
are called Synemmenon and Dlezeugmenon. The first-mentioned
was joined to Mese by overlapping, i.e. it ended on a, the
same tone on which the next one began. This connection was
called conjunct, and happened only with the tetrachord having
b flat. This tetrachord was called Synemmenon, therefore,
meaning "joined." The other tetrachord mentioned above, Dle-
zeugmenon, was separated from Mese by a whole step, b-a, thus
the connection was disjunct. This tetrachord had b natural,
and was called Dlezeugmenon, meaning "disjoined." The fifth
and sixth modes with the final, F, called ut from the hexa
chord beginning on F, commonly used b flat at this time and
hence, the "Joined" u t . The seventh and eighth modes with
the final, G, called ut from the hexachord on G-. They have
b natural, and hence,Th e i r final is called the "disjoined"
ut.
25
Having emphasized the finals and species for the iden
tification of the mode, G-larean distinguishes still another
factor which he considers important.helping to determine the
mode in composition. He brings it to our attention in the
following short paragraph;
The songs may also, a posteriore as the philoso

phers say, be recognized through certain easy and
throughout, general rules, which nevertheless, should
not be overlooked because they assist the memory and
were given by experienced teachers of the art.
According to further explanation, and to the examples given
by G-larean, these "rules" are the characteristic intervals of
which there is one for each mode. They may, therefore, be
compared to the Repercussions of Ornithoparcus (see page 5),
and the Glaus eln of Agricola (see page 17). Glarean's ."rules"
may be observed in Figure 5, where for each mode the charac
teristic interval is notated below its rule.
52G-larean, p. 24.
26
Figure 5. The Characteristic Intervals of the Modes.

(Glarean, p. 25.)
I II Ill IV
St - T l ----- = 1
------1— J------ _ j ---------- L, J ,*
ft ; ' . - -
&
P r i . re-la- Sec. re-fa. Ter. ml-fa. Quart, quoque nni-la.

VI
-0---- ---------- VIr M VI^ 1
A -— J----------- ----------------J — *------------
. * * : - - — ----tr—......
-■
W- ----- — -------
• Quint, mi-sol Fa-la Sext. Sept. ut-sol Oct. tenet ut-■fa.
In conclusion to his discussion of the modes and to the
explanation of the various ways by which they may be identi
fied in music, Glarean sets for us the examples which he be
lieves will show well the characteristic use of each mode. He
emphasizes that in these we may observe the special identify
ing features usually found in the beginning, the middle, and
at the end, and this, he points out further, is according to
the rules given in the earlier treatises. From this it is
clear that Glarean undoubtedly had rules in mind, similar to
those given by Ornithoparcus in his ways for recognizing the
mode (see page 7), and also to those of Agricola given later
(see page 17). If these rules are applied to the melodies
given by Glarean, it will be apparent that each of these shows
the characteristic features of the mode to which it has been
27
assigned. The melodies may be observed in Example 3,
below.33
3°&larean has assigned each melody to its mode as

shown. In addition to this, above each melody, I have indi
cated the ambitus, characteristic interval, and final. Fur
ther, the characteristic interval is also bracketed within the
melody itself.
28-29
E xa m p le 3 . The S i g h t Modes i n P la in e o n g . (G - la r e a n , p. 2o)
-F-
FV.ti-Q j JFL Atnk I j- M i D- J
m s .tnti tt-lA ■
# * final 0
A h me p« ' t e r /)> n - It-o - 3i IV # — 5 tr# 5 p n t e s ik - di C lii'/. jt ir Ji-r,oS
I D o ria n
B , .f • »| * »- / , J ~rr f| -E— , j' ..Amh-rjrtS (\ -a.

l n t ■ te-hx
i L U S S i i t U ^ f ^ 1f
Final a.
I n ho- n o t- - C m o .-p « « te > - Jo*- - - f o f c r i-Ca v it B a ja a n u S D o > t 06 tcw ^ n m h e > v/n .m ,
II H y p o d o r ia n
4_... )s J - ' . n A \ ----r
m
# = p '* H \ - ' * 4^ H. U f i iff- h . •
flkyiri "tt46
I ll P h r y g ia n c\ «r • I n i .
1 ml-fa
ffH* I £'
■n? r rih
'J 1 ‘ tf i
$
^ » K « I t I " 5 I 3a- te r - d o l J Pc- -h -n s e x - o r - di spa war.-t^-hrt (%•!-ifi in tct-crd*ni jn-o * ° — • 1
AinLiUs b4> ■
IV H y p o p h r y g ia n
____________________________ final- £
AmUK j F-4
fliar.lnT- ""-3°I.
------- ----------------------------------------------------------------- *----------------------------h n
TT— t fY r '‘ P "*— F
— 4-----3-----1
-----f -— #-----j -----*----- #— r - f - #-r— ^ 1— .. >-r----------------------------------------------41
fp =M p >-^ u v—r -----------
jA - '- r r * * l * , ------- (1
om -)ii r*la-|o ^w'T« r/5
•V L y d ia n
— t- - - * — r * - - 1- - ] * * - * * y i * t P 1; ■ , i +* m . \
~l A 'k Li 'j.______:
9 -
- - - - - -
f r ‘ U U - -- U \— ^- - . J
[/ - j j j - - - ^ t ■ ■ ■ .■ 1- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - d— I— 1— A-- - - - - - - 1
Fin* / F.
S(L>1 f t t C - £^ ‘ — i» c lij'fc furvdc pô-c es 3,4 fiom i -17*1,, — fê, -il!*
VI H y p o ly d ia n
£ &
Pno-t*.ti-""l fier-Va-st-irn £-«.-df*! fi-JC3 cFpaiJi-a <fr(- ftcit ts - S c - Cer -— m*. - na£ ■ Final <?•
V II M ix o ly d ia n
r. A L -* • -t- . +
£ i
?pr i. r tW. L.4 ox~D-j
nq r c.-rl — — zitEEitjmu-#!
± rrJv.. y [• it— trK.-,r..;ivr-~~u*:4*
0 ^ ir - - — V i r . j*j - u / n iVjfl - a , 5 m — C m - w - A lie n s .
fi/'na 1 d~.
V III H y p o m ix o ly d ia n
No. 122 10-PIAIN
30
Up to this point, we have been concerned only with the
clear definition of the modal system and the determination of
the basic principles governing its regular use in early 16th
century practice. However, in addition to these things, all
of the theorists discuss certain aspects of modal usage which
might be termed irregular, and which are significant for a
complete picture of 16th century practice based on the 8-mode
system, as described by the theorists. Since these special
aspects are concerned primarily with the problem of identifi
cation of the modes, they may be grouped under three headings;
1) The use of the modal formulae in connection with liturgi
cal practice; 2) the transposition of the modes; and, 3) the
extension and mixing of the modes in use. We shall consider
these special uses of the modes under the subject headings as
indicated.
The Use of the Mode in the Music of the Ghurch
Many plainsong melodies, as well as some four-part
settings of these, have already been given as illustrations
of the various modes. However, in addition to these examples
the modes are also illustrated by special melodic formulae
used in the music of the church. These include the Intonations
of the psalms, the differences, the antiphons, the introits,
and many other formulae which were integral parts of the litur
gical music used for the service of the Roman Catholic Church.
It is recognized that these formulae had great significance
31
for the development of the modal system in early medieval
theory. In fact, it may be stated that essentially, the mod
al system and its regulating principles were derived from the
early plainchant which had developed as the musical counter
part of the liturgy.54
By the 16th century, the modal formulae mentioned above
were used in the regular liturgical services in a traditional
manner. That theorists felt the necessity for explaining the
established tradition, and also for justifying the many varia
tions in practice which had arisen naturally through the cen
turies, may be observed in their discussions. In the Dodeca-
chordon for example, Glarean says, " . . . not only different
nations and different churches have various differences, but
they are varied in one and the same church through books and
tradition. 1,55 Likewise, in connection with the singing of
the Psalms in the church service, Ornithoparcus complains of
the practice in the churches of his time.
. . . Whence to sing psalmes, is to sing the praises

of almighty God with a certaine joy. In which matter
there is much diversitie, . . . that every one seems to
54 A discussion of the various formulae and "tones" of

the church, and their relation to the steps in the development
of the Q-mode system may be found in Reese, Music of the
Middle Ages (New York, .1940), pp. 172-176.
55Glarean, p. 30. Concerning the differences, see p. 9,

fn, 12. Another explanation of differences follows: "Origi
nally there was only one tropus for each church mode; but
later on, a greater number were Introduced— distinguished from
each other as differences." Rlemann, Dictionary of Music
(Philadelphia, 1908), see under "Tropi", p.' So9.
33
have a several fashion of Singing. Neither doe they

observe the statutes and precepts of their forefathers,
but everyone sings Psalmes, and other things even as
they list. Whereupon there is such discention growne
in the Church, such discord, such confusion, that
scarce two sing after one manner.56
Considering the above references to the variation and
diversity in the use of the modal formulae in the church, it
is no surprise to find little consistency of treatment on the
subject, among the four early theorists under study. Though
each of them either discusses the formulae with examples, or
at least illustrates some of the formulae, only Glarean at
tempts to present the matter in detail in a logical manner.
For this reason, his description of this special aspect of
modal usage will be used as the basis for further discussion.
In the section of his treatise in which a study of the
formulae of the church is described as "The Use of the Modes
in Chorus," Glarean gives instruction for the use of the vari
ous formulae in the church music of his time.37
Now, concerning the use of the modes in chorus,

Ci.e. in the choir singing in the servicej, it is to be
observed that the closes of the verse must be kept firm
ly in mind, in order that the young singers accustom
themselves easily to the intonations or formulae of the
modes. When these are learned and compared with the
37Glarean, p. 27. The specific terms applying to dif

ferent modal formulae are explained and illustrated by Apel,
Harvard Dictionary, and also in Groves Dictionary of Music and
Musicians. See appropriate articles in each. Reese,""Music of
the MidHXe Ages, likewise considers these at length in his dTs-
cusslon of the development of plainsong liturgy. See fn. 34,
this chapter.
33
beginnings of the antiphons, the interval between the

antlphon and the verse of the psalm is to be judged,
and thus the song begun.
He points out further that these formulae, and specifically
the Intonations, are varied, and because of these he gives
several to illustrate each mode. Of t h e s e , ! have selected
only the first for each mode, thus showing only one of
several endings possible for the Psalm Tones in the modes.
Example 4. The Closes of the Verses; Showing the First Only,

for Each of the Modes. (Glarean, p. 27.)
— ---- P7— fr- ?... m i —

-A)----*—•—*—, *— *--- I—
* X XL m
II ■#■ § W-— sP n >> n

=x±j>_:
v %
-v -
7?----- \ f f f -ff-
bfcfr ip fr: i - r t :
* «r 3DT
With a reminder, that in connection with the use of the
modal formulae, he is giving the ideas found in the teachings
of his time, (xlarean states that he wishes to describe the re
maining matters of this science of the liturgical practice,
and to present the formulae for all the modes. Those which
he considers may be listed; the intonations of the smaller
and greater psalms; the verses of the responsories; and final
ly, the lntroits, (KLarean illustrates these four types of
formulae in each of the eight modes as he did with the
earlier-mentioned Intonations, However, in example 5 (a, b,
<!».)> an illustration of each of these in the first mode
will again suffice to show the nature of the formulae^ as
G-larean observes them in use at this time.
35
Example 5. Formulae of the Church Liturgy from Dodecachordon58

(Glarean, pp. 27-29.)
a) Intonation of the Lesser Psalm. (Glarean, p. 27*)
=t=
| J J f n . , ' n " n i n r ......... - i -
*T
*
' I ! 1 ~
Oi/it Do v n .n « Domi-no > n « -0 ,
" i
Se de a derft
i t*
is m-is j*r *^.4^
drrJi'J, ffffcr
i.*t.4uc. S u m ..
b.) Intonation of the Greater Psalm. (Glarean, p. 28.)
* -fi-Cftf d - )ii m» ne-a . Do- ml num Bene-

7 Dominx* Do-ts Ls fa - el
c) Verse of the Responsory. (Glarean, p. 28.)
# ==^ ? =d • *\=*=±=\ MB f T T m 'M - P

0— #—a M * V * -«-- • P-m • -*-• -*-y -• »--- ------
op i -
■Sail do
d) Verse of the Introit. (Glarean, p. 29.)
n fMd i riri0 -Vf-~-pt

w -y
-—
p -i n -“a
— #4-3T-H:---
-
n— I f pt *
s —* ~
u — tta.oit £»'- h*twm Ifef-tuvn bo— Oi — to - £jo oper-- R
EM
B
Thd-a — a •
^ G l a r e a n ' s example of the intonation of the Lesser

Psalm, 5-a, may he compared with that of the psalm for the
Vespers in the Liber Usualis, p. 28, where slight variations
may be noted, fiructavit, i"s found as the psalm under the
Nativity of Our Lord, Lb, p. 373, where it is sung to the
melody of the Lesser Psalm.
56
In comparison with G-larean, Ornithoparcus Is very brief
on the subject of modal formulae. He also illustrates the
greater and lesser psalms in all the modes. In addition, he
states simple rules for the tuning of these psalms, and points
out, that if these rules are followed, the confusion existing
in contemporary church practice will be eliminated. Ornitho
parcus follows his illustration of these psalms by showing the
melody of the verse of the responsory, and another unidenti
fied melody which resembles that of Glarean's example of the
Introit. All of the formulae mentioned are again illustrated
only in the first mode, in Example 6 (a, b, c, d, e). If
they are compared with those given by Glarean (see preceding
page), a similarity will be evident.
Agricola does not mention the matter of the church for
mulae anywhere In his discussion of the modes. However, he
does give the intonations for the lesser and greater psalms,
and a second setting of the Magnificat, in four parts and for
all the modes. Of these, the intonation for the lesser psalm
and the first of the two settings of the greater psalm may be
observed In Example 7 (a and b). In these four part settings,
the melodies found in the discant may be compared to the
plalnsong melodies of both Glarean and Ornithoparcus.
Returning to Glarean1s discussion, it may be pointed
out that he says he has explained this matter in such detail
for the advantage of the layman who may not be so well ac
quainted wi-ch this practice. He now finds it necessary to
37
Example 6, Formulae of^the Church Liturgy from the

Kicrologus.09 (Ornithoparcus, pp. 29-31.)
a) Antiphon in the First Tone.
^ = , 1 J1 j 1 j j ; ; | j ^ ; ^ 1; p r 'f lf
f (C A f , u r-rn L h y , t ) S a - cc, . doS in ae. ■a
j^ T j J— *
#
Chi—ncj iw — - ptrxi. n <n,
b) Lesser Psalm in the First Tone.
3 E & M - W - £ E m -#— #•
Z*.naV /v 4 t • h it n ufy-f l a * , da. f t >?i> />» < >i <00 — •/ * / /»/ 7 K /n e n ro
T
T ~ £M m £ j* .;
*- * j
* J -=g-—£*--
£ #= u = g =.#N.>
— ZL^L^LJl
dcfM‘>i n*i cic ■o M«j- hi'-i-Peal bn — n', iha rut ■ . 4 Po- tm'-nn.»vt
Of the Melody cf the Verses.
f i - n i )■ f j . n j . - f e a
i s n- ^
^ j ^ ^ = B=^^|Hisiipi-lar to. Glare-
^ |i..-4...
_ _ an s:.V'erBH: o f::;±he.
Respon sory.)
d) Of the iieloaey in the beginning.
39The Capita primi Toni (see the beginning of Ex. 6a),

is the same as the difference ending of the first mode accord
ing to Glarean. As with Glarean's examples, those of Ornitho
parcus may be compared to the same ones in the LU, and will be
found to differ slightly.
38
Example 7. Formulae of the Church Liturgy from Muslea Chorails

Deudsch, in Four-Part Setting, (Agricola, n.p . )
a) The L e s s e r P s a lm o f th e F i r s t Tone*
■ m - i - j vj -j j j z± ez
l» Jtit 0o1»>tv«-9 dotwir>-o / -Sc-dc a. Art-fa-i* ~ I* '
>?. i -r r r [ m m *= + = $
*— P art nr-*~
£ ^ - p i f
b) The G r e a t e r P s a lm o f th e F irs t Tone*
» j J : <r;
M na n i — ii - C*i • A n - V - Jna m e-- a Oo— ^Tli - num
- f, - dflt ft n - ru mi me- n. --- ji0.— —
f fYUtjh'i " f''Ctt^ fin — -nt-ma. tA&'O. 0o — m ‘-nn.r>}.
I i... n ■)— a ?SD

& -*— w~*
00 ffi
39
add something about the differences of all the mode, and with
this final reference to the problem involved in the use of
the differences, he concludes his discussion of the church
formulae according to his time. The reference to the differ
ences is given in the following paragraph;
A far more burdensome task, however, is that con

cerning the differences of the modes, a superfluous
thing according to my way of thinking. As I believe,
they arose In connection with the main formulae, either
because there was no unity among the teachers and first
writers of this art, and thus the formulae were used
for the differences, and vice versa; or, what is more
probable, because of the excessive exactness of cer
tain musicians, who in the examination of the intona
tions of the antlphons, have confused a matter clear
in itself.40
Because these formulae have been considered by so learned a
theorist as G-afurius, even though he believes they are super
fluous, G-larean proposes to set examples of them in all the
modes. Since there are so many of these, I have given here
for consideration only the various endings for the first mode.
From this illustration, the nature of the formulae may be
ascertained clearly.
40Glarean, p. 30. See earlier reference to differences

In this chapter, fn. 12, and fn. 35.
40
Example 8. The Differences for the First Mode According to

Glarean. (G-larean, p. 3 0 . )
D
j j r r n n 1^
M. * .-J. , * 0 J *....« 9 j.
E u. 0 u. a .- e-r~ Oi'Here-ntes:---
A
ft— F~ \-rr\ iiif-p ^ v -.r r q n
B A J ZMZ.
± = £ '1 1 T~-
Ornithoparcus also finds the variation in the differ
ences very confusing. He complains of this, as he did in his
observation of the variations found in connection with the
performance of the psalms themselves. He says;
Differences of the essences of tones there be

none, but for the unlearned there are some framed, that
they may the easier begin in the divers beginnings of
tones. . . . Therefore I find no cause of this, but
only use; neither have I found it written by any musi-
tian. . . . For the differences give occasion of many
confusions and errours.4!
In concluding his discussion of this matter, Ornithoparcus
gives a final warning that it is necessary to be careful of
the 'bapital tenours" of the tones, so that one does not mix
^•Ornithoparcus, p. 29.
41
himself up with unnecessary rules and thus make an easy mat
ter dlf f i c u l t . ^
Though, in his discussion of mode in general, Aron
makes many allusions to the use of the differences for the re
cognition of the mode, he does not give any specific examples
of these nor of other formulae. He does give the medial ca
dences for each tone, which in his discussion seem to have a
relation to the differences; and which, as may he pointed
out, agree with the endings of the differences given by
Glarean (see example 8). For both theorists, those for the
first mode are D, F, G, and a.
In all the treatises excepting that of Aron, the dis
cussion and illustration of the regular formulae assigned to
each of the eight modes is concluded with a reference to a
special formulae, known as an irregular tone. This is called
Tonus Peregrlnus and though connected in practice with the
115th Psalm sung at Easter, it may be used whenever there is
need for an irregular tone. It is given in plainsong setting
by Glarean and Ornithoparcus (example 9, a and b), and in
four parts by Agricola (example 9c). In the example below,
the two versions of the plainsong melody for _In Exltu may be
compared with the melody in the dlscantus of the four-part
setting by Agricola, by which variations may be noted.
^^resumably, by his capital tenours, Ornithoparcus is

referring to specific differences for the psalms. These
appear at the beginning of both the greater and lesser psalms
in each mode and are labelled thus, in his illustrations.
42
Example 9. The Tonus Peregrinus According to the Theorists. 43
a) As in G-larean. (Dodecaohordon. p. 31*)
D j' 1' I irt t - 4P-#-

T j Bs—Tt -— E — y
* m 4 ~M J #— f t
*-t
in Cf - ' l - t u - Israel Je A-etjypte Don) as JaCtl Aef>dj>u - 1o ■ Barba r-a
b) Second, in Ornithoparcus. (M c r o . p. 36 .)
&
* I t) BX-i-fth Israel Ae f l e ^ j > t o Do- m * * J« Cot jo p o p Io B *rU -ro
c) Of the Strange Tone in Agricola (n.p.).
/-* > ,» j* ^
S 5 B
Je Ae-yypto 0o*>&%£tbJfpopnla 0«r-l>«i' 1 - o
£ TiflJ flji-
r» _ «iN Ac A c - j j p t B . Oow»s3«'t^j>»j>»-ia 'q£u.m>.
Miili
* In nci-tw Israel Jr Oo-W<*s TvoUfpj* I. 8*r.u. - *r»
T7~
£ r ----1 * ,1 , // « - 22E .. -#— #-
*3h s§e
I - ^ 'U h ;L B ■■- 4 4
in Ac Aaqjj’ j'1 0O«vMJ Hub Jc pop* U - 0«t-Uo-o
ext
’-Fa Israel
^ C o n c e r n i n g the Tonus Peregrinus see Willi Apel,

Harvard Dictionary of Music, Article on Psalm Tones, p. 612.
Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
43
In his conclusion to the discussion of the formulae,
Glarean states that there is much concerning this whole prob
lem which could still be added. Nevertheless, here enough has
been shown to give a fair idea of the 16th century practice in
the use of the modal formulae of the church. In the latter
part of the century, in connection with the 12-mode system,
though the formulae are of even more questionable Importance
than earlier, we shall have occasion to consider them again at
least briefly.
Transposition within the 8-Mode System in the 16th Century
Transposition may be defined as the change of the mode
from its specific octave position to another octave higher or
lower. In the new position, accidentals are used to preserve
the correct interval pattern of the mode. Glarean*s emphasis
on the knowledge of octave species, i.e. of the knowledge of
the correct position of half steps in each octave, is based
partly on the necessity for being able to recognize the mode
in transposed position. This may be seen in the following
statement: "Whoever knows the octave species well, will easi
ly judge the song of every mode. This we must impress upon
the mind very often, and with prejudice, because the songs
become changed through transposition. "44 According to the
theorists, the transposition regularly practised in 16th cen
tury music is that of a 4th above the normal position of the
mode, and with the aid of b flat. However, other
44
Glarean, p. 24.
44
possibilities are recognized and discussed in the treatises,
and, at the same time, there is evidence of some confusion re.
gardlng the practice.
Ornithoparcus defines transposition as the removing of
a song or key (i.e. clef) from its proper place.
For to transpose is to remove a song, or a Key from

the proper place. And transposition is two-fold viz.,
of the song and of the key. It is the voicing of con-
juncts, for whilst we strive to avoid conjuncts, we doe
elevate the song from the proper place of his end above
to a fifth, . . .4°
In this somewhat obscure paragraph, Ornithoparcus gives evi
dence of the earlier practice of transposition found in tra
ditional medieval theory. Among the medieval and early
renaissance theorists, transposition of plainsong melodies up
a 5th was the usual practice, since it could be accomplished
without the use of any accidentals, in contrast to transposi
tion a 4th higher which required b flat.4^ However, the
transposition a 5th higher applied regularly only to the first
four modes, and occasionally to the fifth and sixth modes as
well. As an illustration, Ornithoparcus gives the Respon-
sorie, Ite in Orbem, first in the regular position, then trans
posed a 5th higher.
45Ornithoparcus, p. 26. In a discussion of "musica

ficta," Ornithoparcus (p. 24) defines "conjunct" as follows;
"Nov; a conjunct is this, to sing a Voyce in a Key which is not
in it. Or it is the sodalne changing of a. tone into a semi
tone, or a semitone into a tone."
4®0rnithoparcus seems to Ignore the f# which is required

to preserve the third-fourth modes correctly at the interval
of a 5th higher.
45
Example 10. Transposition of a Melody to Avoid Conjuncts.

(Ornithoparcus, p. 26.)
Ornithoparcus attempts to clarify his position on the
practice of transposition with further discussion. First, he
defines the "affinal" keys as the letters which end the ir
regular songs, i.e. the closes of the tones transposed a 5th
higher. Of these, a is the affinal for the first and second
modes; b for the third and fourth; and o for the fifth and
Art
sixth. Next, with a somewhat disorganized and confusing
series of rules, he sums up his viewpoint concerning transpo
sition. From these rules it is clear that he recognizes two
types of transposition: that of a 4th higher, as well as that
of the 5th higher, already considered. This may he observed
particularly in one of the more Important of these rules;
"Let every transposition be from a final, to a 5th above to
the proper affinal; unless necessitie compel that it be up a
4th."4® An example of a case of "necessitie" mentioned above
47The fact that Ornithoparcus makes no provision here

for the seventh and eighth modes supports an earlier statement
in which he says that a song of the seventh and eighth modes
is not transposed.
4 80rnithoparcus, p. 27.
46
is found in the illustration of a melody in the third mode.
Here both transpositions are given, but it is obvious that
both are not equally desirable. In the transposition of the
E-mode up a 5th to the B-octave, either the tritone b-f which
results, or the accidental f sharp needed to correct it, is
more objectionable than the b flat needed for the transposi
tion a 4th higher. Thus the latter is preferable to the for
mer.
Example 11, Another Melody, with Transpositions a Fifth and

a Fourth Higher. (Ornithoparcus, p. 26.)
il «■>J~H ^-K- q ft \ \ 1 r
»fr
-M[s
Iy•i'f.*» **
> I- .
T*
t ;It
Rej ^1 at'
■nonn*pc>s'
i
s. It a
vqlen
tie> t^n,niar',a. TranJj>»s<tioaum-tia
be nc. i|ol« ns .
From the examples as well as from his rules, it is
apparent that according to Ornithoparcus the modes may be
transposed either a 4th or a 5th higher than the original po
sition. Though the 5th above seems to be the normal Interval
of transposition for him, that of a 4th higher should be used
whenever a tone transposed up a 5th needs more conjuncts than
that up a 4th, or when other objectionable features result,
such as the trltone in the example above. The recognition of
transposition up a 5th t\Tas explained in the discussion of the
"affinal" keys (see p. 45). Transposition of a 4th higher is
4?
recognized by two things; 1) when the close is a note other
than the regular final of the mode; 2) when b flat is found
at the beginning. Thus, a song ending in j£ sol-re-ut with
b flat is the first or second tone transposed up a. 4th; a
song ending in a-la-mi-re with b flat is the third or fourth
mode so transposed, and so on of all the others as well.
In general, Agricola agrees with Ornithoparcus in the
matter of transposition concerning which, however, he is more
brief and also less confusing than his predecessor. He states
that a song which has its final note on any other key than
those given as the regular finals, viz. D, E, P, a n d i s a
transposed song. The correct endings for the transposed modes
are given in a paragraph which shows that he recognizes trans
position both a 4th and a 5th higher.
A song which has b natural and ends in a, is the

first or second tone. If in c, [with b natural^ it is
the fifth or sixth tone. On the other hand, a song
with b flat which ends in g is of the first or second
tone, but if it ends on a, the third or fourth tone.
If it ends in b, it is the fifth or sixth tone, in c,
the seventh or eighth tone.4^
Although Agricola recognizes transposition in the same two
intervals as Ornithoparcus, it is clear that he sanctions that
of a 5th higher only for the first and second, and for the
fifth and sixth tones. On the other hand, transposition a
49It is strange that Agricola gives the b flat as the

close for the 5th-6th modes transposed a 4th higher, but fails
to mention the e flat which would be necessary to avoid the
tritone b-flat to e, found in the mode in its new position.
48
4th higher xvith b flat is accepted for all the eight modes,
even for the fifth and sixth whose initial note is given as
the b flat itself.
In connection with the recognition of the mode by its
final and species, Aron refers many times to certain practices
which must be interpreted as transposition, though this is not
mentioned* The only clear reference or discussion of the sub
ject in his treatise is that found in the chapters on the in
dividual modes. In these, there is conclusive evidence that
the regular transposition which Aron recognizes is that of a
4th higher with the use of b flat, and found with all modes
except the fifth and sixth. Aron explains that the b flat is
used regularly in these two modes in their normal position on
F, and thus cannot be a sign of their transposition.
In G-larean* s treatment of transposition, since he is
presenting the viewpoint found in the writings of his time, we
may expect little variation from the preceding accounts of the
practice. From the beginning of his explanation, however, he
places more emphasis on the transposition up a 4th, although
he does not immediately recognize this for the seventh or
eighth modes.
For, if then, the location of the first and second

modes is D sol-re, it is also found frequently, espe
cially in four-voice songs, in G- sol-re-ut, but not
without fa on b, [i.e. b flat]; this takes place in
order that the lowest voice, which, makes an octave
49
with the middle; {i.e. bass and alto], may remain with
in the Guidonian scale.50
However, that another transposition is possible may be seen in
the following paragraph;
Sometimes the first and second modes close in a la-

mi-re, but in such songs as do not exceed the 5th, since
otherwise neither the first mode above, nor the second
mode below could keep their fourths, for la-mi,
[i.e. e-bj, enters for the 4th sol-re, [.i.e., &-al,
which is against the nature of these modes.5i
Glarean1s meaning is clear, if one understands the spe
cies of 4th with which he is concerned in this paragraph. It
may be explained further as follows; If the D mode is trans
posed a fifth higher, the 5th species of the mode, i.e. D-A,
will fit the new 5th position, A-S, in either the first or
second modes, However, if a melody in such a position, i.e.
a 5th higher, goes over the 5th, to remain in the same mode
as the original it is necessary to use accidentals to correct
the 4th mode. The reason is that the new 4th, E-A, has its
half-tone in a different place from that of the old one, A-D.
Transposition of the third and fourth modes follows
the pattern given above for that of the first and second modes,
a 4th higher with b flat; and, in their new position these
modes will close in a. H 0wever, Glarean emphasizes that the
50Glarean, p. 24. By Guldonlan scale, Glarean means

the hexachord system of Guido, in which garama-ut, or G, is the
lowest note. In normal position the D mode drops below this
note.
51Ibid., p. 24.
50
third and fourth modes may not be transposed up a 5th, since
they may not close on b. The fifth and sixth modes, as they
are now used in the octave 0, may also move a 4th higher, i.e.
KO
to F, with b flat. He points out further that the seventh
and eighth modes close properly only on G, although they could
close on G with b flat.
After brief consideration of other possibilities,
G-larean states that he will conclude this matter by giving the
true rule concerning transposition. "The song of every mode
can be closed in each 4th hey, (i.e. 't^le above every
final], if there is a flat on b . 1,53 This he has recognized
earlier in connection with the modes on D and E. It is also
common practice with the fifth and sixth modes, which, accord
ing to G-larean, are now used in the octave C, and when found
on F with b flat are understood to be in transposed position
a 4th above their original place. His rule shows that now he
will also admit the transposition of the seventh and eighth
modes a 4th higher. From these concluding remarks on the sub
ject of transposition, it is clear that G-larean, taking an un
equivocal stand on the matter, accepts that of a 4th higher
as the regular interval of transposition, as opposed to that
of a 5th higher, which is the regular interval of transposi
tion in traditional medieval theory. In this respect his
3^Compare Glarean1s position on the 5th and 6th modes

with that of Aron. See page 48.
53Glarean, p. 24.
51
contribution is simply one of a clarification of the practice
in the early 16th century theory, and thus of the position
generally accepted in Renaissance theory, that the regular
transposition permitted is in the interval of a 4th higher,
and with the use of the accidental b flat.
The Extension of the Modal Ambitus
According to G-larean, the earliest church songs used
scarcely the full 5th of the mode as the ambitus for the songs,
a practice to which the Ambrosian songs adhered most closely.
The first extension of this limited range was the gradual in
crease of the ambitus of the song to the octave, the true
system of all the modes. It is obvious that having reached
this point, composers would not long be satisfied within these
limits, and thus the practice of adding notes to the octave,
either above or below, or both, would be the next step in the
normal course of development. In the theory of this time,
these extensions were deviations from strict modal usage only
in the fact that they caused some difficulty in the identifi
cation of the mode in use. However, in spite of this, exten
sions were commonplace in practice, and thus accepted by the
theorists. This may be observed even in the treatises of an
earlier period. In these, the extensions are classified by
the theorists according to the use of the ambitus of the mode
in a melody, and are recognized and discussed at length in
most of the medieval treatises. The classifications are de
fined by such terms as Perfect, Imperfect, Superfluous, and
52
those of the Mixed modes, all of which will be discussed later.
In reference to the compass of tones, Ornithoparcus, in
his Micrologus, says* "Now to every tone there are granted
but ten notes or voices wherein he may have his course . . .
Although at this time the licentious ranging of our modern
musitians, doth add an 11th. 1,54 H e does not elaborate further
on this matter, but in a diagram showingthe compass of the
modes (see p. 5), there is shown, for most of the modes, a
range other than the regular octave species normally assigned
to them. Some of the modes do not fill out the octave, while
the others exceed It, sometimes both above and below. How
ever, Ornithoparcus gives no example of this in use and no
further explanation, nor does he classify modes as we find in
the earlier treatises, and some of the later ones also.
Agricola, like his predecessor, recognijes the exten
sion of the ambitus of the mode in use. He explains that the
authentic modes frequently ascend above their final, at times
to a 9th or a 10th, and below, a2nd. Later, in defining the
compass of both the plagal and authentic modes which are in
extended position, he says;
Also, one often finds the ruling C 4 *©. authentic]

tones ascending an 11th or 12th over their octaves;
such tones are called 'more than perfect1, that is,
more than complete. Likewise, the subordinate [plagal]
tones descend below their 4th, as for example into the
5th and at times in the 6th.
Of several illustrations in four parts in which extension of
^40rnithoparcus, p. 11.
53
the ambitus Is shown, the following Is a good example. In
this it may be pointed out, that the tenor extends to an 11th
in the 3rd mode.
Example 12. Extension of the Modal Ambitus According to

Agricola.5 5
■K7
'ike "ft'"! Tone,Wtrc,^
In the Dodecaohordon, after a summary statement con
cerning the gradual change in compass of the modes, G-larean
gives some attention to the practice as he observes it in the
music of his time. H e says of this;
In the uneven ti.e. authentic] modes therefore, the

church songs frequently add a tone below the octave as
is shown in the first and seventh modes; to the 3rd
mode, they add at times, a major third, but to the fifth
^Âgricola calls attention only to the extension in the

tenor. The bass also has an extended ambitus of an 11th.
54
mode, a small halftone. Inversely however, they add a

tone above to the even [plagal modes], as to the sixth
and eighth modes; to the second mode a halftone, though
se.ldom; to the fourth mode, the halftone very frequent
ly, as is shown in many songs in this mode.5®
It is obvious that if the extensions given here were
the only ones permitted, the limits within which a composition
could move would be very restricted, especially in polyphonic
song. In addition, there are compositions which were part of
the traditional body of liturgical music, whose range already
exceeds the normal extension permitted to the modes. Clearly
some provision must be made by the theorists for Justification
of such practice. Therefore, the theorists recognize a class
of compositions which they call mixed modes. In their simplest
form, such compositions show the main characteristics of both
modes, i.e. the entire range of the authentic plus part of the
plagal, or vice versa. They were identified in the usual man
ner, and assigned to one mode or the other of the pair; and
by some theorists, to a regular class of mixed modes. However,
since these compositions of mixed modes have greater signifi
cance for the problem of change of mode, or what we shall call
modal modulation, they will be discussed in greater detail in
a later chapter.
A comparison of Glarean1s exposition of the 8-mode sys
tem with those of the three theorists considered before him
may be expected to reveal little variation since, as he himself
56Glarean, p. 25.
55
states, he Is presenting here only what he finds, in,the wri
tings of his time. Nevertheless it Is possible to point out
two main differences between his account and those of the
other theorists; first, the clarity with which G-larean ex
plains the structure and use of the eight modes; and second,
throughout the entire first book of the Dodecachordon, the em
phasis with which he maintains that the ideas presented are
not his, but those of his former teachers and his contempora
ries. His reason for maintaining this position in relation
to the 8-mode system is clearly comprehended in the following
paragraph;
. . . we shall nevertheless later give an account of

still other characteristics of the modes; yet, accord
ing to our custom, we want to explain first, that which
our musicians teach, and then in the other books, to
add the teachings of the Ancients, in order that every
one may see easily, how our teachings agree with those
of the Ancients,
In this statement, in addition to a justification for
his review of the 8-mode system, there is an implication that
Glarean1s view of the modal system is at variance with those
of his contemporaries. Concerning this, it is obvious from
several things in the first book of the Dodecachordon, that
one of the main points of disagreement .between G-larean and his
contemporaries is the number of the modes. The first evidence
of this is in the title of his treatise, Dodecachordon, a word
meaning twelve, and in support of which, Glarean gives a table
57&larean, p. 22.
56
of the twelve Greek modes at the very beginning of the trea
tise. In addition, an introductory statement to the discus
sion of the modes is also indicative of Glarean's disagreement
on the point mentioned. "Of the fourteen modes which can
arise from the seven octave species, the theorists of our time
recognize only eight.
Having concluded his survey of the 8-mode system
according to contemporary writing, Glarean, in a section desig
nated as "forward" to the second book of his treatise, sets
forth a brief preview of the problems he faces in connection
with a clarification of the modal system in use in his time.
In this, he gives some indication of the nature and contents
of the later portions of his treatise. He states that, in a
recent work by Gafori, he had hoped for an explanation of some
of the perplexing spots which bothered him in the ancient theo-

59
retical writings. However, in spite of his statement to the
contrary, Gafori had not consulted the original sources, and
in presenting the material from secondary sources, only added
to the confusion already existing. This confusion is based
primarily on two things: first, on the naming of the modes;
and second, on the fact that the problem in regard to the
^^Glarean, p. 22.
^Glarean, p # 4 4 . The work of Gafori mentioned by Gla

rean is the treatise De Harmonla instrumentorum Opus. By
ancient authors Glarean has reference to those wnose writings
preserve the musical science of the Greeks, and which Gafori
claims to have translated from Greek into Latin. Glarean
names the following: Bryennlus, Bacch&us, Aristides
Quintillianus, and Ptolemaeus.
57
eighth, mode had never been correctly explained. These are the
issues Glarean intends to clarify. In so doing, he wishes to
show that the modal system practised in his time is not a new
system, but really that of the ancients hidden in misunderstand
ing through the centuries, and which he wishes to restore to
its rightful place. With such an explanation, Glarean pre
pares us for what he terms is the real purpose of his work,
which is best expressed in his own words in the opening para
graph to the second book of the Dodecachordon.
It remains to us now, to explain the higher and

more important part of our undertaking, which is to be
observed, as it were, as our indicated goal, and as the
harbour of this difficult voyage, namely, that concern
ing the twelve modes of the old musicians, in. order
that we offer to our time a worthy treatise and show
that the title, "Dodecachordon,11 set at the beginning
by us, is not to be taken casually.60
^Glarean, p. 50.
58
CHAPTER II
THE TWELVE MODE SYSTEM IN RENAISSANCE THEORY
In an account of the historical evolution of the eccle
siastical modal system, we find the following paragraph;
Boethius and the rest of the theorists were, in so

far as the modes went, far more a source of mystifica
tion than of enlightenment. Valiant and clumsy attempts
were made by the writers . . . to reconcile the earlier
with the later, the past theory and the actual practice
(e.g. in the nomenclature of the modes); but they only
resulted in much confusion both at the time and since.
When, hoxtfever, this element is eliminated from their
writings, there remains a real development and a true
exposition of the modal system . . .1
The result of Glarean1s attempt to reconcile the old and the
new theory, and the theory with practice, is aptly described
in the above quotation. As in the case of the earlier theo
rists mentioned above, if the confusing elements from the
early writers are omitted from Glarean1s exposition of the
twelve mode system, the remaining material shows a logical ex
tension of the tonal system important for an understanding of
16th century music and theory.
In the beginning of the second book of the Dodecachor
d o n , Glarean states that he has tried thus far to reveal the
basic elements and principles of modal practice according to
the writings of his time. Now, he will proceed to the main
part of his work, namely, the exposition of the twelve modes
^See article on the Ecclesiastical Modes by W. S, Rock-

stro, Groves Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 4th ed.
(London, 1948), III';475.
59
of the older musicians (i.e. of the ancients) by which he
means to justify the title of his treatise. The exposition
of this 12-mode system is a detailed procedure, and is based
on a clear presentation of the structure of the modes.
Glarean's study of the problems of structure emphasizes
two factors which are inter-related; first, the octave species
as the basis of the modal system; and second, the importance
of the 4th and 5th species as component parts of the octave
and the means of distinguishing the octaves from each other.
A knowledge of both the octave and the 4th-5th species, ac
cording to Glarean, is absolutely essential for an understand
ing of the nature of the modes and the way they are used in
practice. Of almost equal importance in his exposition, is
the order and naming of the modes, and because of its relation
to the same problem in the ancient systems, this is a means of
reconciling the old with the new theory. In Glarean's discus
sion, a third and final topic, which we shall consider briefly,
is that of the closes and the transposition of the twelve
modes.
The Twelve Mode System According to Glarean
Structure of the Modes; The Octave, the Fourth-Fifth Species
In the distinction of the modes, Glarean affirms again
what he has emphasized earlier in his treatise; "The modes
distinguish themselves in no other way than through the seven
octave species out of which they arise. The octave species,
6 0
however, are taken from the various positions of the half-

p
tones . . ." The origin of the octave species may "be found
in the ancient Greek System of which Glarean gives a brief
description based on Boethius;
When, therefore, one takes the seven octave species

from the lowest tone up to the highest Tof the complete
series of diatonic tones possiblej found from proslamba
nomenos up to Paranete Hyperbolaeon, there are found "in
ascending order from Proslambanomenos, the lowest tone,
seven modes whose names are; Hypodorian, Hypophrygian,
Hyp.olydian, Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian and Mixolydian.3
Hoxtfever, in the Greek system the seven octaves did not fill
out the double octave of the Complete System. Ptolemy, ob
serving this fact, remedied the situation by the addition of
another octave series beginning on the a above the initial
note of the seventh mode, and ascending to the aa an octave
higher. The mode represented by the new octave from a to aa
was called the Hypermlxolydlus, and coincides exactly with the
first mode, or Hypodorlus, but an octave higher.4
The entire series of octaves was represented by the
diatonic notes only, i.e. without any b flat. According to
^Glarean,.p. 50.
3Glarean, p. 51. Proslambanomenos and Paranete Hyper-

bolaeon are the names given to the extreme notes of the
(Jreek diatonic system which, according to Boethius, extended
from A to g, before Ptolemy added the extra tone at the top
to complete the two-octave system.
4The names, Hypermlxolydlus and Hypodorlus, are retain

ed here to distinguish these two modes from those named by
Glarean in the above quotation. Of these two, the latter
corresponds to his Hypodorian, but the former is not included
in his discussion.
G1
Figure 6 0 The Two-Octave System of the Greeks. (Glarean.

p. 51.)
W « » Cf 1
*K
£
SC
X
t
a S'
3 n
.*•» ft
C•
f*
Cw *
X
^ P o s itio n s o f th e H a lfto n e s .
62
Glarean, there are no songs which do not fit into these simple
modes though some songs may need b flat, for example those on
F, These once had their location in the octave, C-c, and can
now again be found in this octave, their real location. The
diatonic octave series described above, with the modes repre
sented by them, may be observed in Figure 6 (page 61), of
which Glarean gives the following explanation;
In this simple diagram, the position of the half

tones in the octave species is preserved exactly. The
first octave species, the Hypodorian, A to a, has its
halftones in the 2nd and 5th places; the second, the
Hypophrygian from B to b, in the 1st and 4th places;
the third, or Hypolydian from G to c, in the 3rd and
7th places; the fourth, or Dorian from D to d, in the
2nd and 6th places; the fifth or Phrygian from E to e,
in the 1st and 5th places; the sixth, the Lydian from
F to f, in the 4th and 7th places; and the seventh, the
Mixolydian from G to g, in the 3rd and 6th places. In
the diatonic species of the octave, among the fourteen
pitches, there cannot be found any other locations for
the half tones.
Up to this time, Glarean has been preoccupied solely
with the nature and origin of the octave species. Now he
considers-, in some detail, the relation of the 4th and 5th
species to the octs.ve. The interdependence of these two inter
vals, and the octaves which they compose, is based on the
changes in the position of the halftones in the 4th and 5th
species. These changes may be observed in the summary below.
5Glarean, p. 51.
63
Three species of 4ths; Halftone changes three times.
1st species, halftone In the middle: re. ml fa sol.

2nd species, halftone is first; inTâ sol la.
3rd species, halftone is at the end; ut re rni— fa.
Four species of 5ths; Halftone changes four times.
1st species, halftone is second; re mi fa sol la.

2nd species, halftone is first; mT"~‘
fa sol re mi.
3rd species, halftone is last; fa sol re ml~l,a.
4th species, halftone is third; ut re mT""fa sol.
A matter that has been of great concern to G-larean is
that out of the twenty-four possible connections of the 4th
and 5th species, only seven octave species arise. To clarify
this, it is necessary to recall the two-fold division of the
octave described in the first book of the Dodecachordon;
first, the harmonic division which has the 4th on top and the
5th below; and second, the arithmetic division xirhich is the
reverse, with the 5th above and the 4th below (see page 20,
fn. 2-5). Of the combinations made possible through these two
manners of division, or conjunction, the diatonic genus accepts
twelve and rejects just as many octaves. The reason is simply
that some combinations of the 4th and 5th species do not re
sult in the seven diatonic octaves used by the modal system.
Hot only are accidentals necessary to preserve the correct
pattern of whole and half steps in the 4th-5th species con
cerned, but the octave species, which result from the combina
tions of such 4th-5th species, will have a different pattern
from any of the regular seven diatonic species.
64
To clarify this problem, an example of such a combina
tion as described above may be demonstrated with both the syl
lables and pitches. If, for example, th.e third species of
4th, ut-fa, is added above the first species of 5th, re-la,
the resulting octave species has four successive whole tones.
Representing this with pitches, we may add to the first 5th
species, D-E-F-G-A, the third 4th species which, beginning on
A, must be read A-B-C#-D. Not only must the accidental
£ sharp, be used to give the correct pattern of the 4th spe
cies ut-fa, but the octave formed from this combination with
its four successive whole tones is not one of the diatonic
species, and therefore cannot be used.
There are four such octave types resulting from cer
tain combinations of the 4th-5th species. They are as fol
lows; 1) an octave with four successive whole tones; 2) an
octave with five successive whole tones; 3) an octave with
one tone between two halftones; 4) an octave with two suc
cessive halftones. However, it is obvious that these octave
types are duplicated among twenty-four possible combinations
of 4th and 5th species, for Glarean says that there are
twelve which must be rejected. At the close of his discus
sion, in a diagram which shows these combinations, the above
four types may be found both among the harmonically and the
arithmetically divided modes. Furthermore, numbers one and
three are found four times each, the other two, twice each,
thus giving the twelve octaves which are to be rejected.
65
In the same way, that is, that some of the octave
types appear more than once, the remaining twelve connections
of the 4th-5th species, that are retained, can be reconciled
to the number of the seven diatonic octave species. This is
clearly stated by Glarean as follows; "Although twelve octave
series arise out of these twenty-four connections, there are
really only seven different ones [i.e. seven different types],
for of the twelve, five coincide with the remaining."® The
twenty-four combinations of 4th-5th species, of \yhich twelve
are to be retained and twelve to be rejected, may be examined
in Figure 7 (see p. 66), as they are represented in the above-
mentioned diagram from Glarean. Concluding his discussion of
this matter, Glarean represents the species in still another
manner. This may be observed in a second diagram in which
the seven diatonic octaves are placed on the staff. In this
arrangement, found in Figure 8 (see p. 67), the octaves are
shown with both the arithmetic and harmonic division, and thus
the two modes of each octave are indicated.’'’
From these two diagrams, and the preceding discussion,
it is evident that the five so-called new modes which are add
ed to the original seven, are really the result of a "turning
around" or, an Inversion of five of the original seven octave
6&larean, p. 53.
7Although, in showing the two-fold division of each

octave, Glarean includes the octaves on B and F, it may be
pointed out that on his diagram he marks one of each of
these divisions as spurious.
66
Figure 7. R epresentation of the Twenty-Four Combinations

of the 4 t h -5th Species, T welve to be Retained,
Twelve to be Rejected. (Glarean, p. 54*)
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fourth -fa sol lmi sol mi sol 'mi ,fa sol ( It Harmonic
cmi
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species. 'mi fa re /fa re e fa re 'mi /fa re Divis i o n
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la mi sol
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species. -fa sol re d l
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species. re ‘mi ut re •mi ut £ ut re 'mi ut
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•
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These appear four times on each side of the diagram.
**These appear twice on each side,
67
Figure 8, The Seven Octave Species, Each with Its Two-Foil

Division, (Griarean, p, 55, )
r:
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68
species. Of these, the inversion of the Dorian system to
give the eighth inode, which is the Mixolydian in Glarean1s
system, has already been mentioned in the preceding chapter
(see page 22). Glarean points out that the eighth mode in his
system is not the same as that found in the system of Ptolemy.
For, while the eighth mode of Ptolemy had the same series as
that of the first octave species or Hypodorian mode, Glarean's
eighth mode has the series of the Dorian, but differs from it
by having arithmetic division. Thus, there are actually only
four new modes to add to the original eight. These may be

O
given in the manner shown below;0
The Original Octave Division Inversion New Mode Position
Hypodorian (A to a) 4th-5th 5th-4th Aeolian 9th Mode
Phrygian (E toe) 5th-4th 4th-5th Hypoaeolian 10th Mode
Hypolydian (0 toc) 4th-5th 5th-4th Ionian 11th Mode
Mixolydian (G to g) 5th-4th 4th-5th Hypoionian 12th Mode
The remaining two octaves of the original seven, those on B
and F, are not divided in the same manner as the five already
described. The reason for this is explained by Glarean as
follows;
®Glarean gives a confusing explanation of the last two

modes of this summary. He compares the third on C, to the
fifth or Lydian mode, as it is used in his time, on F with
b flat. However, the former has arithmetic, the latter harmo
nic division. In the same manner, the fourth above, on G,
is compared to the old sixth mode, or Hypolydian on C, now
used with b flat. This mode resembles the Mixolydian, but
the latter has harmonic division, the former the arithmetic.
69
The hypophrygian, i.e. our fourth in harmonic divi

sion, and the Lydian, i.e. the old fifth mode in arith
metic division, really cannot be divided in this way in
the diatonic genus, because the voices in the combina
tion of the 4th and 5th species are so shaped to one
another, that they form a diminished 5th on the one side,
and a tritone on the other side.9
In his discussion, Glarean has emphasized the impor
tance of the halftone: first, in pointing out its change of
position as a means of distinguishing the different 4th and
5th species; and second, as a means of distinguishing one
octave from another, because of the way in which the 4th-5th
species are combined. However, in the first diagram the
4th-5th species are given only in terms of the Stlmme, while
pitch names indicate the initial note of each octave. In con
trast to this, lire may observe the use of pitch names to repre
sent the species in the second diagram.
Although Glarean does not indicate the use of any acci
dentals, and even says that the tetrachord Synemmenon implying
the use of b flat is not found in this system, the first dia
gram, if represented with pitch names, would contain acciden
tals. As demonstrated in the example given for the octave
with four successive whole tones (see page 64, first paragraph),
these accidentals would be needed to give the correct succes
sion of tones and halftones, to correspond to the syllables
above each initial pitch. It is possible that in his first
9Glarean, p. 55. In this, Glarean means the Hypophry

gian cannot be divided harmonically, nor the Lydian, arith
metically.
70
diagram (Figure 7), Glarean, realizing the necessity for using
accidentals to represent the systems correctly, omitted the
pitch names deliberately. However, it is more likely that
Glarean omitted these because of his intention to emphasize
the principles of modal structure through the species, and
also to call attention to the purity of the original modal sys
tem. In addition, it was customary in the treatises of the
time to represent the modes by the means of the Stlmme.
From the preceding discussion and accompanying diagrams,
it is not difficult to see the logic of the 12-mode system
from a structural point of view, i.e. based on the different
ways of combining the 4th-5th species. However, another me
thod by which the existence of the 12-mode system can be jus
tified is in the inversion of the position of the 4th and 5th
species within the octaves. This method Glarean calls a turn
ing around of the modes, as may be observed in the following
description:
For, from the same reason by which our eighth mode

is distinguished from the first, that it simply turns
around, there can be twelve modes. For, wherefore have
not also the turning around of the second and third
modes [i.e. the Hypodorian on A, and the Phrygian on E],
the names of modes; as indeed, the turning around of
the old sixth and seventh modes, which we nevertheless
have given other names, . . . In connection with the
fourth and fifth modes, there is another relationship
because they really cannot be turned around like the
others.10
10Glarean, p. 56,
71
According to this explanation, the basis for Glarean's
entire argument is that the earlier theorists had to admit
the inversion of the species, in order to complete their sys
tem of eight modes. ' Thus they inverted the first species,
that of the Dorian octave on D, to make their eighth mode
which is demonstrated below:
First Mode D E F G A B C D (5th below, 4th above)
Eighth Mode D E f I T A B C^D (4th below, 5th above)
This principle, applied to the second and third modes of the
original system, creates two additional modes in the octaves A
and E, and this may be demonstrated in the same manner as the
above.
Inversion of the second mode gives the ninth mode:
Second Mode AB C D E F G A (4th below, 5th above)
Ninth Mode A B C D E F G - A (5 th below, 4th above)
Inversion of the third mode gives the tenth mode;
Third Mode E F G - A B C D E (5 th below, 4th above)
Tenth Mode £ F gTa B C D E (4th below, 5th above)
Finally, this inversion of species may be applied to the old
sixth and seventh modes on C and G respectively, and there will
be derived the two Ionian modes. These, Glarean says, he will
^ N o t e in connection with these, that the inversion of

the second mode gives the Aeolian, or first new mode; the in
version of the third mode, gives the Hypoaeolian.
72
show later In another manner. Glarean is convinced that these
modes have existed.in practice from the Greek p e ri od to his
own time, even though they were not recognized by theorists.
It is apparent from the above discussion that these
modes were preserved in the regular systems through an inver
sion of the species, as shown. However, as he has promised
above, Glarean points out that in connection with the Ionian
modes, it is .possible to show another way in which the old
modes were preserved and us e d in practice. This may be observ
ed in the fact, that the turning around of the species in the
o l d sixth and seventh modes produced the two Ionian modes.
However, this can be true only after the new fifth and sixth
modes have been created by adding b flat, which happened be
cause, in the old sixth mode, C-c, and the old fifth, F-f, the
b natural was softened by the musicians with the regular use
of b flat. The result was the creation of a new sixth on C
w i t h b flat, whose series of pitches is like that of the old
seventh mode, G-g, except the latter is harmonically divided.
The new fifth on F with b flat is like the old sixth, except
the latter is arithmetically divided. However, by shifting
these new modes to their proper position, i.e. to octave spe
cies in which they can be represented diatonically, and invert
i n g the species of 4ths and 5ths, Glarean has the two Ionian
modes. According to him, these two modes were preserved from
the ancients and used through the intervening centuries in
the manner described.
73
We may now examine all the modes in a diagram which
shows their position on the staff with the pitch names, ac
cording to Glarean*s system. In this is preserved the succes
sion of the seven octave species with the twofold division of
all the modes, or fourteen modes in all, plus Ptolemy*s eighth
or Hyperjastian mode. Of these, two are rejected, one of the
2nd and one of the 6th octave species. Ptolemy's ol d mode
corresponds again with Glarean's first species and thus only
twelve modes remain. (See figure 9, p. 74.)
Continuing his discussion, Glarean anticipates two ob
jections to his ideas from the musicians of his own time.
These musicians will say that the change of position of a
halftone within the series by no means causes the change of
the entire system. A song which 3hows such a change is merely
to be labeled Synemmenon, i.e. it uses b flat, and such a for
eign tone is not believed to alter the mode. In reply to
this, Glarean agrees that a foreign tone may occur as an acci
dental if it is used only a few times in the course of a song.
However, if it occurs regularly, such an accidental will cause
the mode to change, and this is supported by a specific
example: "For, if the seventh mode removed the halftone in
its 5th, from the 3rd place to the 2nd . . . then it falls
completely into the first mode, The seventh mode changes
the halftone position within its 5th species, by changing B
to B flat, thus the halftone B-C, originally in the 3rd place
l2Glarean, p. 58.
Figure 9. The Twelve Mode System Represented on the 74
Staff. (Glarean, p. 57)
A - a
Arithmetic Two Modes of the Hypodorian Harmonic
* * M'
II J *IX or Aeolian '
B - b
Arithmetic One Mode of the Hypophrygian Harmonic
ZL-JL
gz^: f C=
-#— L-#■ i ± * ■»
IV £ Discarded Hyoeraeolian
eoliai
C - c
Arithmetic Two Modes of the Hypolydian Harmonic
Old VI XI or new Jastian or Ionian

D - d
Arithmetic Two Modes of the Dorian Harmonic
£ ^ g-'q ■j*
■» • *[ * g: ■» ~W-
VI II or Hypo mixolydian I
£ - e
Arl.thmetic Two Modes of the P h r y g ia n H a rm o n ic
§
X or Hypoaeolian ’ ’ ' m
F - f
Arithmetic One Mode of the Lydian Harmonic
Discarded Hyperphrygian Old V

G - g
Arithmetic _ Two Modes of the Mixolydian Harmonic
T f *
XII or new VI or Hypoionian. VII
A “ 3,
Arithmetic Hyp er mix oly di an: VIII of Ptolemy Harmonic
K . . ♦ 1 * £ i
£
ii IX
No- 122 10-PLAIN
75
in the 5th, G-D, as Glarean says, moves to the 2nd place, but
is now A-B. The result of this change, made by replacing B
with B flat, is a series of tones in the G octave, which cor
responds to that of the first mode on D, and may be demonstra
ted as follows;
-— " ^ — «.
Seventh Mode with its new half-tone G G D S__F G
equals First Mode in normal position D E. F G A B__C D
bo th expressed in Stlmme show the same remi__fa sol la__________ ,

4th-5th species, and halftone position re mijfa sol
A second objection expected by Glarean is that the in
version of a system, or mode, does not represent a new and dif
ferent system. His answer to this is that it is a weak argu
ment, for otherwise, how can the so-called eighth mode be
separated from the first,, in the old system? Therefore, if
these musicians oppose the 12-mode system on this basis, i.e.
on the inversion of the system, they are not even able to ex
plain their own last mode. Glarean gives a final answer to
the objections by summarizing the facts once again.
When accordingly the regular eighth mode is distin

guished from those seven real and unquestioned modes,
and this on account of a single inversion in the sys
tem, then it is necessary that we admit to the system
of the modes, the remaining ones which we ng.me the
ninth, tenth, eleventh, and twelfth modes.
15Glarean, p. 58.
76
Concerning the Order and Naming of the Modes
In connection with the second objective of his study,
an explanation of the order and naming of the modes, Glarean
has previously pointed out that it is not the modes themselves
which are difficult, but rather, the great number of names
given to them by the earlier writers. This is verified in
his discussion. However in considering the names and order
in which they came to be arranged as described by Glarean, we
shall be concerned with only two of the issues of his exposi
tion; first, the manner in which the order of the modes de
veloped; and second, the naming of the modes.
Concerning the development of the order of the modes,
Glarean reminds us that the Greeks simply gave the modes names
without numbers. Their names for the modes, Dorian, Phrygian,
and Lydian, probably arose from the fact that these scales
were associated with certain tribes, and thus, these tribal
names were preserved. Of the three, the Dorian became the
first mode of our system because its octave species is first,
i.e. composed of the first 5th and 4th species. To this was
added its plagal with which it has the 5th in common, before
the other remaining main modes. Thus, the Hypodorian became
the second mode because it is the plagal of the Dorian. The
Phrygian became the third mode because its octave species was
next to the Dorian, and its plagal, the Hypophrygian became
the fourth mode. This caused the Lydian to move to the fifth
place, and its plagal, the Hypolydian, became the sixth mode.
77
To these six modes from the six octave species, the Mixolydian
is correctly added as the seventh mode, because it uses the
7th octave species. However, it could not have its own pla
gal as the other modes for, if one added the 4th below the 5th
as was the custom, the mode so formed coincided with the sys
tem of the Dorian.
In spite of this, the church musicians called this the
eighth mode and added it to the system, so that each of the
four main modes could have its plagal, and the system could
be rounded out. Because this eighth mode could not be sepa
rated from the first according to the nature of the octave
species, the early musicians had to find some justification,
and took refuge in the inversion of the system. Happily, this
proved successful, and applying it to the other modes, i.e.
both arithmetically and harmonically, they added four more
modes to the first eight, which are the ninth, tenth, eleventh,
14
and twelfth. These four new modes, however, only preserved
the same systems as the former eight, for just as we can see
the Dorian system in the eighth mode, the ninth has that of
the Hypolydian, the tenth that of the Phrygian, the eleventh
that of the Hypophrygian and the twelfth that of the Mixo
lydian. These last four modes seemed to be less used, and be
gan to be neglected, either because they were not known to
l^This explanation is pure hypothesis on G-larean’s

part and shows that he still feels the need to justify his
1 2 -mode system by relating it to that of the past.
78
everyone, or because the first eight modes seemed sufficient
for all the compositions.^
"And now," says Glarean, "we come to the naming of the
modes, of what use are further w o r d s ? T h e Dorian, Phrygian,
and Lydian were called after the people of these names because
they were the modes most in use, or because they were discov
ered by them, or for some other reason. The Hypodorian, Hypo-
phrygian, and Hypolydian were named because they are the pla-
gals or subordinates of the former, with which they have the
5ths in common. The Mixolydian has its name because it is
related to the new Lydian with b flat,-^ As for the naming
of the eighth mode, which Arlstoxenus calls the Hyperjastian,
it is the same as the first species of the Dorian, but is
arithmetically divided. It has the same 4th and 5th as the
Mixolydian and, as its plagal, it should be named the Hypo-
mixolydian. The Aeolian and Ionian modes have their names
from the tribes of the same, and their plagals being named
from position simply add the prefix, Hypo-, giving the Hypo-
aeolian and the Hypoionian m o d e s . A t this point in his
-*-^The Hypophrygian and Lydian could not be inverted as

already pointed out. Even if it were done, the uneven octaves
resulting would still be the same octave species as the former.
l^Glarean, p. 59.
l?This can be seen in the fact that the Lydian with B

flat has the 5th, ut-sol, and the 4th, re-sol. These are the
same species as in the Mixolydian and the Ionian, although in
a different position.
1ft
The la.st five modes of the system are named the same
way in the ivritings of Arlstoxenus, except for the Jastian and
its plagal, which names Glarean changes to Ionian.
I
79
discussion of the naming and order of the twelve modes, Gla-
rean summarizes the twelve modes according to harmonic and
arithmetic division;
Harmonically divided there are six pure modes;

Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian, Mixolydian, Aeolian, and
Ionian; one is impure, the Hyperaeolian. Even so there
are six arithmetically divided pure plagal modes; Hypo
dorian, Hypophrygian, Hypolydian, Hypomixolydian, Hypo-
aeolian, Hypoionian, and of these, one is impure, the
Hyperphrygian, F-f; and, here follows the table showing
the division of all the modes .1 9
The table to which Glarean refers at the close of his summary,
simply translates the information given into notation on the
staff. It may be observed in Figure 10, page 80.
The Finals and Transposition of the Twelve Modes
Just as in the 8 -mode system, the closes fortheextend
ed, or 1 2 -mode system, are of two positions, depending on the
division of the octaves. If they are divided harmonically we
have the authentic modes as pointed out above, and these have
their closes in the lowest note of the octave. The plagal
modes are those which are divided arithmetically, and have
their closes in the lowest note of the 5th which they share
with their main mode. As they share the 5th, so they share
the final, and thus in the 1 2 -mode system there are six finals
l 9 Glarean, p. 62. The impure modes mentioned in this

paragraph are those with the tritone.
80
Figure 10. The Twelve Modes on the Great Staff: Six Harmoni
cally Divided, and Six Arithmetically Divided, and
the Combination of These with the Seven Octave
Species. (Glarean, p. 64.)
The Six Harmonically Divided Modes
5 5 7 9 11
I
£
Dorian Phrygian Lydian Mixolydian Aeolian Ionian
The Six Arithmetically Divided Modes
2 4 6 8 10 12
k
m »■ I
£
Hypo- Hypo- Hypo- Hypo- Hypo- Hypo-
Dorian Phrygian Lydian Mixolydian Aeolian Ionian
The Seven Octave Species Hach With Two Modes4-1-'
1 2 5 4 5 6
-ic. J t-
-0 0-
m
.1 . 2 5 . 4 5• o. 7. 8 . S- 10. 11. 12.
Dorian Phrygian Lv d 1 an Mixolydian Aeolian Ionian
Hypodorian Hypophry. Hypolyd Hyporaixo. -Hypoaeol. Hypoion
OC\
“ The seventh octave species Liven by Glarean is shown
on his diagram between the 5 th and 6 th octaves, and is that o'
o-b with the two modes- -Hyp era eo 1 ian .
-
.
;nd Hyperrhryvian . Th ey
have been omitted because they are discarded from the system.
81
for the modes vrhich may be summarized in the following manner;
Aeolian and Hypoaeollan close In A.

Ionian and Hypoionian close in C.
Dorian and Hypodorian close in D.
Phrygian and Hypophrygian close in E.
Lydian and Hypolydian close in F.
Mixolydian and Hypo mixolydian in G.
The closes above serve the modes in the regular posi
tion. However, Glarean points out that several of the modes
of the new system extend their ambitus outside of the Greek
scale or two-octave system. Even the bass of a part song in
some of the modes, other than the two lowest, moves outside
the Greek system. To offset this difficulty, the six lowest
modes become accustomed to transposition, a 4th higher from
their places with B flat. Thus, the Aeolian and its plagal
may close in D, the Ionian and its plagal in F, and the Dorian
and its plagal in G, and all with b flat. This was done in
order that the lowest systems could have a place among the
higher keys, and all the voices still remain within the scale.
In concluding his exposition of the twelve modes. Glarean has
an interesting paragraph which I quote as follows;
The very complicated reckoning of this order of the

modes and the very great distinction of the location
^-Glarean points out that the B is omitted as a final,

because songs seldom close on this note. However, he plans
to show some songs, later, that do use this close, and he says
that these will belong to the Hyperaeolian and Hyperphrygian
modes. These two modes were added after the rest, but ha,ve
the same distinction as the others, i.e. the first is authen
tic, and the second is plagal.
82
were to blame that the tradition concerning them remain

ed hidden to the learned for so many years, and no one
if he were asked, which mode was the Ionian, or in
what way he distinguished it from the Lydian, or which
mode was the Aeolian, and what way it deviated from the
Dorian, could explain these things exactly; although
the authors mentioned that frequently in the church
singing, the passing over from the Lydian into the
Ionian, and from the Dorian into the Aeolian* happens
without the people knowing how it happened , ™
That Glarean's 12-mode system should be adopted imme
diately and without question, by the theorists who succeeded
him, is hardly to be expected. On the other hand, the fact
that it found widespread acceptance by theorists in the cen
tury and a half following its appearance in the Dodecachordon
may be attributed, at least partially, to two reasons. The
first of these is that the necessity for a change in the
existing modal theory, recognized even by the early 16th
century theorists, received more and more emphasis as the cen
tury progressed. The second reason may be found in the wide
spread influence of Zarlino's theoretical writings which ap
peared in the last half of the 16th century. Both of these
reasons which are interrelated will be supported in subse
quent discussions, but for the present we are most concerned
with the second one mentioned.
In most respects, the ideas of Glarean and Zarlino on
the 1 2 -mode system are similar, particularly in the two-fold
manner of showing the structure of the modes, and the empha
sis on the logic of recognizing the twelve modes from the
^^Glarean, p. 80.
83
inversion of the seven octave species. Nevertheless, an exa
mination of Zarlino's exposition of the 12-mode system is im
portant. Not only does he give support-to Glarean's argument
for the extension of the old 8 -mode system, but in his xrork
there are other innovations which are significant for a better
comprehension of the transitional state in which we find the
modal system at this time.
The Twelve Mode System According to Zarlino
Zarlino begins his exposition of the 12-mode system
with a discussion of the structure of the modes, and how it
happens that only twelve modes arise from the seven octave
species. However, in a manner different from that of the pre
ceding theorists, Zarlino relates the consonant intervals used

O'*
for modal structure to his harmonic theories. This may be
P3
The relation of the consonant Intervals to the harmo
nic theories of Zarlino, mentioned here, can be explained
briefly as follows: The harmonic theories of Zarlino were ac
tually a result of a change in the concept of the consonant
intervals which was projected by Zarlino in the second book of
his L ’Istituzlone. In this part of his work, Zarlino sets
forth Ptolemy's diaton-diatonic principle for the tetrachord
as the basis for the interval measurement of the tonal system
in use up to this time. In a penetrating analysis of this sys
tem, Zarlino shows how the proportions do not produce satisfac
tory consonant intervals. As a result of this, he discards
the Ptolemy system, replacing it with the diatonic-syntonon,
in which the tetrachord is divided according to the nature of
the harmonic numbers, thus producing satisfactory consonant
intervals. This refers especially to the 3rds and 6 ths. Hoxv-
ever, as a result of his study, Zarlino derives his senarlo,
a series of numbers which gives the proportions of all the
intervals. In this way, it is evident the 4ths and 5ths are
among the intervals affected by his ideas. An analysis and
evaluation of these theories is given by Walter Gehrmann,
"Johann Gottfried Walther als Theoretiker, " v'fM, VII;471-473,
(1391).
84
observed in the following explanation, quoted in some detail
from the fourth book of his L'Istituzione harmonlche. ^
It should be pointed out that the octave which is

the first consonance . . . is divided in the first place
by a middle note into its principal parts, which are the
5th and the 4th; which parts, because they are often
joined together, sometimes' the larger being placed be
low, sometimes the smaller, give them [i.e. the octavesj
two conjunctions or unions. Of these, the one [i.e.
the 4thJ is not whole, or complete and good everywhere,
and thus the other is considered more sonorous and
sweet. Its sweetness [i.e. the pleasing sonority of
the octave], arises when the 5th is placed below the
4th, and these, being joined in such a manner, cause
the octave to be separated by a middle note, which is
the highest note of the 5th and lowest of the 4th. Such
a division, and therefore such a conjunction is called
Harmonic. For, the terms of the proportions which give
the form to the 5th, and also to the 4th, which are
6.4.3, are said to be in harmonic proportion. The other
division is less satisfying because it is truly not a
sonorous thing; because, in this arrangement, the conso
nance is not located in its proper place, and this is
called Arithmetic division. It arises when the 4th is
joined by a middle note to the contrary, . . . having
the lower part, and the 5th the higher. And because
the proportion contains the terms which give the form
to the 4th and 5th, these being 4.3.2, . . . the conso
nances are placed in a manner that can be called the
accidental order rather than the natural . ^
From this discussion, it is apparent that the structu
ral principles of the modes given by Zarlino are the same as
those explained in such painstaking detail by G-larean. Never
theless, it is also apparent that certain new ideas appear in
Zarlino's reference to the 4ths and 5ths. His emphasis on
~4&ioseffo Zarlino, L'Istltuzlone harmoniche (Venice,

1558). This edition was consulted and collated with the 3rd,
published in 1589 and known as De tutte 1 1Opere. The latter
is generally considered the besTT”edition.
^Zarlino, p. 378.
85
the contrast in the quality of these two consonances, and fur
ther on the superiority of the harmonic arrangement of these
within the octave, is a departure from the traditional manner
of presenting this subject of modal structure.^® It is im
portant because it shows that Zarlino is laying the foundation
for a change from the strict modal viewpoint to one more com
patible with the harmonic developments in the music of the
time. In this respect it is a significant contribution to the
beginning of the development of a harmonic theory.
In contrast to Glarean, who continually underlines the
antiquity of the 12-mode system, Zarlino finds no need to jus
tify the modes through an earlier existence but rather empha
sizes the necessity for this number from the logic of the
structure, and the evidence of their use. He says, "Prom the
union of the 4ths and 5ths arise the modern modes, which the
practical musicians require for their composition. . , . Such
modes necessarily ascend to the number of twelve, nor can they

on
be less, no matter how many antique modes there may be."
Zarlino points out further, tha.t the modes are used in his
pp
The difference in quality of the two consonances,
the 4th and 5th, and the superiority of the harmonic arrange
ment of the octave, have both been recognized from the earli
est times in theory. However, Zarlino1s studies of the
interval proportions and relations resulted in the derivation
of the senarlo, in which is found the concrete proof for the
superiority of the 5th and the harmonic arrangement of the
oct 8.ve.
^7 Zarlino, p. 379.
86
time in a manner far different from that of the antique
modes.
Continuing his exposition of modal structure, Zarlino
considers the union of the 4th and 5th species as the basic
principle of modal structure. In comparing this with Gla-
rean's exposition, there is immediate evidence of a change in
the order of the modes advanced by Zarlino.
We will begin then in order; If we take the first

species of 5th located between C and G, and join it
from above with the first species of 4th contained be
tween G and c, from such a union, there is no doubt
that we shall have that which we now call the first
. mode; contained in the first species of the octave
placed between C and c. Likewise, if we take the same
species of 5th and add below, the sa.me species of 4th,
from C to Gamma, there will result the 5th species of
the octave located between G and Gamma which' contains
that which we call the second mode. 9
Combining the rest of the 4th-5th species in the two ways men
tioned above, i.e. 4th plus 5th, or 5th plus 4th, as did Gla-
rean, Zarlino obtains the twelve diatonic modes from the
seven octave species. These may be observed in Figure 11,
which illustrates this discussion.
^ G l a r e a n also refers to a difference between the use

of the modes by his contemporaries and that of an earlier
period, but mentions specifically the fifth and sixth modes.
Possibly both theorists have in mind the greater freedom in
use of accidentals of this time.
29Zarlino, p. 379.
87
Figure 11. The Twelve Modes According to Zarlino.

(Zarlino, p. 380)
----------- ^ g- -------
($------ &--- Jii---- <a— fP
----------- ....T
_--- = * = \
y - : - r -
f $ * - “ :----- 1
First Mode Second Mode Third Mode Fourth Mode
o --- &-------- : --
0- "■n I , * =
-J.---------- q--- $ 1 ----- * ---
iff “ -------*
Fifth Mode Sixth Mode Seventh Mode Eighth Mode
«■ =■■■■■■■ f ~ ~ .. -------- - ------------ 1

| -- * a J
Ninth Mode Tenth Mode Eleventh Mode Twelfth Mode
In a final statement concerning this manner of determining the
12-mode system, Zarlino re-emphasiz.es the number of modes;
"in such a manner, we will have neither more nor less than
twelve modes, because such species cannot be joined in another
manner, the one with the other, except with great inconvenience;
30
as is manifested to everyone who has judgment."
Zarlino turns now to another manner of showing the ex
istence of the twelve modes in the same arrangement. In this,
as did Glarean before him, he emphasizes the division of the
octave in two ways, the harmonic and arithmetic, in contrast
to the combination of the species to form the octave.
Zarlino's discussion of this differs from that of G-larean, in
that he gives the harmonic division of all the octaves first,
^Zarlino, p. 580. Notice in the table, the opposite

order of the harmonic and arithmetic division.
83
following this with the arithmetic division.
And to observe a good order, we shall commence from

the first species and after, we follow with all the
others, dividing them first in the harmonic, and after,
in the arithmetic divisions. If then, we take the first
species of the octave contained from C to c and divide
it harmonically in two parts with the note G, there is
no doubt that in the lower part, we have the first spe
cies of the 5th between C and G; and between G and c,
the first of the 4ths; which as seen above constitute
the first mode.31
Next, Zarlino, as in the previous combining of the species,
takes the D octave and, dividing this harmonically so the 5th
is below and the 4th above, he derives the 3rd mode. In such
a manner he continues with each of the octaves in turn and
thus derives all the authentic modes by harmonic division.
In a similar manner, Zarlino takes the octaves and di
vides them arithmetically to obtain the six plagal modes. Con
cerning these, he begins with the G octave itfhich has the same
species as that of the C octave, and is related to it through
the species. From this beginning he preserves the order in
arithmetic division, so that the modes thus derived will cor
respond to those of the harmonically divided series with which
they have the 4th-5th species in common. The complete system
with both authentic and plagal modes is illustrated in
Figure 12. Of this diagram, and in conclusion to his discus
sion of modal structure, Zarlino gives the following summary
statement.
3 ^Zarlino, p. 330.
89
And in such a manner we will have twelve modes;

six from harmonic division; and six from the arithmetic,
as I have shown. And although the seventh species of
octave B-b may not be divided harmonically because, if
the division is made by the note F, in the low part will
be found the diminished 5th, B to f, and in the upper,
the tritone f to b. Nor may the fourth octave species,
F to f, be divided arithmetically because, if the divi
sion were made by the b, there would be heard the tri
tone from F to b in the low part, and the diminished
5th from b to f in the high part. . . . Therefore, there
cannot be more than twelve which are noted by this order
in the example above . .
^Zarlino, p. 382-383. Zarlino refers to the diagram

in figure 12 which is given before this final summary in hie
treatise.
90
Figure 12, The Twelve Modes through the Division of the

Octave. (Zarlino, p. 382)
Universal Examples of All the5 Modes

a V u _________ //
t«—
-tya I D a
** Ikt/ <^
5u ^— •^ ,.g. n SI If e> d
_____/> - —
a " B — ^-- m-
&1 o --- UC/—- .... a ~ "7T Vn a . V
■o —
•
• d
G c 0
O o 0 p
P g 0 d w G
CO o G o p C
P P o id 0 > P
> ro P co d p CC
P P co 1—1 o P P
Tf > P > p >
P !> P CO o P
O Xi p Tj p p 'd
P P > p
P O c O 0 p G 0 o
G P Tj o id P P s p
£ P 0) P P 0 G X! rd 0 d
XI a5 d G >> P o P i
—1 o
P e ■H o s rH p p P b p E
P X! > S ,d rH > d d a 1—I d
d p d p aJ p o b p b b
as p a* p o P e d o x:
d .d d d G o p
G b >> d r— >> b ,d E d
.C H g O rd X<—d4 p d o x>
P i>> rH d >> £ i
—1 b E
XI ctf p X> d b >> s xt d rf
s O a! o ,D o b G
o ■r) *cH £ P .b p d rrt ,d d
d a; -p o G p P p G •H
P d 0) d d od G G x) rd ^5
P S p id G s Si d p G o'
c G .£{ d id ,d •S-i d > P o
d o' d O'1 •H p d o p P b
G o •H d o > p o' ■d >
,Q b U o b P d o •rH G
or d P b b G G -d Td
a; g G Td Td o
P P a> G xi G G G o o G iS
o vo■
* tJ P o P P X) -X Tl
o O a o o o o x;
IS ,d X! ««p p
tf ■G rd p P d
P x: p p P 'xt x p d G
g
o d p ra xt d p pt p G >
o 0 X d hD p d p G > C G
g O P P P xt G 15 G •H iI —
cn IX CO to El P Ed D-. P CO K-d M
Concerning the division of the modes into authentic and
plagal, Zarlino, in a manner similar to that of Agricola (see
p. 15), distinguishes the former as ruling, and the latter
as subject modes.
91
The first [i.e. the authentics] will be called prin

cipal, because honor and preeminence are given always to
those things that are more noble. Whence, considering
the music, principally the consonances divided harmoni
cally are more nobly divided than those that are not,
the others being divided in another manner,33 — ■
According to Zarlino, some theorists believed that the authen
tic modes were so called because they have more authority than
the others, or because they are more augmentative in that they
can ascend further above the finals than the modes of the se
cond group. Nevertheless, the authentic modes are still de
signated by the uneven numbers because, when they are placed
in natural order with the second group as 1.2.3.4.5. 6 .7.8 .9.
10 .1 1 .1 2 , they have the places of the uneven numbers.
The modes of the second group are designated by Zarlino
as "laterals." This name they have from the arrangement of
their 4th and 5th species within the octave, which is the
opposite of that for the authentic modes . 3 4 Zarlino explains
this matter specifically:
This can be seen in the first and second modes of

those demonstrated, that removing the stable 5th from
the union or addition of the 4th, G and c, which repre
sents the first authentic mode, and adding it below be
tween C and Gamma Cin descending order] there is born
the second mode which is its collateral.35
In his usual manner, Zarlino applies this procedure of changing
3 3 Zarlino, p. 383.
3 4The names "lateral" and "collateral" are frequently

used for the plagal mode in Spanish and Italian treatises.
3 5 Ibid., p. 383.
92
an authentic mode into a plagal, described above in connection
with the first mode, to all the other modes, and thus derives
the plagal from every authentic.
Turning to a consideration of the finals or closes of
the modes, Zarlino points out that the final or close of every
mode is known by considering the composition of the mode, which
is the union of every 5th with every 4th as already shown.
Since the lowest note of every 5th is common to two modes, just
as the 5th itself is common, both modes of a pair use the same
note as the final. "Thus, the lowest note of the first species
of 5th is found in the first and second modes in C, and common
to these two modes. Such a note becomes the final not only of
the first, but of the second as well . " 5 6 Zarlino gives the
finals of all the modes, showing the one for each pair as it
is derived from the lowest tone of the common 5th and thus
common to each two modes. They may be observed in Figure 13
which Zarlino precedes with the following explanation:
If all these things are understood then, there will

not b e 'anyone that, considering them, does not know how
to accompany the mode authentic with its plagal espe
cially knowing that the final note of the first and
second modes is C; that of the third and fourth is Dj
that of the fifth and sixth is E; that of the seventh
and eighth is F; the ninth and tenth, G; and the
eleventh and twelfth, A, as is seen b e l o w . 37
5 6 Zarlino, p. 384.
37loc, cit.
93
Figure 13. The Finals of All the Modes. (Zarlino, p. 384.)
Prioo Terzo Quin to Settimo Nono Undecimo
ZCL p m
9-
Secondo Quarto Sesto Ottavo Decimo Duodecimo
G. D. E. F. G. a.
In the preceding paragraphs it has been shown how the
theory of the 12-mode system given by Glarean has Immediate
effect in the work, of Zarlino. It may be pointed out also,
that in his innovations, specifically the differentiation in
the quality of the 4th-5th species in terms of harmonic pro
portions, and the change In the order of the modes, Zarlino
has advanced another step beyond the achievement of Glarean. °
I n the period following Zarlino, the teaching concerning the
modes for which he and Glarean are responsible spread very
slowly. The modal scales did not lend themselves in pure form
to figured music, a fact which caused the recognition of the
modes in such music to be surrounded with difficulties. For
this reason, in their treatises, the theorists of the next cen
tury and a half continued in their preoccupation with the study
of the modal system and its use in music. In giving brief con
sideration to these treatises, in the remainder of this
3®Zarlino shows more significant advances than those

mentioned, but since they are not specifically related to the
exposition of the twelve modes, they will be considered at a
more appropriate place.
3§Kurt Benndorf, "Sethius Calvisius als Kusiktheoreti-

ker," VfM IX; 450, (1894).
94
chapter, we shall be concerned only with the way in which the
1 2 -mode system is accepted or rejected by the theorists.
The Modal System in the 16th-17th Century Treatises
of the Period Following Glarean and Zarlino
0? the theorists who follow 'Glarean and Zarlino and are
responsible for continuing the modal tradition and all it im
plies to the close of the 17th century, there are a consider
able number. Among these theorists, there are many who accept
the system as given by Glarean and Zarlino, recognizing the
necessity for the changes advocated by these two. On the
other hand, there are those who, though cognizant of the
changes made, nevertheless show a desire to preserve the tra
ditional modal system. One point on which all the theorists
show agreement .s the basic principle for the construction
of the modal system. This is the concept that the modes are
derived from the seven diatonic octave species xirhich are dif
ferentiated from each other by the change in the position of
their halftones. The modes derived from these octaves are
distinguished further by the arrangement of the various 4th
and 5th species within them.
On the number and order of the modes there is some dis
agreement among the theorists, and for this reason we shall
divide them into two main groups for consideration. On the
one hand are those who maintain the traditional 8 -mode system
of medieval theory, and on the other, those who advocate the
95
12-mode system of Glarean and the new order proposed by Zarlino.
The first of these groups is the smaller, but extends chronolo
gically from the middle of the 16th century up to the end of
the 17th century. The second and larger group likewise spans
the full century and a half. V/ithin this latter group further
division may be made for convenience.
A The 8-mode System in 16th and 17th Century Theory Following

Glarean and Zarlino
Of the theorists who show close adherence to the prin
ciples of more strict modal tradition, we find two whose works
appear between those of Glarean and Zarlino. The first of
these is Vicentino, whose treatise, L 1Antica Muslea ridotta
alia moderna prattlea (Rome, 1555), was written in an attempt
to reconcile modal theory (i.e. of the ancient Greeks) with
the "modern practice," the music of his own time. By modern
practice, Vicentino had in mind specifically what Zenck calls
the "colorful, refined harmony of the Italian madrigal school,
represented by the work of such composers as Willaert,
Marenzio, Da Rore, et al."4^ Vicentino believed the use of
chromatics increased the expressive possibilities of music and
added to its enjoyment. Thus, he argued for the restoration of
the chromatic and enharmonic genera of the ancient Greek system,
^ H e r m a n n Zenck, "Nicola Vicentino1s L 1Antica musica

(1555)," in Festschrift fflr Theodore Krover (Regensburg, 1933),
p . 89.
4lVicentino and others, recognizing the practical value

of chromatics, try to justify practice by grounding this in
antique theory. See Theodore Krcyer, Die Anfjinge der Chromatik
1m Itallenischen Madrigal des XVI Jahrhunder'ts '(Leipzig, l9~02).
p. 105.
96
In the 3rd part of his work, Vicentino develops the sys
tem of eight modes, and, in contrast to Zarlino, in their tra
ditional order from Dorian up to the Mixolydian. He shows
their construction from the union of the 4th-5th species within
the octave, and gives their aesthetic properties, transposi
tions and cadences. He makes the usual distinction between the
authentic and plagal. In addition, he shows how the eight
chromatic and enharmonic modes are constructed from the combi
nation of the enharmonic and chromatic species of the 4ths and
5ths,^
Vicentino was a practical musician as well as a theo
rist, and to illustrate his theories, he published two books
of madrigals— the first in 1546, and the second in 1572. In
an evaluation of his contributions, Kroyer points out that the
first of these works showrs no trace of chromatics. However,
the second, published after his treatise, shows a complete
break with the old modal system in the use of such foreign
tones as a, d, and c flats, and a and d sharps, and thus il
lustrates c h r o m a t i c i s m . F o r the performance of the music
written in the enharmonic and chromatic modes, Vicentino in
vented an Instrument called the ar chi cembalo. Vv’ith this
instrument, he entered the field of speculative theory, which
at this time was concerned with interval measurement and
4^For an explanation of the enharmonic and chromatic

species, see Willi Apel, Harvard Dictionary, the article on
Greek Music, part Il-b, p. 303.
45Kroyer, p. 101.
97
problems of temperament.
There Is little doubt that Vicentino added much to the
confusion of modal theory in his time, and yet, in all fair
ness, it can hardly be said that his work belonged only to a
passing phase.44 The judgment of his contemporaries as well
as of some modern scholars is unnecessarily harsh, for
■Vicentino deserves credit for emphasizing the importance of
the use of chromatics, and in this way, causing a further ex
tension of the diatonic circle.
The second treatise mentioned above appeared in the
same year as that of Vicentino. This work by Juan Bermudo,
Comienc^k el llbro llamado declaration de instrumentos (Ossuna,
1555), is directed especially to the attention of the organ
ists of Bermudo's time. In his treatise, Bermudo is concerned
with practice in relation to the problems of tuning and the
keyboard, and in many diagrams of the keyboard there are signs
of his advanced thinking wTith regard to the use of the modes
on the organ. For, although Bermudo considers only the system
of eight church modes, and shows their usual construction from
the 4th and 5th species, he indicates that he recognizes a
more free use of transposition than permitted in common prac
tice, according to the theorists. In his experiments with ex
tension of the 8-mode system, to keys other than the white keys
of the organ keyboard, he permits the use of modes beginning
^Q-roves Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 3rd ed.,

V ;494. In his article on Vicentino, Reginald Lane Poole is
responsible for this judgment concerning the letter's work.
93
on b flat or c sharp. For this reason, as with Vicentino
Bermudo is to be placed among the theorists of the period who
contributed to a widening of the tonal circle, and who tried
to find theoretical justification for what they observed in
practice.
In another work concerned with the problems of tuning
and temperament, Trait e de l 1accord de 1» espinette (Paris,
1650), Jean Denis, a French theorist, presents the 8-mode sys
tem in the usual manner. Calling the modes the "church
tones," he says that they are used by the musicians in eccle
siastical song, and they should be designated as the tones of
the ancients. As in the treatises of the medieval theorists,
Denis gives the final, dominant and mediant for each of the
eight tones.
Two treatises appearing close to the end of the century
are similar in their combination of old and new ideas. In the
first, that of Lorenzo Penna, Li priml albori musicali
(Bologna, 1696), as well as in the second, Giuseppe Frezza's
II cantore eccleslastico (Padova, 1698), there is maintained
the 8-mode system in pure modal tradition. In addition to this,
both theorists discuss figured bass, and illustrate cadences in
this manner, for all the modes. Frezza refers to the modal
system as that of eight Greek modes, while Penna calls them
the Ecclesiastical modes. The ideas of these two theorists
will be considered in more detail in the discussion of figured
bass theory.
99
In the two treatises of Banchieri, both of-which appear
during the first half of the 17th century, there is again a
combination of old and new i d e a s . 45 In his first treatise, in
a discussion of compositions in Canto fermo, Banchieri intro
duces the modes as eight in number, dividing them in the usual
manner into the authentics and plagals, and giving the caden
ces in four parts. For example, in the first mode on d, the
cadence is arranged as 1, 3, 5, and 8 of the mode, or the
pitches d, f, a, and d, in ascend.ing order. The cadences for
all the authentic modes are given in this same manner. The
plagal cadences are also given in four parts, but in a dif
ferent arrangement. Thus, the cadence for the first plagal
mode on A is a, f, d, and a, and is found in descending order,
with the distinctive interval of the mode, the 4th, on the
bottom. To support his idea that only eight modes are accept
able for composition in the church service, Banchieri gives
the eight psalm intonations.
Later discussing the modes again, Banchieri points out
that there are really two modal systems in use, each for a
different purpose. For the 12-mode system, he refers to
Zarlino and complains of the abuse of music which has permit
ted twelve modes in practice, because he believes the eight
modes are enough for the compositions of the church. On the
other hand, Banchieri admits that the twelve tones are
45Adriano Banchieri, Cartello Musleale (Venice, 1614); a

later work is entitled Organo Suonarlo (Venice, 1638).
I
100
satisfactory for secular composition, and especially for
instrumental music. He gives examples of two-part composi
tions for each, mode and tone, and, as if to emphasize the dis
tinction between the tvro systems, they are found in the twelve
modes and eight tones. Finally, although the tones show the
traditional order of the 8-mode system of the church, there
is evidence that Banchieri would accept the order of Zarlino-
for the 12-mode system.
B The 12-Mode System in the Treatises of the Late 16th and

l?th Centuries'
As mentioned above, the group of theorists which accepts
and maintains the 12-mode system in their treatises is larger
than the previous one. Of the treatises written by these theo
rists, there are four classifications which I shall discuss
in the following order; 1) Italian treatises which appear in
the last decade of the 16th century; 2) German treatises of
the middle 17th century; 3) the treatises of Gerone and Mersenne,
distinguished for their historical survey of the entire period
of modal theory from earliest times; and last, 4) the earliest
treatises of the figured bass school which still rest on the
modal system. On the whole, these works are marked by a con
siderable degree of uniformity which may be attributed in a
large part to their dependence on Zarlino just as in the ear
lier treatises before Glarean, the similarity of ideas is the
result of a reliance on the work of Gafori as a source.
101
1) Italian Treatises of the Late 16th Century
Though there were many treatises on modal theory and
practice published in Italy at the end of the 15th century,
I shall consider only two of these here. In the first,
Prattlca dl musloa (Venice, ed. 1596), the author, Lodovico
Zacconi, acknowledges dependence on Zarlino for his study of
the 12-mode system. He gives the structure of the twelve modes
as usual, first showing the combination of the 4th-5th species
to form the different octaves, and second, the harmonic and
arithmetic division of the octaves to form these same modes.
Zacconi points out that the last four modes were added to the
original system of eight church modes, and are not so well-
known as the others. Further, they seem to cause some diffi
culty in composition, and because of this, he stresses the use
of these in several examples. He refers to Zarlino for the or
der of the modes, which he believes should start with C, since
the chord of nature is that built on C fa-ut.4S However, since
this arrangement destroys the character and order of the psalm
tones, Zacconi believes it is better to maintain the tradition
al order.
In the second work, that of G-irolama Diruta, LI Transil-
vano (Venice, 1625), the modes are discussed in the usual man
ner, the twelve tones being arranged into six authentic and
six plagal. As In Zacconi1s work, Diruta believes that the
4®That is, the natural harmonic series above G as a

fundamental gives the major triad on G.
1 0 2
church practice uses only eight modes, while in instrumental
music it is clear that txirelve tones are used, and for confir
mation of this he refers to Zarlino. Diruta recognizes the
arrangement of modes beginning on C and closing on A. However,
his final summary of the modes shows them in the traditional
order, giving the first eight tones from D as the regular ones,
and calling the modes from the ninth through the twelfth the
irregular or mixed tones. In illustrating compositions for
the organ, Diruta also mentions the difficulty of composition
in the four last tones and calls the use of these a newer
practice.47
2) German Treatises of the 17th Century
The first of these works, Adam G-umpelzhaimer1s Compen
dium Muslcae Latlno-Germanlcum (Augustae, 1616), resembles the
work of Agricola in style, and seems to represent an earlier
tradition. However, G-umpelzhaimer recognizes the existence of
the 12-mode system and gives the modes in the usual order, di
viding them into authentic and plagal. He also devotes the
entire second part of his treatise to showing examples in poly
phonic practice of each of the modes in regular and transposed
position.
47The difficulty in the use of the last four modes re

ferred to by the theorists may be attributed partly to the
fact that there are not formulae for these; also, the fact
that they are used so often in transposed position, therefore
need accidentals which are difficult to use because of the
problems of tuning in this period.
In the treatise by Andreas Herbst48 there is a practi
cal and interesting discussion of the modal system. The modes
are defined, as in the older treatises, as a "certain goal and
measure of the song," and later are defined again from the
standpoint of structure. Here, as in Glarean's •work, Herbst
says that the modes arise from the seven species of the octave
4n soala dura, i.e. in the diatonic system without the use of
b flat. The modes are divided harmonically and arithmetically
to cause different effects and emotions, and these are empha
sized as a means of differentiating the modes in use. In
addition, five intervals are given as fundamental for the pur
pose of construction of the modes; the semitone, tone, 4th,
5th, and octave.
The number of modes given by Herbst is twelve. Though,
in showing the harmonic and arithmetic division, he begins
with C-c as the first octave species, nevertheless he follows
the traditional arrangement of Glarean. This is evident in
the summary of the modes shown at the end of his discussion.
Herbst concludes his exposition of the modes by giving the
authentic and plagal groups of his system, placing Dorian and
Hypodorian on D and A as the first and second modes, and the
others in order. Here follows his table of all the modes;49
48The treatise in question is that of Giovanni Battista

Chiodino, Arte prattica & poetica, trans. from the Latin-
Itallan into German by Johann Andream Herbst, and published
under the same title (Franckfurt, 1655).
49Modes marked with an asterisk are spurious because of

the tritone in the first one, and diminished 5th in the second.
104
11 and 6 C, Ionian and Hypolydlan

1 and 8 D, Dorian and Hypomixolydian
3 and 10 E, Phrygian and Hypoaeolian
5 and 14 F, Lydian and Hyperphrygian*
7 and 12 G, Mlxolydlan and Hypoionian
9 and 2 A, Aeolian and Hypodorian
13 and 4 B, Hyper a eol Ian* and Hypophrygian.
3) The Treatises of Oerone and Mersenne
In the work of the Spanish theorist, Cerone, El Melopeo
y Maestro (Naples, 1613), the modes are considered several dif
ferent times. The reason for this is that Cerone is presenting
a historical survey of the development of music, and thus of
the modal system as well, and he does this by referring it to
the background of his own time. One of his earliest referen
ces is in a description of medieval practice. Here he states
that the ancient ecclesiastical scales are eight in number,
consisting of the four authentic and four plagal modes, with
their finals on D, E, F, and G, In contrast, he points out
that among his contemporaries, i.e. the composers of organal
song, some have added the tones, called nine, ten, eleven,
and twelve, with their finals on A'and C.
In a later section of his work (Book 6), Cerone recog
nizes the existence of the twelve mode system, but here calls
the first eight the regular modes, and the last four irregu
lar. In his final discussion of the matter, which he consi
ders as it appears in contemporary practice, he gives the
12-mode system which he observes in the practice of his time,
in a manner similar to that of Zarlino. Here he quotes from
the treatise of the la.tter, a definition of mode which
105
follows; "Mode Is a form or quality of harmony which is found
in one of the seven species of the octave varied by that spe
cies of the 5th and 4th, which are convenient to its form.
Although Cerone's debt to Zarlino is very great, he criticizes
the latter for the great confusion he has caused in upsetting
the traditions of the modal system.
Mersenne, also, refers to the modal system many times
in his work, which is a somewhat disorganized account of the
whole historical progress of musical practice and of the modal
system.51 The earliest reference to the modes is found in a
discussion of the seven octave species, from which, according
to Mersenne, there arise the eight ecclesiastical modes. In
addition, he points out that, by the use of accidentals, it
is possible .to have many more modes than these eight. It is
obvious that here he is trying to find a place in the modern
system for some of the ancient modes, and further, that he is
attempting to use the enharmonic and chromatic genera for the
construction of these accidental modes. However, Mersenne
does give the 18-mode system of his own time and says that
these modes are dependent on the seven octave species.
In describing the hexachord and system of mutation,
Mersenne maintains that the tones and modes of music can be
reduced to natural, and to b molle, which can be sung without
50Cerone, p. 875.
^ M a r i n Mersenne, Harmonie Universelle (Paris, 1536)

5 Vols.
106
any mutation. This section is not clear, for, while it seems
as though Mersenne perceived the significance of the two sys
tems represented by the C mode (or the F mode with b flat)
and the A mode, (or the G- mode with b flat), and that these
were the most useful, he is not sure enough of this matter

5?
to separate these from the rest of the modes. ^ Furthermore,
he confuses the modes with the hexachord system, which he says
is now changed to a seven-note system, and by means of which
the modes are sung without mutation,
In a later discussion of the modal system, Mersenne
gives more attention to the modes as found in the treatises
and in the musical practice of his contemporaries. The twelve
modes of Zarlino are described and compared with the eight
modes which come from the use of the eight psalm tones in the
ecclesiastical service. Considering these two systems further
according to the work of G-larean, he points out that the latter
has shown and given proof of a twelve mode system, of which
these eight are a part. He states also that support for the
modes rnay be found in an examination of the psalm tones and
^^Mersenne thus seems to advocate elimination of the

confusion of twelve modes, by reducing all the modes to a major
or minor type which can be seen represented in the "natural"
or type mode on C, or F with b flat; or the "molle" or type
mode on d with b flat, or A.
53To avoid the difficulties in mutation caused by the

extensive use of chromatics and transposition, a seventh syl
lable called si (also Bo, Za, and various other names) was
added to the six syllable hexachord early in the 17th century.
This step, Important in breaking down the hexachord is usually
attributed to Waelrunt, Netherlands composer. See Hugo
Hiemann, G-eschlchte der Kusiktheorie (Leipzig, 1898), p. 409.
107
anthems used in the church. In conclusion, he summarizes the
aesthetic properties, the finals, order, and ambitus of all
the modes, presents them in a diagram as given by Zarlino,
and gives the cadences in four voices as found in Banchieri.
And, says Mersenne, these are the tttfelve modes and eight tones
of the church which are found in the music ofOrlando, Claude
le Jeune, and many others.
4) Early Figured Bass and the 14odal System
The development of a new harmonic style, in the music
appearing at the turn of the 16th century, led to a much-
needed evolution in theoretical thinking. Such a change, how
ever, did not at once become apparent in the theoretical
treatises, but in the form of brief descriptions of the new
music, and in instructions for performance. These were found
as a preface to many collections of the solo arias that were
representative of the new s t y l e . S u c h works show that while
the theorists are still bound by the modal tradition, the
practical musicians are forging ahead with the experiments in
harmonic music, and at the same time evolving a practical
theory which will permit the correct performance of the music.
54
For an excellent discussion of the practice of General-
Bass with consideration of its earliest beginnings in practical
music, its influence on theoretical development, and the compo
sers and theorists concerned, see Riemann, Geschlchte der
Musiktheorie, ch. 14, pp. 407-449. Among the many collections
which, according to Riemann's discussion (see especially p. 411),
are representative of the earliest figured bass style with
instructions for their performance, only a few need to be men
tioned. These are Adriano Banchieri's Concerti ecclesiastic!
(1595); Viadana's Cento Concerti (1602); and Agazzari's
Discorso del sonare . . (1609[.
108
In theory, this led to the gradual establishment of the figured
bass which, as we have already pointed out, was first given
with the modal cadences.
One of the earlier treatises concerned with figured bass

55
is that of Praetorius, Syntagma Mu si cum, which gives a limited
description of the practice. Praetorius, who has a historical
approach to the study of modes, as do Cerone and Mersenne, dis
cusses the modal system briefly. But, from his tables of the
modal cadences, it is clear that he maintains the 12-raode sys
tem in the traditional order, and at the same time, shows him
self in advance of his contemporaries by giving the cadences
in figured bass, with instructions to the organist for their
correct performance.
Two other works mentioned earlier in connection with
the theorists who kept to the 8-mode system are those by Penna
and Frez,za. These belong to the early figured bass group, and
like Praetorius, combine the modal tradition with figured bass
theory.. The work of Penna, somewhat more advanced than either
of the others, anticipates the last work to be mentioned here,
only briefly, since it will be discussed in more detail later.
55Michael Praetorius, Syntagma Muslcum (Kiel, 1619),

3 vol. Praetorius is by no means the first theorist to write
of figured bass In a treatise. Banchieri, in addition to his
practical demonstration and discussion of general-bass in his
Ooncertl, describes the practice further in his treatise,
Cartella husicale (1613). (See Riemann, p. 411.) In addition,
though T t is never exactly stated, G-ehrmann in his article,
"Johann Gottfried V.ralther ale Theoretiker, " gives some evidence
that figured bass is at least referred to, if not discussed
in detail, in some of the Latin treatises of the oeriod
1589 to 1620.
Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission
109
In this treatise hy Johannis Mariae Bononcini, Musico Prattico
(Bologna, 1678), the author seems to be caught in the middle
of the transition and tries to accept txvo points of view at
one time.
Of the modes which he calls toni, Bononcini says that
these are very difficult to explain at this time, because
there are so many of them and they are called so many differ
ent things. He defines scale or "Ton" as an "occupation of
harmony found in the seven species of the octave, which are
composed of the 4ths and 5ths."56 He gives Zarlino and
A r t u s l ^ as authorities on the matter and says that both of
these writers describe the 12-mode system. Bononcini finds no
difference between the authentic and plagal modes except in
range. He also discusses the accidentals which appear in key
signatures, and are used to effect a wide variety of transpo
sitions. However, in spite of what appear to be more advanced
views of the scales and transposition, he shows a reluctance
to make a complete break with modal tradition, and concludes
by giving the twelve modes as the prevailing scale system in
use at this time.
In concluding this study of the exposition of the modal
system in the treatises of the 16th and 17th century, it is
56Bononcini, p. 68.
^G i o v a n n i Maria Artusi, Delle imp erf ezioni della musl-

ca moderna (Venezia, 1600); and L*Arte~di Contrappunto
TVenezia, 1600). An Italian theorist contemporary with
Zacconi, Zarlino, etc., important for his contributions to the
theory of counterpoint, and also for his participation in the
17th century quarrel over temperament.
1 1 0
necessary to make at least tentative evaluation of the contri
butions made by the theorists. It may be pointed out that
the extension of the medieval system of eight to twelve modes-
is the first significant change to occur in the modal system
during the Renaissance. The implications of such an extension
of the system are self-evident, for, even in the writers pre
ceding Glarean, there was an awareness of the lack of unity
between theory and practice. For Glarean, and most of the
theorists who follow him, the reconciliation between the older
modal theory and the "newer” practice lay in the attempt to
make the existing tonal system "fit" the practice. The re
sult, as we have observed, is the extension of the existing
system which now permits the inclusion of the modes so common
in the practice of Glarean1s time, and xdiich could not other
wise be explained in terms of strict modal usage.
As indicated earlier, the tremendous increase in the
number of writings concerning the modes, shows that the time
was ripe for a relaxing of the older and more strict rules of
medieval modal theory. The extension of the modal system, and
consequent softening of some of the stricter principles, was,
at best, only a temporary solution to the problem, but it
paved the way for changes which were to follow. That a change
is about to take place in the history of tonality can be
perceived, throughout this full century and a half of the
continuing domination of the modal system. However, it is
important to examine the use of the modal system in the music
Ill
as It is described by the same theorists whose works have been
considered in the preceding pages. It is in this aspect of
theory that we may expect to find the most convincing evidence
of progress in the transition from the modal system to a new
tonal system. Therefore, it is only after a study of modal
usage of this time as it is described and analyzed by the
theorists, that we can make a more accurate evaluation of the
position of the 12-mode system in 16th and l?th century
theory.
112
CHAPTER III
THE USE OF THE TY/ELVE MODES IN MUSIC ACCORDING
TO 16TH AND 17TH CENTURY THEORY
It has been shown in the preceding chapter that the
extension of the modal system first proposed by Glarean is
completely logical from a structural point of view. However,
in the final analysis, the real Justification for an extension
of the traditional eight-mode system, to one having twelve
modes, must be based on clear evidence that twelve modes were
actually used in the music of the time. The purpose of the
present chapter is to consider the evidence for the use of
these twelve modes, as this is presented in the treatises of
Glarean and his successors through the 17th century. In addi
tion to this, it is necessary to examine the general princi
ples formulated by the theorists for the identification of the
modes, and the regulation of their use in the music of this
time.
In view of the extensive nature of the material on
modal usage found in the treatises of the 16th and 17th centu
ries, it has seemed advisable to set up arbitrary limitations
for the present consideration of this material. Since Glarean
is the first of the theorists to propose the extension of the
modal system, and since, according to him, this is based on
observation that the music of his contemporaries uses twelve
modes, it has seemed most logical to begin the study with a
description of modal usage as it is treated by Glarean.
113
Therefore, In the first part of this chapter, there will be
given in some detail, the analysis and illustration of the
use of the twelve modes in 16th century music as it is found
in the second and third books of the Do dec achor do n .1
In beginning his study of the use of the twelve modes,
G-larean tells us that since some of the modes are already
well-known, having been in use for so many years, he will be
very brief in his treatment of these. On the other hand,
those modes whose identity has been concealed for a long time
(i.e. the modes preserved in other forms as was pointed out
in the preceding chapter), he will explain in greater detail.
Olarean states further, that he will do this in order that the
reader may perceive that he is not inventing anything new, but
merely restoring the "lost" modes to their proper place in the
system. Thus, in the first part of his discussion in which he
considers the use of the twelve modes in plainsong, Glarean
treats the original eight modes in summary fashion, giving
only one or two examples of each. And, as we may expect, the
four modes which he is adding to the system are explained in
great detail, with several examples of each given to show
their characteristic use.
^Supporting his emphasis on the octave species, in his

analysis of modal usage, Glarean presents the two modes found
in each octave, together. In the present study, I have consi
dered the modes in pairs, i.e. the authentic and plagal of
each mode in the traditional manner, in order to simplify pre
sentation and later comparison with other theorists.
The Twelve Modes in Plainsong^
The Dorian and Hypodorian Modes. The Dorian mode which
reaches from D-d is the first of Glarean's system and, harmo
nically divided, has its final on D. Since the mode is so
well known, Glarean gives only a single illustration of its
use, which may be observed below in the responsory, Salve
Regina, (See example 13, p. 115.) In this melody, of which
only a section is given, the use of the b flat with the word
"misericordes" is pointed out as a characteristic effect which

3
gives the Dorian mode a strong resemblance to the Aeolian,
In connection with this, Glarean mentions that today this mode
is so often altered, one rarely finds a Dorian which does not,
somewhere, change into the Aeolian by means of a b flat. Al
though it does not happen with this melody, according to
Glarean the Dorian mode has the license of adding a minor third
above as does the Aeolian, also its plagal, the Hypodorian,
Concerning the use of the second mode of his system, the
Hypodorian, Glarean is brief; "The mode is known everywhere
and extends from A-a; its final is D, the same as that of its
main mode, the Dorian, At times its song reaches below to
% t has seemed best to follow Glarean's plan of consi

dering the modes in plainsong first, then in polyphony, since
in the latter the picture is complicated by factors peculiar
to polyphony alone,
3Glarean says this mode agrees with the Aeolian.

Zarlino likewise mentions the strong parallel between these
two modes, pointing out that the A mode is often transposed up
a 4th to the D octave with b flat. (L'Istituzlone, Book IV,
Ch. 20).
Example 13. The Dorian Mode: Salve Regina (Reasonaory)115
(Glarean, p. 92.)
I
f Sal — i)t R e- *J> vi* - p m -sc - n i C»r - Ji fa fluI— Cf — J® , erfspes
(j>: ; * [7 7 ) i
* -n o s+ v & - s a l ----------------- > rt, Ad he — &U- in a — m us- e x s u ie s - f i - I,- - i tf m e
I• — .
rd — )V\a£*2*ih£Ti"• eT £lrn — fw ,r< ~ tr> toa • ram \la I -le - 4 1 — (3 - Pru v
S 1 f * *
xi
Ad 1/(7 — (La. — f a — )l oyiVo 1I - I 0S T w- a s fh is e i-i — Cor - Acs ■ Oca j dj ci cl /i 75 Coo Uee — ------ tc
Example 14. The Hypodorian Kode: Emendemua In melius

(Responsory ) . (Glarean, p. 81.)
&
>n*S
EvUfri-clf ----- >n*s l>) Me
I)) Me Ii— h --
||‘ US)
us. ^ Kaf t^hoTaVi Cl • i/,
i g s E z a
MmS • nt-SK-h'- fo prae oflfln-'pi di

'— e - rtu>r- fis l«*e ra ' M a s 5 p a - t i ‘ - n«t»i />se -
t? ■■
-4---------- t J / .. / t
.1 |-P J $ ± y h r .& ,n
n
'
,-ten--K(it,cfi»~Utrxi-►e he>v\ for- M*s A f - ( i V q e - Da-
1 * i-*1
«=±
-tt m
>u - ne *t" r»i - Sc • he pee. - (MuS i i ----- Ai
tPJDfTENT! NT MUSK
j- ~r> n
No . 122 10-PLAIN
116
Gamma-ut and above to a which it may do according to earlier
explanation.1,4 The plainsong illustration of this mode is the
responsory, Emendemus in melius, of which the first section is
given in Example 14 (see p. 115), In this, the Hypodorian
remains well within its ambitus, showing its characteristic
modal interval at the beginning, and closing on its final, D.
A comparison of this section of the melody with that of the
Dorian example, shows the relation between the two modes, both
having similar motives, the common 5th, D to A, and the same
final, D. At the same tim'e, the distinction between the two
modes is clear, since each melody moves in its own ambitus,
and emphasizes the characteristic intervals belonging to it.
This mode has the same license as the Dorian, that of adding
the step below and minor third above which, however, is not
shown in the melody given.
The Phrygian and Hypophryglan Modes. The Phrygian mode,
the third of Glarean's order, is another harmonically divided
mode and with the ambitus, E to e, has its final on E. This
mode, like the Dorian, is an especially frequently used mode
of the older system in which the Introits and Responsories of
many of the Sabbath services were composed. As with the Dori
an, and the Aeolian already mentioned, it has the license of
adding the tone below. Unlike these modes, however, Glarean
says it sometimes adds the major third above. In the single
4Helnrich Glarean, Dodecachordon (1547), trans, by

Peter Bohn, PubAPTh XVI:81.
117
illustration of this mode which shows its character very clear
ly, we find the tone added below, although the rest of the me
lody remains within its octave. Only the first section of
this melody, Surge virgo, is given, and may be observed in Ex
ample 15, (see p. 118), In this, one sees the characteristic
interval of the mode at the beginning, in the filled-in de
scending leap, G-E, as indicated; the ambitus with tone added
below, and the close on the final, E,
The Hypophrygian mode, the plagal of the Phrygian and
therefore the fourth of the system, is arithmetically divided,
and closes on E, as does its main mode.5 Although its modal
octave is from B to b, this mode has the license of changing
its ambitus, either.to C-b, or by adding the halftone above
this, G-c. In the latter range it corresponds to the Ionian
mode, but is distinguished from this by its final and its
characteristic modal flavor. The illustration for this mode,
Example 16 (see p. 118), is a section from a Te Deum of
Ambrosius and Augustine which, according to Glarean, shows the
correct use of the mode very well. The characteristic modal
interval, mi-la, is indicated at the beginning, and the melody
with normal ambitus, C to b, closes on the final, E.
The Lydian and Hypolydian Modes. The Lydian mode is
the fifth mode of the system and has its ambitus, F-f, harmoni
cally divided with its final on F.5 In the old songs, i.e. in
5For an explanation of arithmetic division, see chapter

I, page 20, fn. 25.
6For an explanation of harmonic division, see reference
in preceding footnote.
Example.15. The Phrygian Mode: Surge Virgo 118
(G-larean, p. 9 6 .)
j n (r.\).j4.. y i p } n m i i B
Snr-qc .— ----- »ir^» el - "hoi
. st
tn
r i-
-s
S Spovi-So-
Sôvi - S o — Pre----
Pre eea 3 -------- Pc ►—
' *r-ii ,
-H 4 Mr~*--1* v { *A *• *C t-v l*- * •-1 / j * i* » J-

; J~ \’ J* v n \ ^ n — I1—
Tm ck \to% «st -tiwlcis 4h tc~~• Oft- bil— yu pa.»54 5<a(> hvm — 4 i * Ic -fl- t l
t*-
B
m r r ^ ' T ■ ' ' • ' - i m i r o n s * /
At- aestu - K n w n i i h r i w s f«r-Y\ t>5 — ft r*° * " v \ « , P<t - <■«.
*—*— #-
oB — si
E x a m p le 16 . The K y p o p h r y g ia n M ode: From a Te Deum o f A m b ro s iu s

and S t . A u g u s t in e . (G ls .re a n , p . 8 7 . )
5-»-l $-*-*--V--*-*--*— «— *— *— *---- *~'f M - 9 0 * ■#—■■ - ■"■■— ■

— rf----\-----1— ... ii #■ 1 1 ^ ^ I
j— *±\— c t - i-i - r — p— ^Yzrrr.trM==k^z .. .
le C i r ^ o ijMne ^ - f« i s ("a m u l i s 3 n W f « i ( q u o a p rtf i -0- * o S a n g u i n e r e ' d t - r w i - s t i . A c - \tr -
f- ft:. = + ■= * .:-, f.: -f: :^ q cs y w * ,
no.- taeum t>jl»\tt>5 hns in ^lorl- a. - ne - i-a.— ri, 5u-o*m fat- poj>n L o, fiA-um 0°mi - n<s
* / f ;— g~
f t te n c -d ia fW fc -d 'i-ta -h 'fw.*— a£ Pc-c^ i ^ C - o s j ^ •t's l-je i|-/o l5 its ^ e in ae
1>\S La i l k _ . j s . t A atiOJC. irc T ! It jU i.T i • )
rj u » v i .
INOtPtNCFST VU'.'C rufi:tSHp9S

21ir*1sT *•':*'
•'4
No. 122 10-PLAIN
the plainsong practice of an earlier period, the mode used a
double range, at one time moving between F and e, and at
another time between P-f, its octave. Although, according to
Glarean, his example demonstrates the use of the first-
mentioned ambitus, it actually illustrates the second ambitus
better, for, as may be seen, it moves up to jf at the word
"exultabit.11 In this melody the characteristic modal inter
val, ut-sol, is found near the beginning, and the close is on
P. (See Example l?a, p. 120.) A second illustration of the
use of this mode is given, in which the ambitus descends to
E, the halftone below the modal final. (See Example 17b,
p. 120.) This is a license permitted to this mode as to the
Ionian, which may take the B natural below its final.
The sixth mode, the Hypolydlan, uses the ambitus, C-c,
but is arithmetically divided and has its final on P. It is
also in frequent use by the older church musicians, but now
more often uses the b flat, so that its form corresponds to
the Mixolydian with arithmetic division— the mode called
Hypoionian by the older musicians. In Glarean's illustration
of this mode, which shows the older use of the mode without
the b flat, the characteristic modal interval, la-fa, does
not occur until the middle. It may be observed in the third
section of Example 18 (see p. 121), at the words "quis
requiescet.11 The mode is clear from the characteristic use
of the ambitus, 0 to d, with the final on F.
Example 17a. The Lydian Mode: Use of the Ambitus F-f. 120
(Glarean, p. 100.)
,,
■ft
I
.(T /ft.
- v
r iat Ta r V V \yr ; 'ft y'J i r v-
Quit. iabit ii - C>V) 3«.U-Va- re- T s - *•* - c V ---- Cftim a w V«.t D » -
* f i t
J-I-U •— -— » • i i ~T~r
[ y i H i
■fla3— ttap-H— i/i-+a~ iewi. pie— bis— 5n -— ■ e*-*!- La- Lit— ■ To, - ?ot> — -
ft *n t
r — r — >— f — — i t i r » / J -,■.■-p £.rT-rTTt
• * 1 J i
• ' u t i r T g 5 5
el” tar ta bi - fur ■ X.S- fa - el —
Exa/nple 17b. .The Lydian Mode: A second example with the

halftone added below the octave F. (Glarean, p. 101.).
f.— iv ±.dc:jTg. jrl : F\ P ■F H '
* : £ — * ------*r - # — ----- #— J-------- #— h a ------ » *
* Ii- /w >n«>i - no. r«-. t ; - n « . •— «“a , fer- M
4- j jr ^-b: fcdj; — t—#■

# 0 *' * 0 -- / - -j - S B
S 3
<94 tarn , V*
-i -j— i-
:c= ” » =3> /~ > * r
St j/c rl — 9 . flo • — W VIJ te.
• f a * V
m m r m * * m * j m- • - * T
- 7*0. eat.
rsUtFtsOIw’ vcS.C p.<SI:pm£PS

21J£ <2 S’ < r~r> w ? iT l’ S*
No. 122 10-PLAIN
121
Example 18. The Hypolydian Mode. (Glarean, p. 89.)
( Do- ta.i— ne , âii &■ "fa ~ M ^ ~ t t r fta — -!<? /i* — 9 — . a«/ q *i$
W 9
rc-%id.'- c- S je t in >no'>) kt- - Sanc.'io ■ fit --------- ° ’ Q ii. ir \ *>■&- 4 1 — i ' * r
I , ■ , r : * - + * z+ r ~J zjt
t r ± = frr ^ jlz' -
v s»*-he r t d . t - A . - U } et o- f1C\- — CL
m *~ T -- * -+ " * d
a>t\
,
The Mlxolydlan and Hypomlxolydlan Modes. The seventh
mode of the system is the Mixolydian which uses the octave
G-g, with harmonic division and has G as its final. Though
the mode is in frequent use among the older musicians, in
Glarean’s time, he finds that it is seldom used in new songs,
which is true of its plagal and also of the old fifth and
sixth modes Just discussed. According to Glarean, the reason
for this is that the Ionian, which has been in longer and more
frequent use, has the same 5th, ut-sol, as the Mixolydian al
though in a different position. Therefore, the cantors are
inclined to add the 4th, ut-fa, above this 5th, not only in
the Ionian mode where it is natural, but also in the
122
Mixolydlan, In which case the latter mode then resembles the
Ionian exactly.? The Illustration given by Glarean shows the
older use of the mode with the characteristic interval, ut-sol,
and the final on G. (See Example 19, p. 123.)
The eighth and last mode of the old system is the Hypo-
mixolydian which, divided arithmetically by G-, is the plagal
of the seventh mode with its final on G. Glarean tells us
that among the older church songs, many very elegant examples
of the use of the mode are found. However, as with the Mixo-
lydian, 'now the composers or cantors very seldom direct a
new tenor in this mode although they use the older ones in
four-voice settings. Glarean1s further description of this
mode is of some interest because of a comparison of this with
the Dorian,
The Hypomixolydian has besides the expression and

the division and the final, certainly everything else,
which bears on or relates to the nature of the octave,
in common with the Dorian. . . . it often seeks a
certain sweetness and softness by changing b into b
flat which it has in common with the Dorian, This is
shown in many songs of the modes, especially in the
responsorles of which many of the older ones are com
posed in this mode and sung mostly in the Matins.8
n
The euqplanation is that since the 5ths of the two
modes are the same species, ut-sol, though in different posi
tion, it became customary to make the 4ths alike also, which
could be done by adding the f sharp to the Mixolydlan 4th,
D-G, thus changing it from re-sol to ut-fa. We have with this
an indication of the preference for the major mode prevalent
at this time, and mentioned by Glarean in connection with the
modes on P, C, and G,
8Glarean, p. 93.
Example IS. The Mixolydlan Mode. (G-larean, p. 103.) 123
cu-ê s * n e ls r i w S*Ma -4uS

c ^ - c v H i v -i- t - i
A -f>oi t 0 • \ 0 VUM ^ Pvi nSTj,i Oybi .J "Pet- *-a tuw i (
i i t
cfsy C|ut t-C ^ nor 8 US
• 4
r . , i y . f i r a -q • \ i i-
PPf ; ^ v ;• i ; r v 't v - •
£d — iU - s i - a v - u Yd tn o t* c S et ui ta y y \ d c, * a. * r e . Q \* u C dec. t*-i Ham Vw •(•> J c -
f W H i
5« nt M
.-1 i ^ c
. - Av\.l"l'ocSr»w-S et Rt rrvus C.#r>-Cc'4uvfl~ "fiti PcVrc Vejrii - So - l
i-u v* I
£
• . . ~ v ^:
A pm l'w Pin lc ly i-O i'S i-s tT i-^t-a c a itL v n . ' pu5 kofr-ri-d&S M d l/ilV -c
j- r , ? - £ > =t V w - >
v “ *'
a 'V-icL'h- v’ c i c - y - c . Qv»i — V"i-C «.-laS Ae-S«.r*t A-li \)c sf"i •j’i C i y\ d i - d ci T|lo )n .S
T=i
r I f
0 » » 'W '*-lr-*H u c C } J e * i\n e s ( ft; i;f 5 , s t yv\ 6 Trt ^ 1 p ^ - It J. M a t t k ’i *a ft/o tfi.s • Si ~

V
££=££=*=£
we j A ^ i n - H ^ T l i a J c J i e . C . , De, - td -U to - r f S ,T< c i1 tn d05 0>- -1 - f n s t t " Oc -ci d
$ r ”/ n tv i v l % I1
y*a ■t t . r e j f f l unl i - t i r c w l us 5c P*-tves ha^c-ire gander t t e^Stpctt'a - j u t A. i - e e S . f t «/►■
«— »-
i
to W undfi or* ajS Liude* c t K o Yi o r e r y i ^ So n c t ( 3 di-b\--iarr< S<t p - p l r X iiv i n d i "t
iSDlPtNbfNT VLS ' fjEUSHfP*

r>5i*1 3- -4-ei7-> n » ;r 0 3 a
No. 122 10-PLAIN
124
As an illustration of the mode, (Jlarean gives the pen-
tecostal sequence, Sancte Spirltus adsit nobis gratia, shown
in part below in Example 20 (see p. 125). In this melody the
modal Interval, ut-fa, the regular ambitus and the final, G,
are all clear. Glarean has found many variations of this
sequence in the different Codices, In some of them the mode
extends up to f, thus adding the minor third permitted to it.
In others, it has been extended down to A, and thus forced in
to the tetrachord Synemmenon, both of which practices are dis
approved by Glarean, Of the example mentioned above, Glarean
says; "It is worth the pains to note the skill of the compo
ser in this song; How he discovers different formulae in only
one mode; how he has represented the song, restrained to the
limits of the mode and how he has fitted the words to the
melody.1,9
The Aeolian and Hypoaeollan Modes. The ninth mode, the
first of those added to the original system, is called the
Aeolian. It has the ambitus, A-a, with harmonic division, and
its final is A. Glarean points out that this mode is also fre
quently found in D-d with b flat, and for this reason it has
been mistaken for the Dorian by those who do not know how to
distinguish between the systems of the modes according to
their nature. However, in addition to the above reason, such
a mistake is also attributed to the fact that the Aeolian mode
has the same license in ascending and descending as the
9Glarean, p. 94.
Example 20. The Hypomixolydlan Mode. Sequence, Sanete 125
Srlrltus adalt noblg .gratia. (Glarean, p. 94.)
y-y-prV" .1 . -f fr— 1» I' M". ■ \ < > -.-H vn ~ P ZZ3LjZf-lL_f
c||-S|>i'*•{ • Ho (>i& jr«.t»- ^ Q*« c c*“4* HoS in Siti f4 •ti -at" li* t fj*r■ItfI
zli.m
— ■ - j1 , e f
z«zi.1i— -e
e s
■VX V V V V y> ~V"

t* pu ^ i>v ei c Ovfot-Hs Vi - fi - is S^* - r t ~ t q -JJ ~i 3 p ( — hi t os frl ii - | U3 4>* "ta** Kftm j n u **i •
f
:r. : t r :f J i> J )I.J
#f #- ^
v *
- j> ^
Ho r - v-, *4 c 5 ^ o i ‘ trskC m t n t t s fc ^ e -- br>S fryna v- ixln tTC 3e n S t f t t - ,* m SciyijJC’ *' f?o <y - f*~
— ft— w,—
T P — ^_P- = F * = r T- f ’
-qf=v
-(©— »— * '—#-*--0-Z J . J . U L _ M ^ --.J- jzT*- - ^ . a — <— #— ^ ^ / — «— e— #-----
t+ - ia y>\ . In f * n <U y
y»»\\ c -
f - i - 0( n e. w\
c+i tu an\ tie -men S S+t-
(p^f|-i.S icrv>> fc’us Tm py-l~i-fi- CA t o r
pzzzv -
jy .'i
< — \ • t * J£ ____
> --*-- V— *-* — a — #-
V 1' M • I- - ' • V ' - V l : \: ; v
C*nt rti 4 »y\ f|a*î"|<-or^>>i 3 j* 1 fT w ^ t*■ *f i ~ f a. ' no J;4 1*1 C*Cia/h>v\ ifl h ?r iS iia m i ’w /3 ,
K=
yt \J \i* -r, jirc w w <jcni ■for f°>i to. hola/s. tf^ndi £or J i-; io-i / C c r -/ \ e r c . p o s S ^ n f CC •
tv.:
Lî +« in-5j>i -rn-iti yf pi-u«e® ni-a - Oiin'jfi po,e «T tiw•iss^n-t 1* Cl^ta.
$
£
f q i~ oi- 5u»v\ rit*-S aiy-via. — sh D» m i yt e

tv-
m
iNPtnuct*'’ Wv'c
: ' a 4?iT *. ■ 1/ «■ < a
No. 122 10-PLAIN
126
Dorian, viz. that of adding a minor third above and a tone be
low, as may be seen in the Pater Noster, Praefation, and the
Nlcean Creed . 1 0 These may be observed in Example 21a below,
(see p. 127).
Since the Aeolian is a new mode and not so well known,
Glarean explains another illustration of its use in the follow
ing manner:
Now we shall set an example which traverses the en

tire octave, as the nature of the mode demands. Here,
however, is the Initium of the Evangelist Matthew very
elegantly brought into the form of the mode. We could
introduce this in A re, as well as in D re, however, the
latter not without b flat, as earlier stated . . . with
out changing the nature of the system.1!
The Initium referred to above may be observed in Example 21b
(p. 127), and as Glarean has mentioned, it shows another
characteristic use of the mode in transposed form.
The tenth mode, and the second of the modes added to
the original eight, is the Hypoaeolian mode, whose ambitus,
E-e, is arithmetically divided and whose final is A. Glarean
finds the use of this mode rare in his time, and complains
that this happens because people do not know how to distinguish
the modes, which he explains as follows;
10Zarllno also says that this mode conforms easily to

the third mode, the Dorian in his order, because it has the
same species of 5th and thus one passes easily from one mode
into the other. He gives the same examples as Glarean and in
addition mentions the frequency of its transposition.
ii&larean, p. 82.
Example 21a. The Aeolian Mode: The Pater Noster. Prae- 127
faetion. and :31c can Greed. (Glarean, p. 8 2 - 8 3 .)
Pr*d-£eJ> £*lu•'id ri- ^*-5 froni
ct' J»' i/i-n t* (W s t'tU -fl- o v \-c - fo rw 'a il a u 'J c -> *«.* d i- t c - r c. j P « .ftr f|»> tS lA €.£ *IiS
3 * n c f ' i - V ) * c e * ^ u »' 1\ o M * n "fu - mr*> . A d J f n * - A-t* • f i a t* 0 I u. vj -'h u 5 4*u - ^ . 5i c y.1*
e -s t * v f ^ v ; 4 i
v .................................... V
i»^ Cic lo th m te r rd • P# nem h-osinm ^«t> fi - <ii • m 4« nobis ho J i - f . c l ' J i m t ' t e No y is
7- J~r~J f— 1
d ffc i ia n o s tra , J ic « t ef n 05 ill M l t r i MhJ. < U t, to r-1 — LUS ,t^c>5'f>-li £ -t >1C H oi <H J u C a S /n
(r-
+r n+A ti - o— T ifiM ! Se4 I'tiC f a — n s i lo — Aên
Example 21b. The Aeolian i-'.ode: Transposed a 4th higher with

B flat, in the Inltlua of £v. Hatthel • (G-larean, p.84.)
Off ----- ■ rui nnS V o ------ t i s ---- SCnM-v et t«.nn ‘. .p i- ri - -|"w O'- - 1 yi \ f (. «m
S rv l — cfi £-\l»-n ut C.u n — J u W1 Mft "fU<* y vA ,
iNCf^Npr'i* -.'■■■• riJ6-

*" ?n f 4.* •: ' ■’ 1. '> *
No. 122 10-PLAIN
1
128
Whenever people have found a form of this mode,

they have distorted It and sung the 4th of the Hypo
dorian, sol-re, below Ci.e. E to A with f#] Instead
of mi-la, the real 4th of the mode, and thus it has
happened that the songs of the Hypoaeolian fell into
the Hypodorian . 1 2
This mode has the same license as its authentic, that of add
ing a tone below and a halftone above, although G-larean has
said earlier that the Aeolian may add a minor third above.
The mode may also move in the same ambitus as the Lydian, F-f,
but is distinguished from it by the final, A. The first illus
tration of this mode, Example 22a (p. 129), according to G-la
rean shows the customary use o f t h e regular ambitus. A second
illustration of its use, Example 22b (p. 129), is included to
show the ambitus, F-f, which this mode may use in common with
the Lydian mode.
The Ionian and Hypolonlan Modes. The eleventh mode,
that called the Ionian, has the ambitus of the third octave
species, C-c, harmonically divided, and its natural final on
C. However, in the music of his contemporaries, G-larean finds
that the mode is used most often in the transposed position of
a fourth higher, thus on F with b flat and closing on the
final, F. According to (Glarean, the Ionian mode is in fre
quent use in secular music among the European people, a fact
confirmed by all of his successors. On the other hand, the
Ionian mode is rarely found among the songs of the old church
musicians, and, although used more frequently in later
l 2 Glarean, p. 97.
Example 22a. The Hypoaeclian Mode: Clreumdederunt me- 9
(Glarean, p. 97.)
t C-it- t»Tn cie ----------------------- h

►"nn-tr
n-tr >v
14 e
»*e 1/1
1/1 ' -------------------------—
m - 7 , ;77:. i t h a A a
ri — )H e ■ t<rs £i >ic C4.H
*
Me Us . Ce - ti — 4 e •lr14.Vit" >V4C .. SrJ f4 4o
y/M~^ne Je- fcy> Sn- 1/1v> — " <£\ ~ ««• ~ *nc-
Example 2 2 b. The Hypoaeolian Mode: A second example with the

Ambitus F-f. (Glarean, p. 97.)
A-
* V'i i'
nc fn if Si<per dioraS Ahoe - | o— l-u** ai| doc - (/ —
sf« 4 — H-Cj na F K £> M 4 £
No. 122 10-PLAIN
150
centuries, Is almost never found except in F, as before men
tioned ,1 3
The singers are accustomed to naming the lowest note of
this mode, ut, Just as they call the lowest of the Dorian, re,
and that of the Phrygian, mi. In normal use of Glarean's time,
the mode has the license of adding the halftone below, which
has been discussed earlier in connection with the Lydian,. Al
though Glarean gives many examples of the mode, most of them
are in transposed position. The melody chosen for illustration
shows the mode very well in its normal position in the octave,
C-c, and uses the ambitus without the added halftone. This
may be observed in Example 23 below, (see p. 131),
The twelfth and last mode of the system is the Hypo-
ionlan which has the ambitus, G-g, arithmetically divided, and
the final, G, the same as its main mode. This mode also is
found most often in transposed position, i.e. from C-c with
b flat. Except in the responsories of the Matins and Vespers,
Glarean finds that this mode is seldom used by the old church
musicians without the b flat. According to him, this is a
change of the Hypolydlan into the Hypoionian or into the
Mixolydlan with arithmetic division. From Glarean*s single
illustration of this mode, only a short section is given. In
this melody, Example 24 (p. 131), the characteristic use of
1 5 Though, as pointed out, this mode is used more in the

F-f position than in C, it is also found in the G octave, thus
in the positions which require only one accidental. Both Gla
rean and Zarlino emphasize that this is the most usable of all
the modes, presumably referring not only to its use in normal
position on C, but to the other positions mentioned as well.
Example 23. The Ionian i'-'iocle: Sanetus Doininug Deua. 131
(Glarean, p. 91.)
S a w «tus 5 «v ctuj Saw ciua j S«-W . Do»’i-hi*3 Oe ---
I ( 7 7 3 J 1 1) 3
Sa Ipfl o + i, . PI r - vi i - 5« « T cocK* c t fc v ra * -V* - 4 — *K
w1 —
v .»«. s^ Tpn - m
* 1--- 1 « *
\Jc — wit /n-h®- -— r*i — >\c.Do ■— i*i -- *e O
■5"« >) - h ** IV) £ £ ----- ■ C.e I — — SiS
Example 24. Hie Hypoionian Mode: Homo guidam fecit.

(Glarean, p. 105.)
m - — P — fl~ [ f] [T] C ^ r+ --/— r— *— ---- *— -f —
1j
’ [ i;i'
j (j <|.1♦*>i.4 y j ♦.
hi o fe a i f~ CoC-f tum ftaM c f - Mi - i ' i f , S « r-v » a *\ Su - a m In - v-a_ . £ 1C y \a a_ J i - £ f .
^ > j.; * > ‘ r r { ^ 8 n . f . u (J f

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INOiffNPiNT MUS-C PUJllSHEfiS
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No. 122 10-PLAIN
132
the mode In its normal position may be seen very clearly.
The Twelve Modes in Polyphony
Having fully explained the nature of the modes in the
preceding section, Glarean proceeds immediately to a discussion
of the use of the modes in polyphonic music, and to a consider
ation of the characteristics peculiar to this use. He points
out first, that in polyphonic composition of two or more voices
both the authentic and plagal forms of the mode, and on occa
sion even two different modes, are present in a single compo
sition.
For we see it happen that, while a tenor is often

regulated by the Hypodorian, the bass of this is
Dorian . . . Again, while a tenor is Phrygian, the
bass and cantus fall often into the Aeolian; . . . at
times, the cantus is in the hypophrygian. Just so,
if the Mixolydian is in the tenor, the cantus and bass
have the Hypomixolydlan . .
The fact that..both the authentic and plagal modes appear
in the same composition, Glarean attributes to a secret rela
tion between the modes of each pair, and a mutual gro\ying of
the one out of the other, dependent entirely on the nature of
the modes, A more practical explanation, of course, is that
since any two adjacent modes normally lie a fifth apart, the
approximate total range of these will be at least an octave
and fifth, and such voices cannot help but embrace the whole
ambitus of the modal pair.
-^Glarean, p. 197,
133
Concerning the second combination of modes mentioned In
the quotation above, such as the Phrygian and Aeolian, there
are two possible interpretations. In the first place, Glarean
has already mentioned the natural similarity between certain
modes such as the Aeolian and Dorian, or the Ionian and Mixo-
lydian. Therefore, that two different modes may be contained
among the voices of a single composition is easily understood,
if they are two modes which have something in common. In the
second place, and closely related to the preceding idea, Grla-
rean has often pointed out changes in modal ambitus charac
teristic of specific modes, which are of such a nature that
they cause one mode to take on the likeness of another. For
example, the Hypophrygian, which has the octave, B-b, may use
Instead, the ambitus, 0 to e, or that of the Aeolian, A to c,
in this manner becoming like the Aeolian. Thus in the second
type of combination mentioned above, G-larean may have in mind
those combinations which occur because of changes in the ambi
tus of the modes, rather than any actual combination of two
different modes. Nevertheless, among the several voices of a
polyphonic composition, the relationship of the modes of each
pair is the more common. For this reason, in the analysis and
illustration of modal usage in 16th century polyphony, the
modes of each pair will be considered together.
Dorian and Hypodorlan. These two modes are very well
illustrated in several compositions given by G-larean, of which
we shall examine sections of two. In the discussion of the
134
Hypodorlan mode, there is given a canon in two voices by Jos-
quin, Pleni sunt Ooeli, from the Mass Hercules. There is no
mention of the two modes used, but an examination of the voices
shows the bass in the Hypodorlan, while the cantus has the Do
rian with a tone added above (see Example 25a, below). In a
second illustration, Domlne non secundum facet, a four-voiced
composition by Vaqueras, Glarean points out that the tenor has
the Hypodorlan mode, the bass Dorian (see Example 25b, p. 135).
Example 25a. The Dorian and Hypodorlan Modes: Plenl sunt 134a
Coell by Josquln. (Glarean, p. 187.)
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No. 114 12-PLAIN
Example 25b. The Dorian and Hypodorlan; A second example, 135
Domine non secundum facet by Vaaueraa. (Glarean, p.193)
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N o . 114 1 2 -P L A IN
"Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
136
Phrygian and Hypophrygian; The Hypophrygian, a plagal
mode, can be found with Its authentic, the Phrygian. However,
in discussing the normal range and use of the Hypophrygian,
G-larean reminds us again of certain characteristics of the use
of this mode in the octave, B-b, its normal range. He says;
As mentioned earlier, examples of this mode, which

either descend to the B or ascend only to the top b, are
rare; therefore, they are contained in the octave, G-c,
as if they were Ionian. . . . Often it happens with
composers, also, that they ascend even up to the d and
do not go below great D, which is also the case with
its main mode, the Phrygian. . .
G-larean believes the use of these two modes in the ranges men
tioned above is proof of a claim often made for them by the
musicians, that no two modes could be more closely related
than the Hypophrygian and Phrygian; for, these modes will often
be joined and move within the octave, ninth and tenth, while,
with other pairs of modes, the combined ambitus is usually
greater than the eleventh. G-larean mentions several examples
which use either the octave, D-d, or the tenth, C-3, represent
ing the combination of the two modes.
In his discussion of the Phrygian mode he gives as an
illustration, the Klagelleder Magdalena am Grabe des Herrn
(see Exanple 26a, p* 137). Of this illustration, Glarean says;
"In this composition, the tenor and alto have the Phrygian
mode very fittingly used in ascent and descent; the bass,
however, and the cantus have the Aeolian, which is not shown
15Glarean, p. 213.
Example 26a. The Phrygian and Hypophrygian: Klaêlleder 137
Magdalena am Grabe dea H e r m . (Glarean, pp. 272-273,)
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No. IN 1 2 -P L A IN
138
Example 26 b. The Phrygian and Hypophrygian: A second ex
a m p le , M agnus es T u , Do m in e by J o a q u in . (G -la re a n , p . 227 • )
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139
even once in the examples of the earlier modes."-!-® In a
second illustration of these two modes, Magnus es Tu, Domine
by Josquin, the cantus and tenor use the ambitus, C-c, the
altus uses the ambitus of the Phrygian with minor third added
above, and according to Glarean, the bass is Aeolian. (See
Example 26b, p. 138.)
Lydian and Hypolydlan. As an illustration of the Lydian
and Hypolydlan modes, G-larean sets the composition, Os Justl,
which was composed by Von Salice at G-larean's request, in
order to show the true modes without the b flat used so fre
quently in this time. (See Example 27, p. 140.) The cantus
of this composition moves very well within the limits of the
Hypolydlan; the bass, however, is truly Lydian with the major
third added above. But, G-larean reminds us again that in poly
phonic music of his time, as in the plainsong, the Lydian and
its plagal are both usually found with b flat, and thus are
forced into the Ionian scale.
Mixolydlan and Hypomlxolydlan. As an illustration which
uses these two modes, Glarean gives the Agnus Del from the
Mass, De Nostra Domlne. (See Example 28, p. 141.) Of this,
Glarean says;
We shall show a very good example of the mode in

two voices as Josquin has established it, but raised a
fourth above its usual position . . . The tenor of the
song expresses the mode well with attention to the
beginning, the middle, and the end; the bass, however,
has the authentic mode of the same, the mixolydian,
■^Glarean, p. 270.
Example 27* The Lydian and Hypolydian: Os Justi by Gerard 140
von Salix. (Glarean, pp. 233-234.)
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No. 114 12-PLAIN
Example 28 , The Kixolydian and. Hypomixolydian: A;cnus Del 1^1
from the Mass, De Nostra Do m i n e . (Glarean, pp. 2o0-26l,)
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N c. 1U 1 2 -P L A IN
142
although a major third is added above, and at the end

it is connected with the p l a g a l . ^
Later, in a discussion of the Mlxolydian examples in polypho
nic music, Glarean mentions a composition by Mouton in which
the cantus has the Hypomlxolydian and the tenor, the Mixo-
lydlan. In polyphony as in plainsong, the Mixolydian is found
more in the older songs, but now, according to Glarean, in the
modern songs its 4th is changed so that its use is more like
that of the Ionian.1®
Aeolian and Hypoaeolian. In connection with his analy
sis of the Hypoaeolian mode, Glarean says that it is in much
greater use among today's composers than among those who used
the Plainsong. One reason for its rarity in the latter is
that, in this mode, the 4th species mi-la was changed often
to re-sol (e-f-g-a becomes e-f#-g-a), and the mode fell back
into the Hypodorlan " . . . through the Ignorance of the musi
cians who were not able to distinguish such related modes.h1®
Similarly, in his discussion of the Aeolian, Glarean mentions
the parallel between it and the Dorian. However, here the
change is reciprocal, for not only does the Aeolian add the
f sharp which makes it into a Dorian octave, but because of
frequent use of b flat in the Dorian mode, the latter takes
l7Glarean, p. 259.
^ S e e discussion of this on page 121. Here above, we

have another illustration of the preference, at this time, for
the major type mode, mentioned before in connection with the
modes on F and C.
^ Glarean, p. 278.
Example 29. The Aeolian and Hypoaeolian. From the Mass 143
Pange Lingua by Joaquin. (G-larean, pp. 280-281.)
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No 1U 12 P L A IN
144
on the characteristics of the Aeolian mode. These two modes
are well illustrated in a two-part song taken from the mass
Pange Lingua by Josquin^ The cantus of this is at times
Aeolian, but the rest of the time it is Hypoaeolian.^0 (See
Example 29, p. 143.)
Ionian and Hypoionlan. In discussing the use of the
Ionian mode, G-larean gives several examples which show the
characteristic use of the mode, but most of them in the trans
posed position. For example, a composition by Josquin in two
voices illustrates the mode transposed to F with b flat. In
this composition illustrating the authentic modes, one voice
uses the full octave, the other, the 5th only. A composition
in three voices by Adam Luys, Vere Passum Immolaturn, shows
the range of the combined authentic and plagal in the bass
and cantus with the authentic in the tenor. (See Example 30a,
p. 145.) Further illustration of the two modes is found in
a two-voiced setting of Plenl sunt Ooell by Fevin, in which
the tenor, remaining in its normal position, G-g, is Hypo-
ionian and the bass is Ionian. (See Example 30 b, p. 146.)
Both of these compositions show the use of the mode well.
Actually, as the example shows, the cantus gives a

better illustration of that described earlier by Glarean, as
Hypoaeolian with the ambitus F-e.
Example /30a. The Ionian and Hypoionian. Vere Paasum Immo- 145
latum by^d&m.ûys.y (Glarean* p.. 241. ) •
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N o . 114 1 2 -P L A IN
Example 30b. The Ionian and HypoIonian. Plenl sunt coell 146
by Antonius Fevin. (G-larean, p. 315.)
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N o . 114 1 2 -P L A IN
147
Summary of Regular Modal Usage
According to G-larean's Successors
In the course of this survey of the use of the twelve
modes in plainsong and polyphony according to G-larean, there
have been only one or two references to Zarlino's treatment of
modal usage in comparison to that of G-larean, and that of
other theorists has not been mentioned. In general, except
for the change in order of the modes, there is considerable
agreement between Glarean and Zarlino on the use of the
twelve modes. Further, between these two theorists and those
who follow them in the next century, there is likewise agree
ment on the principal points of modal usage. Therefore, the
following brief comparison between Glarean and his successors
will touch only on certain aspects of general interest concern
ing the problem.
It has been pointed out that Glarean continues to em
phasize the Importance of the octave species by considering
the modes in relation to the octaves in which they are found.
While Zarlino and later theorists recognize the importance of
the octave species, nevertheless, in the analysis and illus
tration of the modes they present them in order, each authen
tic followed by its plagal, the method adhered to in the pre
ceding discussion. Although Zarlino gives a different order
for the modes, most of the theorists follow the traditional
order given by Glarean, which begins with the Dorian as the
148
first mode and adds the four new inodes at the end of the old
eight-mode system.
Concerning examples for the modes, Glarean illustrates
each of them in plainsong first, then later in polyphonic mu
sic, and this he does first in the "simple11 modes, and later
in the "combined" modes. He gives an abundance of examples*

perhaps more than found in any other treatise of the time,
and most of these from among the best compositions of his
period.^ All of the examples are analyzed in considerable
detail and the specific features, which best characterize the
use of the modes, are clearly pointed out. In addition, there
are given many interesting details which clarify modal usage
for this period, host of the later theorists do not give
^ B y "simple" Is understood the individual authentic or

plagal mode which Glarean considers first. By "combined" is
understood the authentic-plagal combination which provides a
more extended range for a melody. Glarean considers both the
individual modes, then the combined modes as they are used in
both plainsong and in polyphony.
22
The following evaluation of the examples in Glarean1s
Dodeoachordon has been given by a modern scholar; "As is known,
(ylarean1s Dodecachordon contains a classical anthology of poly
phonic musical examples of the period from about 1480-1540.
Their choice was made by the author, chiefly from the standpoint
of illustrating In a practical manner the foregoing exposition
of modes. Thanks to his insight as one of the greatest and
most versatile humanists, Glarean attained this goal, since ac
tually, the most-favored masters and compositions have become
known and cited above all others in the centuries following.
On the basis of his predeilction for masters like Josquin,
Senfl, Issak and supported by the nature of the examples which
he gives of these and others, one proclaims him as it were,
the herald of the so-called classical epoch of the aeapella
song." (Arnold Schering. "Die Notenbeispiele in Glarean's
Dodekachordon," (1547) Sammelbande der Internationalen Musik-
gesellschaft, XIII;569,“ ("1911-1275"
Reproduced w«d permission c o p * * owner. Fodder r e p r o d u c e p r o v e d wddou, permission.

149
examples of the modes In plainsong, although Zarlino, and some
of the other theorists as xfell, mention plainsong melodies for
each of the modes, many of these being the same as the ones
given by Glarean. However, Zarlino illustrates the use of
every mode in a polyphonic composition, though these are un
identified and given without text. Further, he mentions many
other polyphonic compositions, some of which were given by
Glarean, though most are from a later school— that which had
Willaert as its foremost exponent. This practice is followed
by the theorists after Zarlino such as Dlruta, Gumpelzhaimer,
Herbst, and Cerone. In their discussions, some of these
theorists include illustrations of each of the modes in the
transposed positions as well as in the regular, and, in addi
tion, of the church formulae in both the normal and transposed
order.
There is much that could still be said about the regu
lar use of the 12-mode system according to the theorists of
the 16th and 17th centuries. At this time, however, it is of
more value for the further clarification of the 12-mode system
in use, to consider special aspects in connection with modal
usage, as these are described and analyzed by the theorists
representing the period from Glarean1s Dodecachordon (1547)
to the end of the 17th century. As in our study of the 8-mode
system, we find that these special aspects of modal usage are
connected with problems of the identification of the mode,
and can be summarized into the same three classifications as
150
observed In the earlier discussion (see ch. I, p. 30). These
include the following: first, that of the use of the church
formulae; second, the use of transposition; and, finally,
extensions or other changes of the modal ambitus that affect
the regular factors used for recognition of the mode in music.
These will be considered with special attention to the discus
sions found in G-larean and Zarlino. At the same time, some
comparison will be made with the practice described by the
other theorists of the 16th and 17th centuries.
Special Aspects of Modal Usage in the 12-Mode System
The Use of the Church Formulae under the Twelve-Mode System
It may be recalled that in the use of the church formu
lae under the 8-mode system, there was so much variation and
confusion, that the contribution of these formulae to an under
standing of modal usage was questionable. Nevertheless, the
traditional view of the importance of the church formulae was
such that the theorists felt it necessary to discuss and illus
trate those most frequently used. Such a viewpoint is still
prevalent among the theorists in their examination of the use
of the 12-mode system. In the earlier theory, the traditional
formulae were representative only of the eight modes, and were
even called the eight tones of the church by many of the
theorists. Under the 12-mode system, there arises the problem
of finding formulae for the four new modes added to the system,
either from among those already in existence, or of inventing
new ones.
151
In his analysis of the use of individual modes of the
12-mode system, G-larean gives only brief attention to the
regular formulae for the first eight modes, since these have
been discussed and illustrated in the first part of the
Dodeoachordon. The situation for the four added modes is com
plicated by the fact that there are no regular formulae for
these modes. G-larean and Zarlino treat the matter in some de
tail but neither one is able to give a convincing demonstration
of the manner in which the formulae are derived for the modes
on A and C. Basically, both theorists attempt to solve the
problem by showing how the formulae for the four new modes are
simply some of the older ones already in existence, which are
related to the older formulae, as the four new modes themselves
are related to the original eight.
For example, of the formulae for the Aeolian mode, the
intonations of the G-reater Psalm, and the Gloria Patrl are gi
ven by Glarean, (Examples 31a and b, p. 152). He states that
these, as well as the Introits, differ very little from those
of the Dorian mode. In addition to this, Glarean finds that
the Antiphon, Nos qul vivlmus, (Example 32, p. 152), which
Gafori assigns to the Mlxolydian mode, is more suited to the
Aeolian, but closing a 4th above the final. The Intonation
for this mode is that known as the tonus peregrlnus.^3
^ S e e discussion and examples of tonus peregrlnus in

Ch. I, pp. 41-42.
152
Example 31a. The Intonation of the G-reater Psalm in the
Aeolian Mode. (G-larean, p. 8 6 .)
1 . 6 6 0 0 ^ 0 e $ # * g # *
f z r 1 1 . [ } ■ ( l f v ; j > ) ; * -fj -
v i- - ; v ( i
H ayy\ i - -fi - C^f G 1 P e r m - >"itA.rri B C* Dr - 'AS 1.3 —h * ~ ci ^
0 ! * 4 r * * f ^ « j...... . . .„ * - -4 - J P r r --------------------------------------------------------= — ' •
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^ * i a. Vi'oi - fa — v',t et fe o lt Yt J» m y t -»» e > n -i.ij Swae— -
Example 3 1 b . The Gloria Pat ri in the Aeolian Mode. (Glarean,

p . 1 1 5 . )
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^ l l b - t - I - ft. -------------------------------- fa - t>i - e | fl — ----- ----------- , |]------- ^ * — Ir i — — ---------

■
m .
i f ----------r T ~ f --------P ~ I ----------w f * "

4 ll^ j u - - -Hj _t_S IJ.L
t v —— i — T e .- Oc. -
Example 32. Antiphon: Nos Q.ui Vlvlmus. (Glarean, p. 85.)
J -J • • f I
* I* *— J
f(0i - /i W»<; tf-ne ai-*'-h»ns Go — ^ , - h p Xn £ > .- i - tu • X"s> ro -cj dc acjyptc
m m
cL m j i S Jo-C,b cjc lt> Ut-U-t-o-
Example 33* Intonation of the Lesser Psalm in the Hypoaeolian

Mode. (Glarean, p. 224.)
♦— *— f — *— •— *- f- F * -r -f-
^— TÎZ \ i.. ,.T~\ |i=E/ —Z I—\f-— --
V D .'i.l O c M i'-n e Y 1 Sole o< -I'ytr'S « •
INI EF6Ni/-'-1 WI.S '. i'.>|
No. 122 10-PLAIN
I
153
For the Hypoaeolian mode, Glarean gives the Intonation
for the Lesser Psalm (Example 33, p. 152), and, according to
him, this and other formulae for this mode are related to the
regular formulae for the Hypophrygian mode. For the Ionian
mode and its plagal, Glarean finds that the formulae of the
Psalms in the Lydian and Hypolydlan modes can be adapted very
easily. In respect to the Lydian modal pair, however, It
should be pointed out that they can be used for the Ionian
when they use the b flat instead of the b natural found in the
old fifth and sixth modes.
In Zarlino1s L ^ s t l t u z l o n e , the relation of the church
formulae to the 12-mode system is clearly shown in a quotation
from his discussion of the various types of Psalmody;
And although there are found many varied forms of

such Psalmody; . . . nevertheless, in each church, one
does not commonly use more than eight; which they call
regular. The cantors reduce these under the antlphons
contained in the eight modes in the middle of the
twelve shown; leaving the four extreme, i.e. the first
and second, and the eleventh and t w e l f t h ; ........... ..
........................ The Psalms or Intonations, which
the ecclesiastics use in their divine office, then, are
eight, as is manifested; and if at any time some Psalm
should happen to be sung under another tenor, that is
besides the eight forms named which they call principal,
. . . such Psalms are called irregular.”’4
It is evident from this that Zarlino takes a position with the
more conservative theorists, who keep to a strict use of the
original eight formulae for the singing of the psalms in the
^Zarlino, L'Istituzione, pp. 386-387.
154
church.However, later, Zarlino considers the matter again
and, this time, shows agreement with Glarean1s ideas on the use
of the modal formulae in connection with the 12-mode system.
He points out that some of the regular modal formulae fit very
well to the new modes; the formulae of the fifth mode to
those of the first, and those of the sixth mode, to the second;
formulae for the first mode to the eleventh, and those for the
second to the twelfth.26 The reason for this is that these
modes have the same species of 5ths and 4ths. The importance
of the knowledge of the modal formulae is of particular value
for the composers, which may be observed in the following
paragraph from Zarlino1s discussion;
If he Cthe composer} wishes to compose to the words

of the evangelical songs, he will know that the said
song is sung in the oantl ferml, . , , and this should
be observed when he wishes to compose to the words of
a Psalm sung in the vespers or other hours . . . . But
when he wishes to compose other songs as motets, the
tenor of this psalmody does not have to be followed,27
25That is, those theorists who believed that, since

there were only eight Psalm Tones, eight modes were enough for
church music. As the quotation indicates, the eight middle
modes of Zarlino*s 12-mode system are those which correspond
to the regular 8-mode system from D.
^Confusion results from the fact that Zarlino1s system

differs in order from the regular 8-mode system. However,
what Zarlino means is that the formulae of the old fifth and
sixth modes, or the Lydian of the regular 8-mode system, fit
the first and second, or Ionian in his order. Likewise, the
formulae of the first and second modes, or Dorian of the re
gular 8-mode system, fit Zarlino*s eleventh and twelfth, which
are the Aeolian modes,
^Zarlino, p. 388.
155
The practice of using the psalm tones and endings under
the twelve modes continues to be a very uncertain matter among
the modal theorists of the early 17th century. Among these,
Zacconi, Cerone, and Herbst are representative of those who
support the traditional principles of regulating the use of
the formulae in connection with the eight tones of the church.
They give the psalm tone endings for all the modes in poly
phony, and not. only for the regular position, but for the
transposed position of the eight modes as well. However, in
many treatises, as was pointed out, a distinction is made be
tween the eight modes of the church and the twelve-mode system.
This was done on the basis that the former are used only for
the composition of church music, while the latter were used
for all other kinds of music. For this reason, for church mu-
elc the composers needed to know only the regular formulae.
Among the later theorists, there is no satisfactory
answer to the question of what may be the relation between the
psalm tones and their various endings and the problems of modal
usage under the 12-mode system.^8 as Indicated in connection
28Ruth Hannas, "Cerone, Philosopher and Teacher, 11 Music

Quarterly (M^), XXVII (1935), 408-422, comments on this matter
as follows: "The Psalm Tones inherited from the Hebrews were
destined to excercies a tremendous influence on the history of
the modes. With their multitude of endings, the tones affected
the entire field of ecclesiastical music." (p. 419) Also, she
points out that because of this "multitude of endings," caden
ces in the ecclesiastical compositions were chosen with greater
freedom than in strict modal writing, and in this respect the
Psalm Tones could be said to contain the "germ of modulation
and variation form." (p. 419) For further information on this
problem described in Cerone1s treatise, El Melopeo Maestro,
see the unpublished diss. (Eastman, 1 9 3 4 T ”by ftuth Hannas,
"The Evolution of Harmonic Consciousness."
156
with the earlier treatises (chapter I, pp. 30-32), even before
the extension of the modal system from eight to twelve modes,
the formulae had become so varied that a correct interpreta
tion and regulation of their use was a difficult matter. Thus,
for the most part, the theorists of the 17th century support
Zarlino's idea that the importance of the formulae was for the
composer, who, if he wished to compose settings for the vari
able psalms, had to know the endings for the first eight
modes, and which of these could be fitted to the four new
ones.
Transposition of the Twelve Modes in 16th and 17th Century

Theory
At the close of his exposition of the 12-mode system,
Glarean points out that the finals which he has given are suit
able for the modes only in their regular position. He explains
that the Hypoaeollan and the Hypolonian modes, which are the
two lowest of the system, extend outside the Greek System,29
especially in polyphonic music, and the bass voice falls below
the lowest note of the system, which is Gamma, or G. For this
reason, these two modes and their authentics, and in addition,
the Dorian and Hypodorian, may all be transposed a fourth high
er. This is confirmed in the following paragraph which makes
the matter somewhat more clear:
29 For an explanation and illustration of the Greek, or

two-octave system, see Ch. II, pp. 61-62.
157
In this manner, the Aeolian and the Hypoaeolian

close their songs in D, but with fa in b, although
they could close fittingly in a; the Ionian and Hypo-
ionian close in F, the Dorian and Hypodorian in G, but
also with b flat; for to that end was the tetrachord
Synemmenon discovered, in order that the lowest Sys
tems would also have a place in the upper keys, and
all voices keep better within the scale. . . .30
Although Glarean says nothing further of transposition as such,
from his analysis and illustration of the use of twelve modes,
it is clear that this transposition, a fourth higher with
b flat, is in use for all the modes.
In addition to the regular transposition a fourth high
er, however, Glarean does recognize that there are other trans
positions in use in contemporary practice, though they are not
specifically identified by interval. This is apparent in his
preoccupation with the changes of species in certain modes, so
that these species agree with those found in other modes of
the system, although they are in a different position. The
first of these is the change of the 4th species re-sol of the
Mixolydian to that of ut-fa of the Ionian; and the second, the
change of the 4th species ml-la of the Hypoaeolian to that of
re-sol of the Dorian. Both of the 4th species concerned will
have to use the f sharp to give the correct series of tones in
the new species, to which they change, and this causes a trans
position of modes a fifth above their original position. For
example, with f sharp, added to its 4th;, the Mixolydian has the
same series of tones as the Ionian mode, and represents a
30&larean, p. 80.
158
transposition of this mode from C to a new position on G.
Likewise, the Hypoaeolian with f sharp has the ss.me series of
tones as its authentic, the Aeolian mode, hut a fifth higher.
In a discussion of the tetrachord Synemmenon, which is
used quite freely in the music of his time, Zarlino distin
guishes two different uses of b flat. In the first place, if
its use is occasional or incidental in a single part of a com
position, such a note is accidental and does not have the
power to alter the mode. In the second place, if the sign
b flat is placed at the beginning of a tenor or any other part,
and thus indicates that in all the songs one is to proceed by
the tetrachord, Synemmenon, then its use is natural and has
the power to change the mode. To illustrate the first use of
b flat, Zarlino gives a melody, Example 34 below, showing the
ninth mode in its own octave ambitus and with its natural
notes, but, among which is found one b flat. Since the b flat
occurs only once, it is an accidental and causes nochange in
mode.
Example 34. The Use of B Flat as an Accidental, (Zarlino,

L*Istltuzlone, p. 390,)
p ---° v. ,y- g„. ", p p
To illustrate the second use of b flat, Zarlino gives
a tenor melody in the ninth mode with its natural notes in the
G mode. In a second example, this melody is changed from its
159
original mode to another, i.e. from the ninth to the third.
This happens because the use of the b flat as an accidental
at the beginning of the melody causes the 5th, G-D, to become
changed from ut-sol to re-la, so that it now resembles the 5th
of the third mode, or D-A. It is transposed because the
third mode is not found normally in the octave G-g, and can
only be placed there by the use of b flat. This is supported
in a third example which shows the same melody again, but this
time placed in the octave normal to the third or Dorian mode,
(See Examples 35a, b and c, below.)
Example 35a. A Melody in the Ninth Mode. (Zarlino, p. 390.)
r> Q -o - o — o 0 -o g -. ■ fy o
* .... -
T7f\) cid cd -O ■ (T5 ^ ^
33-This alteration of the 5th species of the Mixolydian

Mode has been described by both Glarean and Zarlino before.
It is a type of alteration found frequently in certain modes
as they are used at this time, and as seen here, causes an
actual change from one mode to another. It should be pointed
out that this melody in its regular ambitus, as observed in
Example 35c, shows an "accidental" use of b flat.
Example 35b. The Same Melody, Changed from the Ninth to the
Third Mode, with the Latter in Transposed Posi
tion with B Flat as a Signature. (Zarlino, p. 389.)
Example 35c. The First Melody Above, Moved from its Transposed
Position to its Regular Octave. (Zarlino. p. 390.)
^-.zca. c? ~ro: -p©- PQ: o

~o~
"O- ~G o O"
Concerning the practice of transposition as he observed
it in contemporary music, Zarlino says that not only is it use
ful to increase the pleasure in music, but it is, at times,
even necessary. The primary reason for the use of transposi
tion is in order that the organist who serves the choristers,
and also the musicians who play other instruments, may know
how to accommodate the sounds of these instruments to the
voices, whose range is not so great. In the practice of trans
position, he points out that two things must be watched
161
carefully; First, that one should preserve the correct 4th
and 5th species of the original modes in the new position; and
second, that the necessary accidentals should be indicated in
the instrumental parts as well as in the parts for the singers.
Zarlino shows how a song having the natural b may be
transposed a fourth higher with b flat, and the contrary of
this, i.e. how songs with b flat may be transposed a fourth
lower with b natural, and says that this may happen with every
song. Although transposition a fourth higher is the one used
most regularly, it is not the only one possible as is evident
in the following:
The musicians do not always by necessity, but by

some whim, transpose the modes a degree higher or lower,
or, by some other intervals, as well as the normal one
of a fourth higher. This they do by using not only
chromatic, but enharmonic notes, when these are needed
to transpose the tones and semitones according to the
proper form of the m o d e . * 5 *
Zarlino points out further, that either the flat or sharp must
be used to accomplish such transpositions which are then said
to be made by the use of muslca f l c t a . A s an illustration,
32zarlino, p. 390. By "enharmonic notes" Zarlino means

the accidentals which were not regularly used because of the
difficulty of "finding" these on the keyboard instruments,
which at this time were not tuned according to a tempered sys
tem, e.g. d, a, and g flats, and d and a sharps.
^ M u s l c a flcta includes the tones other than those con

tained in the diatonic system based on the three common hexa-
chords, i.e. C, F and G-, thus, with the exception of b flat,
all chromatic tones regularly used in music of this time.
These were not usually written in but left to the discretion
of the singers who "knew the rules." Concerning muslca flcta,
see especially Theodor Kroyer, Die Anfange der Chromatik lm
Italienlschen Madrigal des XVI Jhrdts. (Leipzig, 1902).
162
a melody In the third mode is transposed first with flats and
then with sharps. These transpositions shoxv the same melody
used in the preceding examples of Zarlino and with the signa
ture indicating the transposition at the beginning. They may
be.examined below, in Examples 36a and 36b.
Example 36a. Transposition by the Use of Musica Flcta, and

First, with. Flats. (Zarlino, p. 3907)
-Ttr-t,------ n -- © -- - - V ' ° 'o -• 0 :v----------- Cr; _o -Q - o'

-y-f-- a — ---------- : ------------------------ — ^ --- :---------------- >
Example 36b. The Same Melody Transposed with Sharps.

(Zarlino, p. 390.)
— _ _ _ — i r ----------------- --- — © ------ a — su — s~>— — © — ---- ------ q ------ t_J------- ----------- u — _ —

.— —■■ TC------- j—r— 1 w ,. . --W —-----------------------------------------------------
m -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
— & ------ —------- a -------------------------------© --------—-------- b ------“ -------- & ------- a -------r - j-------
----- ---------------------------------------------------------- --- ------------------------------------------------------------------------
In the same manner as his predecessor, Diruta finds
transposition very important. While Zarlino has devoted a
chapter to showing the practice, and emphasizes the necessity
for its use by the organist, Diruta devotes a whole booh to
34
the subject. In his discussion, Diruta recognizes the
possibility of several transpositions other than those of a
fourth higher, including a tone lower, a third lower, as well
as a fifth higher. In order to become skilled in this matter,
Diruta urges that the organist practice compositions in the
natural position, and then in all the transposed positions.
For this purpose he has included in his treatise, a group of
two-voiced compositions to illustrate transposition in all the
common intervals, and these are to be practiced in the manner
described above.
In the treatise, El Melopeo y Maestro, Cerone shows
that the modes may begin on several notes other than the regu
lar ones. This is possible through the use of what he calls
the "extraordinary accidentals.1,35 To illustrate this, Cerone
takes an example in each mode, which he then moves to four
different degrees. At the close of his discussion and the
examples mentioned, he summarizes the transpositions according
the accidentals needed in the following manner; One sharp
moves a mode a fifth higher; two sharps cause the mode to
move up a second; three sharps moves the mode a sixth higher;
and finally, tiro flats cause it to move dotra a whole step.
34Girolamo Diruta, Seconda Parte del Transilvano;

Dialogo sopra 11 vero modo dl sonar organl & lstromentl da
penna (Perugla, 1609), Lib'ro III.
35By the "extraordinary accidentals" it would seem

that Cerone had in mind those.less regularly used, which
Zarlino calls "enharmonic notes." However, judging from the
accidentals given above in connection with transpositions,
such an Interpretation is certainly open to question.
with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
164
The transpositions described above are discussed and
illustrated by all the theorists of the period following
Zarlino to the close of the 17th c e n t u r y . F u r t h e r m o r e ,
because of an emphasis on the development of a purely instru
mental style, as well as in the increased use of organ and
other instrumental accompaniment for the vocal polyphonic
literature, the intervals at which transposition was possible
were considerably enlarged during this time. There is no
doubt that a direct result of this was a further widening of
the boundaries of tonality, to which the extension of the
modal system from eight to twelve modes was an earlier and
Important contribution.
Extensions and Alterations in the Ambitus of the Modes
The regular ambitus of each of the twelve modes is
generally recognized as that of the octave to which the mode
is assigned. However, it is obvious from the preceding ana
lyses of modal usage under both the eight and the twelve mode
systems, that certain extensions of the modal ambitus tyere
permitted regularly in the use of the modes in music. This
is true, not only in polyphonic music where the need for
3®0tto Klnkeldy, Orgel und Klavler in der Huslk des 1 6 .

Jhrdts, (Leipzig, 1910), discusses the subject of- transposi
tion in detail, with emphasis on the "keyboard" theory of the
16th century. He points out that in the early 16th century
both Aron and Bermudo, and other Spanish and Italian theorists
as well, had experimented with the possibility of a more free
type of transposition than regularly permitted at this time.
It is Interesting to note that experiments in transposition
and thus in the more free use of accidentals were first made
in connection with the hexachord system rather than the modes.
165
flexibility is more apparent, but also in the plainsong melo
dies. Griarean gives no formal organization of the licenses
permitted to the modes in use, but from his discussion, it is
possible to classify these in a general way. First, certain
modes add a tone or more, to either or both ends of their
ambitus. Second, certain other modes are accustomed to the
license of shifting their entire octave ambitus up or down a
step, so that they really move in the octaves belonging to
other modes. Finally, a third type of license is that of
using certain accidentals, particularly b flat and, less free
ly, f sharp. By means of these, the mode may change entirely
or may be transposed; or the accidentals may be used only for
the purpose of adjusting awkward Intervals of the melodic
line. These three types of extension will be considered in
order, with specific reference to Glarean's discussion of
such licenses in the use of the modes.
First Type: Extension of the Ambitus by the Addition of

Intervals
G-larean makes the general statement that most of the
authenties like to add the tone below, and this is demonstra
ted frequently in his illustrations. For example, in a dis
cussion of the Ionian mode, he says; "However, while in the
other main modes usually a tone will be added, here there
appears only a halftone . . . ," and also of the Phrygian
mode, "it descends about a tone below its final to D, which
166
<
also the other main modes, as the Aeolian, Dorian, and Mixo
lydian admit. "S'7
However, a closer examination of his analysis of modal
usage and of the illustrations will show that a specific type
of mode adds the tone below; others, the halftone. For the
most part, the Dorian, Aeolian, Phrygian, and their plagals,
may add the tone below.'58 While the Mixolydian and its pla-
gal may also add the tone below, it happens more often that
the Mixolydian likes to add the halftone, which it may do
when, by the use of f sharp, it changes into a type of Ionian.
The addition of the halftone below is also characteristic
of the Lydian and Ionian and their plagals, although Glarean
says again that the Lydian and its plagal are found quite
often without the halftone below.
Many of the modes like to add the third above, and
whether this is to be major or minor is determined usually by
the type of third naturally found above the final of the mode.
Thus, the Dorian and Aeolian and their plagals, all like to
add the minor third; the Ionian and Lydian, and quite often,
the Mixolydian, add the major third. Of the Phrygian, which-
naturally has the minor third, G-larean says that nevertheless
this mode prefers the major third which necessitates the use
of g sharp. Its plagal, on the other hand prefers the minor
^Glarean, pp. 91 and 95.
38The Hypophrygian, if it moves to the low B of its am

bitus, usually does not do so without going down to A. How
ever, according to Glarean, the mode more often uses the ambi
tus, C-c, or C-b.
16?
third above its final.
In his analysis of modal usage, Glarean makes frequent
reference to the specific additions summarized above. For
example, he says of the Aeolian mode, that it has the same li
cense in ascending and descending as the Dorian, "namely, it
adds very pleasingly a minor third above and a tone below . . ."
Later, in a discussion of the Dorian, he says, . . it is
proper to this mode, to spring a minor third over the octave
with grace . . . However, this the Aeolian has also done, and
at times the Hypodorian . . . " Finally, of the Phrygian, he
states that "this mode likes to add a tone below and at times
a major third above,
From a study of the examples of modal usage in Glarean's
Dodecachordon, and also from his discussion of these, it is
quite apparent that many different intervals may be added
above and below the modal ambitus. Nevertheless, those given
in detail above are the ones most'regularly found in both
plainsong and polyphony.40 A summary of these will show that,
at this time, the modes are accustomed to add, both above and
below the regular octave, certain intervals that appear nor
mally in the course of the diatonic series of the mode, a fact
that was pointed out earlier in the discussion. As a result
^Glarean, pp. 82, 92, and 95.
40In polyphonic music the matter is less clear, because

of Glarean's habit of analyzing the mode of each voice so that
the authentic and plagal (or two different but closely-related
modes) are both present, and with their usual licenses.
168
of the organized manner in which these extensions are used,
they are an important influence in the gradual nullification
of the strict modal tradition, and thus, a contributing factor
to the transition from the modes to a new tonal system which
has its inception during this century, and which will be con
sidered further at a later point in this study.
Second Type; Shift of the Modal Octave
Another type of license permitted in the modal compass
is that in which the entire octave may move up or down a whole
step. This happens particularly with the modes whose octaves
Involve the tritone in their ambitus.41 For example, the
Hypophrygian rarely moves down to the low B of its octave, but
rather, may leave this note off entirely, and add c at the top,
so that it moves in the octave C-c. Though in such a manner
it uses the octave of the Ionian, it differs from the latter
in both its expression and final. The Hypophrygian may also
move in the next octave above this, i.e. D-d, and this it may
do in common with its authentic, the Phrygian mode, and also
with the Hypoaeolian. In connection with the latter two, it
is clear that these modes may move from their normal octave,
E-e, to the next one below.
Such a change may also be found with the Lydian, which
often leaves off the half-step at the top so that its ambitus
is F-e. The Hypoaeolian is accustomed to leave off the
43-This involves particularly the modes in the F and the

B octave, but also as seen here, those in the E octa.ve, which
more often than not, move in the next octave above or below.
169
half-step at the bottom, thus sharing the ambitus, F-e, with
the Lydian. It may also move up to the octave, F-f, as well
as down to the octave, D-d, as mentioned earlier. If it takes
the Lydian octave, it may be distinguished easily from this
mode, because of its phrasis and its final A. These are the
only changes of this type specifically discussed in the survey
of modal usage, although later, G-larean gives a detailed
analysis of this type of license as it is used by all the modes.
Third Type: The Use of Accidentals
The last type of license is that which involves the use
of accidentals and it is mentioned by both G-larean and Zarlino
in their analyses of modal usage. The two accidentals speci
fically treated are b flat and f sharp, although the latter is
not mentioned by name in either treatise. The b flat has the
license of appearing freely in many of the modes, either as an
accidental or to effect transposition (with which we are not
concerned at the present time).
G-larean has shown that the b flat is used so often in
both the Dorian and Aeolian modes, that hardly any songs are
found without it. This is also true of the Lydian and its
plagal with the result that these modes appear regularly as
the Ionian types* However, since the Lydian uses the b flat
to correct the tritone, even though the result is an apparent
change to Ionian, it is not so defined by Glarean, but is
called a new use of these modes, or they are referred to as
the new fifth and sixth modes. The Mixolydian, likewise, is
170
often found with b flat, which causes it to be taken for a
transposed Dorian. At the same time, the Hypomlxolydian mode
which uses the Dorian octave, D-d, may have the b flat and is
then mistaken for the Dorian in its regular position, since
the latter frequently uses the b flat in its octave.
Concerning the use of f sharp, the picture is somewhat
less clear. This accidental does not appear in the music of
this time, and since it is never mentioned by name in the
Dodeoachordon, we can only infer its use from the changes des
cribed. For example G-larean says that the 5th of the Mixo
lydian is like that of the Ionian, a fact which causes the
composers and cantors to make the 4ths the same also. This
can happen only by changing f in the regular 4th to f sharp,
thus changing re-sol to ut-fa, Such a change causes the
Mixolydian mode to become like the Ionian, and is apparently
a more frequent use of the G- octave at this time than with its
regular notes. The Phrygian may have its 5th changed by means
of the f sharp so that the mode resembles the Aeolian, the
4ths of the two modes already being the same. The Hypoaeolian,
whose 5th is like that of the Hypodorlan, changes its 4th so
that the whole octave resembles that of the Hypodorlan. Both
of these changes occur only with the use of f sharp, and have
been discussed earlier as a type of transposition.
In connection with the changes caused by the two acci
dentals b flat and f sharp, it is clear that, according to both
Glarean and Zarlino, they make possible a natural agreement
171
between certain of the modes. Such agreement is the result
of the change of the ambitus so that one octave resembles
another, though in a different position. Further, both G-larean
and Zarlino recognize that such a resemblance between certain
octaves occurs because the 4th and 5th species are the same,
though these too are found in different position. Thus, some
of the community between the modes is a direct result of the
transposition of the modes from their regular position. How
ever, at this time the modes fall into more or less distinct
types, on the basis of the similarity of their structural ele
ments, and the xtfay these are treated in practice. While the
importance of these similarities for the problem of identifi
cation is readily apparent, the real significance of this fac
tor is in the effect it has on the traditional concept of the-
purity of the individual modes, which tirlll be given specific
consideration at a later point in this study.
Before leaving the discussion of changes or extensions
in the ambitus of the modes, it is necessary to consider brief
ly another manner of describing such irregularities as found
in the treatises of this time. It has already been pointed
out that extensions in the modal ambitus are recognized by the
theorists of the earlier period, as well as by those of the
later 16th and 17th centuries. However, while Glarean discusses
the licenses permitted to the modal ambitus in a general fash
ion, most of the theorists, both earlier and later, treat them
in a more specific way. This may be defined as a method of
172
classification which is based on the manner in which the modal
ambitus is used in composition.^2
An example of this is found in Zarlino1s U l s t l t u z l o n e ,
in an explanation of the finals of the mode. Here, in connec
tion with the first and second modes, he shows how the use of
the modal ambitus determines the class to which it belongs.
But since I have said above, that everything should

be named from the final, . . . therefore, from it . . .
we shall have to judge every mode: In such a manner,
that which ends in the note C and goes up to the note c
will be called the first mode perfect; and that which
finishes in the same C but ascends to the note G, and
then descends to Gamma, we will call in the same manner
the second mode perfect; and likewise imperfect, when
it does not go to its full height. Yet, according to
this manner, the first and second [modes] will be
called superfluous, when the first passes beyond the
eighth note above its final, and the second, the
fourth below the final.43
Zarlino mentions specific examples for each of these
types of modal usage indicated above. An illustration of the
third mode perfect may be seen in the Introit, Rorate coell
desupper, in Example 37, beloxtf; an illustration of the mode
imperfect may be observed in an almost infinite variety of
examples, among which Zarlino mentions specifically the Introit,
Puer Natus est, which he assigns to the ninth mode, and which
4p
The classification of modal melodies, according to
the manner in which the modal compass is used, dates from the
time of Marchetus da Padua in the 14th century, and is found
in modal theory clear up to the end of the 17th century, where
it appears for example, in the treatise of Giuseppe Frezza,
1698.
43Zarllno, p. 384.
173
is given in Example 38, below. Finally, an illustration of
the third mode superfluous may be seen in the Introit, Justus
es Domine, given as Example 39. (These examples appear on
pages 174-175 following.)
This system of classification of composition according
to the modal compass is treated by some theorists in a far
more extensive manner than found in Zarlino's work. For ex
ample, in the treatise El Melopeo y Maestro, the Spanish theo
rist, Cerone, defines and analyzes in detail the following
classes of modal usage* Tono Perfetto, Tono Imperfetto, Tono
Plusquamperfetto, Tono Mixto and, finally, Tono Comixto.44
In addition to these, however, he gives further subdivisions
of the last two mentioned, according to the specific types of
mixture found. In contrast to Zarlino, these classifications
are given considerable emphasis in Cerone's treatise, although
it is possible that the reason for this is that they are given
in connection with his analysis of an earlier practice.45
The classification of modes according to the use of the
ambitus, by Cerone as well as by other theorists, needs no
further discussion here since, in general, it varies little
from that already considered above. At best, such
44Cerone credits this system, as well as the subdivi

sions of the Mixto and Comixto to G-afurius. Zarlino replaces
these last two classifications with Modi Communl, and Modo
Mlsto.
45This is supported by the fact that the discussion of

these occurs in the early part of his treatise, where Cerone
is concerned with the historical development of modal practice.
Example 37- The Third Mode Perfect: Introit, Rorate 174
coeli desuoper. (t.U., 1868.)
zt-
&
P
p = g
*----3---- *---- P- J2f5 I*
■J
I* I P P ~0- P
i; p j? .i?- 1?
. ^
— p p y.~% s
-f/FH-H f f f f f f n T - 1-■ £ £ # = £ = \= H = ±
*f— r— r |fe—f—^
A=—
p — f — •— -k-f— f — f — ■»------— f — f — f — 0— ~ f-f -f -f f-m-+— v-

— 2=2=
------ • ------------------
^---- r -br -
0-F-
&
J P -
E xa m p le 38 . The N i n t h Mode I m p e r f e c ' In tro it, Puer Natus

e s t. (L-LL. 4 o 8 . ) ‘
- S ji
S - r --_Uj.
■— * rL j *— f—1t -»• r- * - L-^-
4.. ■ , •■=• -, . r
^ L O J - f p - s a f> L.-i _T i> _ L i
-rf:— » -. .— <*— -- J- M — . "—-21-— —-^—3— 3— >— —» <—•> «w3 * |
- . F=Lf £
ND£5'‘ *.Of Mt ‘ ■OS" ' . BtlSnf
''5 f ^ •• * •* U ^ *
No. 122 10 -P LA tN
Example >£, cont. 175
T ra^ f- r p— p-p-p— 1
^ *— * r > f- — »—— »— <■— f= f= f=
—
— tr=-tt^J LrJ- H>- i-U ................
~ U E1
J1
1
|"P
m •°r— -m m
m F p
Example 39. The Third Mode Superfluous: Introit, Justus

es Domine■ (L.U. 1047-)
a— U « 0
-^4—
/- - r r - 3 ' i~ >' Y . ■ ■ ■" t - t f i-t- r. - -p -S T:P -— P-- f-- a-*- - - -h*~—
■
-0
-
=M= i-i
/ *' / *
■ -r 7 fi;; >_r-f f • f r U m
-# p-
f —0- 0 m- 0 - II
P=fc g
SLL
t ri
i£ S 3
3* i
No. 122 10-PLAIN
176
classifications were most useful in describing plainsong
practice, and it is clear that they are retained in later
treatises largely as a matter of tradition. By the late 16th
century, with the more free treatment of the modes, and the
change of viewpoint concerning their use in polyphonic practice,
such a system can no longer be applied to modal usage with any
validity.
The Identification of Mode Under the 12-Mode System
It is evident that G-larean is concerned with the licen
ses taken with the modal ambitus because of the effect of this
on the identification of the mode in music. This is apparent,
not only in the preceding analysis of the modes in plainsong
and in polyphony, but even more so in the specific attention
which he gives to all the possible problems arising in connec
tion with the identification of the mode. In the Dodeoachordon,
both in the exposition of the modal systems, and in the des
cription and illustration of the modes in use, the recognition
of the mode depends on the knowledge of the phrasls and the
final,4® If, there is some confusion about one of these, the
other becomes more significant for the recognition of the mode.
Thus, if the final should be one other than that normally used
by the mode, the judgment of the mode will be more dependent
4®The phrasls of the mode is the characteristic inter

val which helps to Identify the mode in use. These intervals
are discussed and illustrated in G-larean's exposition of the
8-mode system, where they are given for all the modes, as the
"rules which are not without use for recognizing the modes."
(See Ch. I, p. 25.)
177
on the knowledge of the phrasls; while, If the phrasls of a
mode seems to be that of another mode, then the final becomes
the determinative factor for identification,
Glarean has pointed out how the mode is best known by
its own system, i.e. the octave and its division into the 4th
and 5th, However, as we have already observed, confusion ari
ses because the 4ths and 5ths are common to more than one mode.
For example, the 5th, re-la, is common to both the Dorian and
Aeolian modes, but in a different position, which can be seen
in the fact that the 5th of the Dorian, D-A, equals that of
the Aeolian, A-E. If, now, as happens frequently, the Dorian
5th adds the 4th of the Aeolian, by using b flat instead of b
in the 4th re-sol, it takes on the nature of the Aeolian mode,
though it remains in its own ambitus. While this practice may
and does complicate the identification of the mode; nevertheless,
according to Glarean, it will cause no difficulty for those who
know the systems of every mode and how they are used.
Another irregularity in ambitus which may cause diffi
culty in identification is that described by Glarean as follows;
"In general, the mode may move in the next lower octave, just
so long as the phrasls is preserved and the lowest tone of the
5th is observed as the f i n a l . " ^ Though in discussing this as
a type of extension, attention was called to its use in connec
tion with modes having the trltone, here, Glarean describes
examples in connection xyith all the modes. From among these,
47Glarean, Dodecachordon, p. 121.
178
we may examine two melodies, both of which move within the
octave compass, D-d, which is the normal compass of the Dorian
and Hypomlxolydian modes. In the first of these, however, it
is clear that the mode is Phrygian, and that it has moved down
one step to the next octave below its own. The second melody
exhibits the Hypomlxolydian regularly found in this octave.
In these examples, though the modes are clearly distinguished
from each other by their phrases and finals, Glarean empha
sizes that the phrasls is the most important element for iden
tification, since both melodies have the same ambitus, (See
Examples 40a and b, p. 179.)
Glarean says that in some songs, the mode is represen
ted by its close, for while the ambitus and the phrasls clear
ly show one mode, the final is that belonging to another.
This is explained with reference to specific examples as
follows:
Often will the close of a song be misrepresented,

as we have conplained of above in the close of the
Klcean Creed in the Aeolian mode. Many cantors really
find pleasure in this and consider it fun to distort
the conclusion of the song and in this way, to mock the
listeners. Even Josquln has done this, closing Factum
est autem, which is in the combined Phrygian and Hypo
phrygian, in G; and Memor esto, a Psalm in the Dorian,
he closes in C.48
However, continuing his discussion, Glarean points out that
the final cannot be ignored, because in many cases the 5ths
are so undecided that one can depend only on the final for
48Glarean, p. 120.
179
Example 40a. The Phrygian Mode in the Octave Below, D-d.

(Glarean, p. 120.)
i i j j f B
Fbny ^lo *-i - a — si qok— po-t-Js fntj - $ \ c . y [ - h\s'
jjK f prc. Li - e - s i %^ u tM in M *ti d l p n t - f t - hm fv u tK s v c n tw s < jc n c t- o - s i R ef.
<\e-n - ti ton.
Example 40b. The Hypomlxolydian Mode in its Own Octave, D-d.

(Glarean, pp. 120-121.)
-V ~ tr i- u a - t t-
V em ’ S a fltii S fl — *i - -fc.5 ^ ^ f i e . + * - O - r u w t C ot-cU f , J e - li — Mm ^ c t f y .i’
# .§ 0 ZJL m * *
*
i
a- Mon- - «* w C — Is — i^-nto, al — e.cr\-4o 9**i p«-di-i/in-si
s is# g= jTV R C Z
tsr
■K. - +e»n li^ ^ n o iT A h . Cwncfo\rv»w cê n tis in w n -i - fa — fa . fi-Je- t £jn
g ^ n r p
.sV! A\- Ic - fa - fa Al-k- fa-fa
130
identification of the mode. As an illustration of this,
Glarean gives a melody in which the ambitus is that of the
Dorian, but the close is Phrygian, and since the fifths of
both modes are found in the melody, the mode is identified as
Phrygian from the final.49
The second part of G-larean1s consideration of problems
in recognition of the mode is concerned with compositions which
do not use the entire ambitus of the mode, and which are there
fore identified partly by the phrases and partly through the
finals. The purpose of considering these compositions is to
illustrate how the species of 5ths and 4ths are common to more
than one mode and how this fact causes difficulty in identify
ing the mode.^0 As an illustration of this practice, it is
sufficient to examine the first species of 5th, re-la, and the
fourth species of 5th, ut-sol, as they may be found in melodies
which may be assigned to different modes. In examples of this
type which G-larean gives for all the 5th species, the mode is
identified within the limits of the melody, either by the
phrasls and the final, or by the final alone.
The first example shows the 5th, re-la, in characteris
tic use in the Dorian mode. Following this, there are three
simple melodies in which the same 5th species appears, but in
49The melody which G-larean gives seems to be a fairly

clear example of mixed modes and is shown in connection with
this practice, in the next chapter.
SOThis is not to be confused with the earlier discussion

of "similar11 5th species, which will be clear from the examples.
G-larean mentions the 4ths in this connection also, but seems to
attach little importance to these for identification.
181
xtfhich the modes are Hypophrygian, Hypolydlan end Hypomlxo-
lydian, In turn. In each case, the phrasls and final identi
fy the mode as already indicated. (See Example 41a, b, c, d,
p. 182.) These examples, according to Glarean, may easily
be assigned to the plagal by some people, since in their
limited compass, they rise above the final only a 5th, some
times less, and descend below the final only a degree or two.
However, Glarean points out further, that in the antiphonarles
such songs are assigned to the authentic mode.
Of the other species of 5th to be examined, that of
ut-sol, Glarean finds an almost unlimited number of examples
in all the modes, in which this 5th may be observed. This
5th, which is the fourth species, is characteristic of the
Hixolydlan mode, where it is found from G-D, and in the Ionian
from C-G. In the first example given here, the melody is in
the Dorian mode but extends only a 4th above the final, and
thus the Dorian phrasls does not appear. The second and third
melodies show the 5th, ut-sol, first in the Phrygian mode,
identified by its final E; and second, in the Mixolydian mode,
to which the 5th belongs, and which is further identified by
its final. (See Examples 42a, b, c, p. 182.)
With this discussion of irregularities arising in
connection with the use of the modes, and thus in connection
with the factors which determine their identity, Glarean con
cludes his analysis of problems which appear most frequently
in connection with modal usage under the 12-mode system. It
Example 4la. Re-la in the Dorian: Introit, Esto M l h l . 182
(Glarean, p. 123*)
v : i - v i * a i t
ir s ’t o 7n»-A< O* — m> O e u rn — c ft> *•»*» f K C if 4 6 ..
(Glar. p. 123*)
Example 4lb. Re-la in the Hypophrygian: Introit, Justi autem.
-frr
=7=
Jioti a-M.— fir* •>> pct--f><-4* -uw> t)) </e*J <4 A,p>*4 Domi n»M Csl" e-»r-u.*i F 14 O H - A
Example 4lc. Re-la in the Hypolydian. (Glarean, p. 123-)
3»— |- -j-r-H -j*— I*-*-, ,*

£ -i i:I V ^ * ** -5 1 .
f\h le — hr /«
Example 4ld. Re-la in the Hypomixolydian. (Glarean, p. 124.)
0: ■ ■0 t i* ■■■■{ ■■■*- * - »■B- - f - -0 f f -f -- * -f \ f -lir-/--+ s • -#■#■■ *-— i*-
S p i-r ! fns Ot - r e - p ic " iM f- o k - l>ci»» te r -r a - i-«*i Al --------- ^c *- lu

I ' - -- »'a
1*
-r- 9 e
* a-
F H M A 4 •
Example 42a. Ut-aol in the Dorian. (Glarean, p. 125*}
1 *=f=e -o « —--- #-- \--J-#-B--- «-0---- 1~4~<-* Jr-*--- r------ < a

abt
to -pi-'ie.s - pr-c-fi Jo - St Ohr-fiej fttet-1'1 tu- t ct t“*r »-cS Jc-r* -5*.* /
ac-d! fi-
U h- fwr* AUM f£> cU LA — U£?
Example 42h. Ut-sol in t h e .Phrygian, or Hypophrygian.
(Glarean, p. a.125.)
0 -0 —0-- -0-~ - , -4 -*-1-f - A ■ 0 • - -- 0 - 0 -M
r H ( ? ( v C l v - C r- - f r i - 4
I»l mu- l-i fr,-as- Oa-rn't-nc £s)yi-nicncl 0 i p> - k ’
i - fu-m tttc.-n»yi
Example 42c. Ut-sol in the Mixolydian. (Glarean, p. 125.)

70H / /
IS z: £ 7=7-
s
S a n C ti tu. Do-Mil - nc -Her— re lo**f Slc-t li- 1/- ftwi ^l-)c-|«-|a ef si^fnt O
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iS iD r r tN C f* - ’ *.*-Ui!C r u B l ' iM f
J15 ! *: V n t 17 u s
No. 122 10-PLAIN
^Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
183
Is apparent that Glarean attaches the greatest importance to
the octave, and the 4th and 5th species for determining the
identity of the mode in regular use. In cases of irregular
use, which are rather frequent at this time, where the com
pass of the mode may be changed in several different ways, the
final and phrasls are the definitive elements for recognition.
The transposed modes are subject to the same principles of
Identification as the modes in regular position. While, it
may be stated that no other theorist gives such an exhaustive
treatment to these problems of identification of the modes,
nevertheless, it is inportant for us to consider, by way of
comparison, what is found in the treatises of the theorists
who succeed Glarean.
Principles of Identification for the Modes in the Later
Treatises of the 16th and 17th Centuries
In the early treatises, those of Ornithoparcus, Aron,
and Agricola, we are told that the mode of a composition was
known by its final found at the end; by the rise and fall of
the melody above the initial note, by which one judged the
mode of a melody to be either authentic or plagal; and by the
course of the melody throughout the composition.51 While
5lThese traditional principles were originally inten

ded to apply only to a single melodic line and in connection
with identification of mode in polyphonic composition,
applied to a single voice, usually that of the tenor because
of this voice having the plainsong melody or cantus on which
the composition was based.
184
Glarean emphasizes the knowledge of the octave species and
their division into 4ths and 5ths as the important elements
of identification, most of the other theorists who follow him
state the basic rules given above, very much as found in the
early treatises. Zarlino, for example, announces that in
judging the mode of the composition, "equal opportunity is
taken from two things; first, from the form of the whole
song; and secondly from its final, that is its last note."5^
Zacconi duplicates the ideas of his predecessor on this as on
other things, and says specifically that the mode is to be
recognized by observing the tenor, watching the species of
5th above, and the range of a song in relation to its final.
In the treatises appearing after the beginning of the
17th century, the same principles are still to be found. Thus,
Cerone, in a detailed discussion of identification of the modes,
states the rule in his treatise somewhat as follows; The mode
is to be recognized by observing the tenor final, by the caden
ces, by the solmizatlon in the tenor voice, and by the saecu-
lorum when the music is composed on it.53 Herbst, likewise,
52Zarlino', p. 416.
53The references to "tenor final" a n d ‘teolmization in the

tenor" show that Cerone has polyphonic composition in mind,
(see fn. 51, p. 183). By solmizatlon, Cerone means the course
of the melody observed in the tenor voice by the characteris
tic intervals and species of the mode which, according to cus
tom were expressed with the hexachord syllables. Reese,
Music in the Middle Ages (New York, 1940, p. 176, explains
saeculorum as follows; "The letters _e u o u a e_, under the
differentiae in chant books, represent IThe vowels of the last
two words of the Gloria Patrl— i.e. saeculorum. Amen— and are
used as abbreviations,11
185
says that it is necessary to observe the beginning, middle and
end of the song. He points out that the authentic mode is dis
tinguished from the plagal at the beginning by the characteris
tic interval, and by the way the species and the characteristic
interval are used in the course of the song. Mersenne, in the
middle of the 17th century, states that the practice of defin
ing the mode of composition by the last note is not entirely
correct, but that one should observe the whole movement, and
especially the cadences. Since these rules are found in most
of the treatises, it is important to observe how they function
in.determining the identity of the twelve modes in musical
practice.
According to the rules governing strict modal practice,
the regular final of the mode, used for the close of every
composition, is defined in all the treatises as the lowest
note of the 5th species of the mode. This is the only note
which Glarean designates as the final, and though he recogni
zes that compositions do end on other tones of the mode, he
classifies these as irregular. In other treatises of the

r-
period, while the regular final is still considered the true
final close for the mode in practice, the theorists recognize
the 5th of the mode as an alternate ending, not only at inter
mediate cadence points which were traditionally reserved for
other notes of the mode, but at the close of the composition
as well. These were designated as "confinals" and, as indi
cated, were the fifth degrees of each mode except for the mode
186
on E which had for its confinal, either A or C in place of its
fifth note, B. In addition to these tones, theorists also
discuss intermediate cadences, which could be the final or the
fifth, or other tones of the mode as well, and which xvere con
sidered important as another factor contributing to the deter
mination of the mode in practice. This may be observed in the
following paragraph from Zarlinoj
If then we wish to make a judgment of whatever

song we choose, we shall have to consider the state
of the principal to the end, and see under what form
it is found to be composed; if under the form of the
first, or the second or any mode; having regard for
all the-cadences which throw great light on such
things, 4
From the above discussion it is evident, that in 16th
century theory, other notes than the final are admitted for
the close of the mode in composition. Also, for the identifi
cation of a mode in use, importance is attached to the inter
mediate cadence points as well as to the final close. Further,
it is evident that the concept of final according to tradition
al theory has changed, and even more important, the rules
governing its use in strict modal practice have been consider
ably relaxed by this time. In order to clarify 16th century
practice it is necessary to distinguish between the terms ca
dence and final, as they are used in the treatises of this
period, in reference to the close of a composition.
54Zarlino, p. 417.
187
Final is a term applied originally to the ending of
the mode in plainsong, and here its importance for identifying
the mode is not often questioned. However, in polyphonic
practice, though the theorists refer to the "tenor close11 as
determinative for modal identity, it is evident that other
factors must he taken into consideration as xvell. The first
of these is that with the vertical c o m p l e x ^ of voices in any
composition of two or more parts, it is necessary to be con
cerned, not only with the final in the tenor voice, but with
the last notes of the other voices as xirell. That theorists
recognized this is implied in the more frequent use of the
term cadence, in reference to the closes of polyphonic compo
sitions as described in the treatises of the time.
In polyphonic practice, so long as all the voices close
on the final of the mode, it is obvious that identifying the
mode from the tenor voice posed no difficulty.56 Further,
even when the last cadence of such compositions contained the
final and fifth of the mode, the rule of the "tenor close" for
55The expression "vertical complex" is used to refer to

the voices of polyphonic composition, in the same manner as
chord is used later in the harmonic styles.
^ A m o n g the compositions presented in the Dodecachordon,

there is perhaps an equal distribution between those which
have only the final at the close, and those having both the
final and the fifth. Strangely enough, in Zarlino's illustra
tions of the modes, we find two-voice polyphonic compositions
which, without exception, .show both voices" closing on the
final. In contrast, the compositions of his contemporaries
to which he refers in his discussion usually have the complete
triad at the close.
identifying mode could still be used.®? However, in the final
cadences of the compositions with which Zarlino and later theo
rists are concerned, along with the final and the fifth, the
third of the mode began to appear with increasing frequency.
As a result of this, there is constituted an actual "triad" on
the final of the mode at the close of a composition. There
fore, it is no longer accurate to speak of the tenor final as
the note which identifies the mode of the composition as a
whole.
Before considering cadence and final further, it is
necessary to point out a second factor which, at this time,
becomes significant for the identification of the mode in poly
phonic practice. This is the increasing awareness on the part
of theorists, of the importance of the bass voice as the true
support and foundation for the harmony above it. The result
of this is the focusing of attention on this voice, first, in
conjunction with the tenor, and later, in preference to it,
for the identification of the mode in polyphony.
Summarizing the above discussion of final and cadence,
it may be said that in the treatises of this time, final refers
57In compositions in which all voices close on the fi

nal, the mode is determined as authentic or plagal from the
course of the melody in the tenor as well as from the final.
In those with final and fifth, if the 5th were in the tenor,
it is likely this voice would be plagal and the others authen
tic; if the 5th were in another voice, with the final in the
tenor, the reverse would perhaps be true. In any event since
such compositions almost always contained both modes of a
pair, the distinction between authentic and plagal is not
important at this time.
189
to the single tone which Is recognized as the modal "tonic,51
while cadence refers to the vertical complex of the voices in
a composition of two or more parts,, In the cadence, the final
itself, at first in the tenor voice, later in the bass and the
tenor together, is still the important tone by which the mode

KO
is determined, ° As the practice grows more complex, theorists
use the term cadence more frequently than that of final to re
fer to the close of a polyphonic composition. The implication
is that for identification of the mode, they are aware of the
importance of the final "chord" which, though never so defined,
is present as the final cadence in polyphonic composition.
This change in emphasis from final to cadence is paralleled by
the change in consideration from an earlier practice to a la
ter one in the treatises of the period from Glarean to the
middle of the 17th century. This may be observed by consider
ing Zarlino and his successors' ideas on the subject, in compari
son to those of Glarean which have already been discussed.
Zarlino points out that the finals of the mode, or regu
lar endings, are those made on the extremes of the 4ths and
5ths. However, he also says that the 5th of the mode may be
divided by its middle note, thus showing the true, natural,
5% o r further clarification of this problem of final

and cadence in relation to the modes in polyphony, see the dis
cussion in Petrucci, Harmonice Husices Odhecaton A, edw by
Helen Hewitt (Cambridge, Mass., 1942), especially Sec. 4,
Modes, p. 19; and, Sec. 5, Cadences, p. 20.
190
princlplos of the mode.59 The regular cadences, then, are those
made on these notes, while the irregular ones are made on the
other notes of the mode. Thus, in the first mode in connection
with which this explanation is given, the notes C_ E Gr £ are the
notes which constitute the regular cadence of a four-voice po
lyphonic composition in this mode. For the second mode, that
is the Hypoionian, Zarlino states that the note, CJ is the regu
lar final. Thus the cadence contains the same notes as given
for the Ionian, but in a different arrangement, which is
G 0 E G.
In the case of both of these cadence arrangements,
which, theoretically, may be found as the closes for polypho
nic compositions, Zarlino points out that it is necessary to
observe the course of the mode in the composition in order to
identify it correctly.60 While, in Zarlino’s discussion, the
1 No further explanation of princlplos of the mode is

given. It may be assumed that Zarlino is referring to the dis
tinction between the two types of modes which he makes in his
treatise (1st, III, cap. 10l, and which a r e "Modi Laetlores
(Ionian, Lydian, and Mixolydian), whose fifths are divided har
monically, and Modi trlstlores (Dorian, Phrygian, and Aeolian)
with arithmetically divided fifths." (Kurt Benndorf, 'kethius
Calvislus als Musiktheoretiker," VfM, X:445, 1894.) If this
assumption is true, the princlplos of the modes are the major
and minor thirds into which the fifth may be divided.
60As mentioned earlier, Zarlino emphasizes that the

course of the mode Is to be observed in-both tenor and bass
voices. Thus if the composition had a prevailing overall ton
ality of the C mode, it could still be assigned to either the
first or second mode, depending on two things; first, which
of the two voices, tenor and bass, is most significant; and
second, whether the octave ambitus around the C final was the
octave C-c, or the 5th above and 4th below. Again, however,
it must be pointed out, that the distinction between authentic
and plagal has little validity, in spite of the discussions
of the theorists,
191
distinction between "regular" and "irregular" cadences is
never illustrated, it is presumed that these would he "chords"
such as the two which are given on G_, hut constructed on
other tones of the mode and used as intermediate cadences.
On the other hand, the distinction between final and cadence
seems clear enough from the discussion, and may he supported
by the two examples given below. In the first of these,
Example 43, we may observe the closing section of the two-
voice polyphonic composition given by Zarlino to illustrate
the use of the first mode. In this, the two voices close on
the final of the mode and thus, final and cadence are synony_
mous.
Example 43. Composition in the First Mode. (Zarlino, 1st.,

IV, Cap. 15, pp. 393-394.)
r
Jfy::
O \ 4. Last section only,
i showing the cadence..
<?- . .
,-
---- u —
192
In the second example mentioned, Example 44 below, we may ob
serve the closing measures of a motet for instruments and voi
ces, 0 Salutaris Hostia, by Adrian tfillaert. This composition
is mentioned by Zarlino as an illustration of the first mode
which has been transposed to F with b flat. In this, which is
illustrative of the more complex type of polyphonic writing
than found in the period represented by G-larean1s examples,
the final cadence shows the final, fifth and third degrees of
the mode.®^-
Example 44. 0 Salutaris Hostia by Adrian Wlllaert. (Schering,

deschlchte der Muslk 1m Belsplele.n, #104, p. 101#J
— .. . 1 ------------------------------------- -------------------------- ...
y - J j -e-----J----- s" ~ • ■'
------------------ -------------
-e-
Aa - I*o • mr X•^ •^ aw.— Vi - r•
* <x . — —
— — _
i»p« only*
4 -
y - a F - r — ----- cA 4 — _ _a „
t
Cici. — »* o — U u r icr an - ft' - |i' H Vrt '
J J.i. r
4 -J-4 - - S — F
V - H ? — *4 -:
f------------------------- ------------
i r i } f - ■ c -
61There is some indication that by cadence, theorists

had reference to the last two tones preceding the final note
in the individual voices, especially tenor and bass, and thus
the approach to the cadence. Hewitt, in her discussion of
examples in the Qdhecaton edition for which she is responsible,
supports this idea in the following: "As regards the music
in the Qdhecaton, the tenor in most cases still closes with
its traditional clausule; mediant, supertonic, tonic.11
(Petrucci, Qdhecaton, ed. Helen Hewitt, 1942, p. 19.)
193
In the treatises of the early 17th century, following
the work of Zarlino, there is further consideration of final
and cadence in relation to identification of the mode. Of
these treatises, two are of special interest for the problems
discussed above. The first is that of Cerone, El Kelopeo, in
which he distinguishes regular and Irregular closes as follows:
The regular ones are those made on the final or fifth degree
of the mode. The Irregular closes, which he calls clausulas
de passo, are made on the other tones of the mode. From his
discussion and illustration of these, found in Book ‘11 of
El Melopeo, it is evident that Cerone1s concern is only with
the closes used in plainsong practice, and especially with
these in reference to the Psalm Tones and other modal formulae
used In church music.^2
In a later section of his treatise, Cerone discusses
the subject of final and cadence again, this time in polypho
nic practice as well as in plainsong. Referring to his earli
er discussion, he again distinguishes two types of close or
cadence. The first type is that-called regular which, for
the authentic mode, are the final and fifth of the mode, but
for the plagal, the regular final of the authentic, and its
own extreme notes. Thus the cadences for the first two modes
Âctually, these irregular closes seem to be those

referred to as the "multitude of endings" by Hannas (see fn. 28,
p. 155), which were derived from the plainsong practice in con
nection with the church formulae. In connection with this dis
cussion, Cerone lists the regular tones as well as the irregu
lar ones for the eight Tones or Modes.
194
are as follows; For the Dorian, D-A-D; and for the Hypodorian,
A-D-A. The second type of cadence is that which Cerone has
called irregular, and as in Zarlino, includes those made on
notes of the mode other than the regular ones mentioned
above.®® The cadences, both regular and irregular, are illus
trated for every mode, and in the natural as well as in the
transposed position.®4 Since he mentions works of the same
period as those referred to by Zarlino, such as those of
Willaert and Verdelot, as well as those of both earlier and
later composers, it may be assumed that the same distinction
between final and cadence, as mentioned in connection with
Zarlino, would hold good for Cerone as well.
The second of the two treatises mentioned above, as a
source of information concerning final and cadence, is that of
Johann Andreas Herbst, Musica Poetlca (Franckfurt, 1653).®5
In his discussion of cadences, Herbst refers to them as
®®Outsiae of actual use in connection with church for

mulae (and from Cerone*s discussion this refers to both plain
song and polyphonic practice), such irregular endings were
reserved for intermediate cadences, while the last cadences or
closes had to be the finals or conflnals of the modes.
®4Ruth Hannas, ’’Evolution of Harmonic Consciousness”

(Diss., Eastman, 1934), in her study of the cadences from this
part of Cerone* s treatise (Book XII), says they are divided
into three types; 1) Final cadences; 2) Confinal or suspensa;
5) Cadences of transition (Clausulas de passo). The former
two are the regular, the latter, irregular, and are called
Peregrinas, and used for transition, or going out of key.
65it is not clear whether this is Herbst*s own work or

a translation of the Latin treatise, Arte prattica & poetica,
by G-lovannl Battista Chlodlno, published in tr. in 1653.
195
clausulis formalibus. He explains them in relation to poly
phonic music as follows*. In forming the cadence, the last
three notes of the cantus are very important, while in the
other voices only the last two notes need to he considered.
The bass, however, is also very important, and must move down
a 5th to the final of the mode.66
As did the theorists preceding him, Herbst distingui
shes two types of cadences and describes the correct use of
each. The cadences of the first type are those made on the
final of a mode and its octave, and are to be used at the
close of a composition. In these cadences, the final should
be the last note of the bass, and sometimes of the tenor as
well. The second type, or irregular cadences, are those made
on the third and fifth degrees of the modes, and while they
may be found at the end of a composition, they more often ap
pear at intermediate points. From Herbst's discussion and
Illustration of the cadences, it is clear that in the music
literature which he considers, the final cadence usually in
cludes the final, third, and fifth of the mode, with the final
in the bass, or tenor, or in both, and the determining note
for the mode.
It may be assumed that in designating the cadences on
the fifth and third as irregular, Herbst means the cadences
constructed on these notes, usually ’within the composition
66Concerning this explanation of clausulis formalibus,

see fn. 62, p. 193,
196
rather than at Its end. This is supported by the fact that
he calls these irregular cadences peregrlnas and says they
should be used at intermediate points on demand of the text.
In connection with their use he mentions the composer, Lassus.
He says further, that such cadences should be considered as
belonging to another mode than the one in which they are found,
and thus, they imply at least a temporary transition to a
different mode.
In the extension of the modal system from eight to
twelve modes, which was Glarean*s solution to the divergence
he observed between theory and practice, he succeeded in giv
ing theoretical justification to the modes most frequently
used. Further, he found support for this extension by assert
ing that the four "new" modes were really a part of the ancient
system, and had been in use through the intervening centuries,
though obscured by the manner in which they were used. The
task of describing the extension of the modal system accom
plished, Glarean turned his attention to a detailed examina
tion of contemporary music, both plainsong ,and polyphonic
composition. In this examination he has represented the modes
and the principles by which they are regulated in the purest
form possible, and according to traditional theory.
However, from our study of his analysis of modal usage,
it may be said that even Glarean, the last protector of the
so-called purity of the church mode system in theory, found it
very difficult to analyze the composition of his
197
contemporaries according to traditional principles. For
Glarean "finds that in the figured music of the ecclesiasti
cal practice, the purity of the octave species has disappear
ed. 1,67 Though, theoretically, in his 12-mode system he has
provided for the 11major-type" scales which appear with in
creasing frequency in practice at this time, other problems
arise which make necessary certain adjustments in his theory
of the modes. This becomes apparent in his preoccupation with
irregularities in the use of the modes, and the problem of
their identification which arises from these irregularities.
Such irregularities have been defined earlier as changes in
the 4th-5th species and extensions or other alterations in
the modal ambitus. From a careful study of such changes des
cribed by G-larean, it is possible to classify the modes in
use, into three types; the Aeolian-Dorian; the Ionian-Lydian
(which also includes the Mixolydian, though this may be in
the first group as well); and the Phrygian. This is supported
in the Dodecachordon, not only by the conclusions concerning
the changes in species and ambitus, but also by certain state
ments which G-larean makes throughout his treatise, and which
have been the subject of some controversy.5®
67genndorf, "Sethius Calvlslus als Kusiktheoretiker,"

VfK, X;417, 1894.
Such statements as, when speaking of the fact that

some will consider the number of twelve modes paradoxical,
G-larean says, "for they themselves know only eight; to others,
even three viz. ut, re, mi, seem sufficient, as the usual
minstrel-slngers have them;" and later, speaking of the Ionian,
"Today, the singers unanimously lay ut at the basis of this
198
The extension of the traditional modal system might
have been expected to entrench the modes and traditional theo
ry based on them more firmly. However, paradoxically enough,
it offered theoretical sanction for the major-minor scale
types evident in practice for some time, and thus there was
given further impetus to the undermining of the modal system
and traditional theory. In addition, in his examination of
music and his questioning of the authority of traditional
theory, perhaps the most important contribution made by Glarean
is in his emphasis on the necessity for examining musical
practice without prejudice, and modifying theory on the basis
of what is observed in practice.
Although Zarlino and his successors of the 17th century
constructed the church modes and applied traditional princi
ples for their use and recognition in the same manner as did
Glarean, their efforts are no more successful in bridging the
gap in this manner alone. Thus, Zarlino turns to a study of
interval-measurement (in which he is succeeded by many of the
theorists who follow him), setting up the diatonic-syntonon
for the determination of consonant relations within the
mode, as they assign every re to the Dorian and every mi to

the Phrygian . . . " (Dodecachordon, pp. 50 and 90.) Riemann
has interpreted these and similarpassages in the Dodecachordon
(as well as the discussion concerning the changes in species
which has been considered at length in this chapter, pp. 169-171,
as evidence of Glarean1s recognition of the three basic types
of scale. While there seems to be grounds for this, Riemann
goes so far as to identify these as major, minor and Phrygian,
and on this point has met with opposition from E. St. Willfort,
"Glarean's Erwiderung." ZIM, X:337-541, 1908-09.
199
octave. While this has little apparent effect on the actual
representation of the modes, it makes possible the observation
by Zarlino, that the modes are divided into two types on the
basis of the arrangement of the major-minor thirds according
to the harmonic and arithmetic division of the 5th species.
It also gives support to his rearrangement of the order of
the modes, in which the Ionian is placed first because it
has the first octave species. It may be seen that in these
accomplishments Zarlino gives further impetus to the changes
in the concepts of the modes and their theory, observed in
G-larean1s discussion.
As with G-larean, Zarlino* s contributions are a direct
result of the Inapplicability of even the extended modal sys
tem with the traditional principles, to the exigencies of 16th
century practice. In the century which follows, it becomes
more and more obvious that the modal scales simply do not lend
themselves to polyphonic composition in the manner in which
they were intended to be used in plainsong. This becomes appa
rent in the increasing attention given to the difficulties in
recognition of the modes in music, the consequent attempts to
"adjust" the modes to practice, and the resultant penetrating
study of every phase of modal theory and practice which occurs
in the treatises of the time.
In conclusion, we may say that in the 16th and 17th cen
tury treatises which we have considered, there is a growing
recognition of the effect on the structure and use of the
200
modes, of the irregularities in ambitus and the changes in
species caused by the use of chromatics. Through these fac
tors, the structure of the modes is weakened, and theorists
acknowledge that the representation of the modes in music had
to proceed from a viewpoint other than that of traditional
theory. From our study of the exposition and use of the modes,
it is evident that the Initial steps in establishing this new
point of view can be defined. Thes-e steps are two; first,
the theoretical sanction given to the major-minor type modes
as those most frequently used; and second, the recognition
that in use, for the most part the modes may be reduced to a
few types on the basis of their similarities in structure.
201
CHAPTER IV
THE MIXTURE OP MODES IK PLAINSONG MELODY ACCORDING TO
16TH AND 17TH CENTURY THEORY
In a study of modal usage and. of the problems of Identi
fication of the mode in the 16th and 17th century treatises,
one finds many references to changes in the modal ambitus.
These changes are observed by the theorists in the musical
practice of their time, and they fall into two distinct cate
gories, Those of the first type are of such a nature that the
distinctive features of the mode are preserved and there is no
change from one mode to another.Such changes have already
been discussed in detail and may be observed in the practice
of transposition, the temporary use of foreign tones, either
to correct bad intervals or to add chromatic color, and in
normal extensions characteristic of the modes at this time.^
In contrast, in changes of the second type the distinctive
features of the mode were lost or replaced by those of another
mode. In the treatises of this period, this resulted in a
practice known as mixed modes, or the change from one mode to
another.
It is Important to investigate the practice of mixed
modes or change from one mode to another in plainsong and in
Âccidentals are used to effect transposition, in addi

tion to the uses mentioned here. A discussion of the uses of
flats as "foreign tones" may be found in Petrucci, Harmonlce
Mualces Qdhecaton A, ed. Helen Hewitt (Cambridge, Mass., 1342),
pp. 22-26; and of accidentals in general, Willi Apel, Acciden-
tlen und Tonallt&t in den Muslkdenkm&lern des 15. und 16.
Jhrdts. ( B e r l i n , 1936).
202
polyphony, In the major treatises of the period. From this,
it is possible to determine whether this is a type of "modu
lation" for the modal period, and in what way it is related
to modulation in the tonal system of the period which folloxvs.
However, before turning to a study of the problem in the
treatises, it is necessary to define the alterations which
were responsible for the mixture or change of modes in the mu
sical practice of this period.
Theorists recognized two alterations in the regular am
bitus of the mode, both of which had the power to change the
mode itself. One of them was the extension of the normal am
bitus of the mode to such a point that the original mode was
said to encroach upon, or participate in, the ambitus of an
other mode.^ For example, if, in the authentic mode, a melody
moved beyond the usual ambitus down into the 4th of its pla
gal, or the latter went beyond the 6th above the final into
the top of the authentic ambitus, it was recognized as a com
bination of the ranges of the two modes, and was generally
called modo mlxto or mixed modes.®
A second change in ambitus recognized by the theorists
was one which involved the 4th and 5th species of the modes.
^This practice is not to be confused with the licenses

permitted to the mode as described in preceding chapters. In
these, the ambitus was extended to a 10th or 11th, no new 4th
or 5th appeared, and hence there was no change from one mode
to another. These were classified as tonus superfluous.
®The practice was Identified in various ways by differ

ent theorists. Those who held to the traditional system of
classification of melodies, called this modo mlxto; others,
such as Glarean simply described this as mixed modes.
203
In this type, there was an emphasis within the modal ambitus
whether extended or not, on a 4th or 5th species different
from those belonging to the mode. It could happen without
accidentals simply by a shift of emphasis from the regular
species to those foreign to the mode. Or with accidentals, it
could be an actual change in the interval relation within the
characteristic 4th or 5th, In either case, there was a modal
mixture, or change from one mode to another, sometimes to one
quite different. In the classification of melodies according
to modal ambitus, this was called modo commlsto, or eommixtlo,
or, it was also described as mixed modes- or the change from
one mode to another.
While it is obvious from this summary that the two spe
cific types of mixed modes are not of equal significance to
the problem of the change from one mode to another, neverthe
less both must be considered in an examination of the practice.
In the treatises of this period, the first type of such change
of mode or mixed modes, which is to be considered, is that
caused by the extension of the modal ambitus. Such extensions
in which no accidentals appear and in which there is no empha
sis on new 4th or 5th species, result in mixtures of the pla
gal and authentic modes of each pair.
204
The Mixture of the Plagal and Authentic Modes through
the Extension of the Modal Ambitus
In connection with the 8-mode system in the treatises
of the early 16th century, the subject of mixed modes is
treated briefly. For example, in explaining how one should
recognize the tone of a song in normal use, Ornithoparcus
says; "Besides the regular songs there be certain songs
which do ascend as an authenticall and descend as a plagal,
and those are called neutral or mixed songs.ii4: He asserts
that these mixed songs must be observed carefully, so that one
may determine to which tone (plagal or authentic) they incline
most. According to him, if they descend from the fifth degree
to the final they are authentic. On the other hand, if they
ascend from the third or fourth below up to the final, they
are plagal.
In his Trattato Aron gives only casual reference to the
subject of mixed modes. He states that some songs may be
difficult to identify because of their procedure in relation
to a given final, and he calls these "mixed songs." However,
in two other treatises, IjL Toscanello and JCl Compendlolo, Aron
follows the traditional method of classifying modal melodies
according to the use of the modal ambitus. In these treatises
a modal melody with an extended range which shows both the
4Andreas Ornithoparcus, Muslce active miorologus

(Leipzig, 1516); tr. by John Dowland''(London, 1609), p. 13,
205
plagal and authentic forms of a mode combined is classified
as Modo Mlxto.5
In the treatise, Musica Ohoralls Deudsch, Agricola des
cribes only this type of modal mixture; "It often happens
that two tones at the same time are mixed with another, there
fore, in one and the same song there will be found the course
of both tones, as may be seen in the following tenor." In
this example, it may be observed that though Agricola indi
cates the mixture only in the tenor voice, both lower voices
show the mixture of the fifth and sixth modes. This happens
because the 4th species of the sixth mode, C-f, is added below
the regular ambitus of the fifth mode F-f, giving the combined
ranges of both the plagal and authentic modes, and thus a mix
ture of the two tones according to Agricola's explanation.
It is clear that such a mixture comes from the extension of
the fifth mode to the 4th below its final, by means of which
the distinctive interval of the plagal is added to the authen
tic mode.
5In Aron's Trattato, the "mixed songs" are definitely

not the plagal and authentic mixed since he calls them Toni
Commlstl. These are also considered in the two above-
mentioned treatises of Aron.
6This description of mixed modes given by Agricola

occurs under the heading Von Vermlschung der Tonorum, or
"Of the Mixture of the Tones."11 Elsewhere, he classifies the
modes traditionally including, however, only the classes of
Perfect, Imperfect, and Superfluous.
206
Example 45. Mixture of the Fifth and Sixth Tones.

(Agricola, n.p.)
TXfi F'ttW aixj
T‘
In the survey of modal usage under the 8-mode system,
G-larean shows how the modal ambitus has been extended in use
very gradually from the earliest times to the present, until
now, in contemporary practice, one observes the connection or

n
joining of the systems of the two modes. As an example of
mixture through the extension of the ambitus, he sets the
sequence, Victimae Paschall Laudes, (Example 46, p. 208),
which he analyzes as follows;
At times the systems of two modes will be connected

with one another as in the sequence, Victimae Paschall
Laudes, that of the first and second modes, where the”
first verse has the 5th re-la common to both modes; the
?As in Agricola, G-larean identifies this as Vermlschung

der Modi. Because of his dependence on the "writings of his
time,11 particularly those of G-aforl, in connection with the
eight modes, it seems strange that he does not give the sys
tem of classification of the latter.
207
second and third verses have again the 4th of the first
mode; all have, however, the 5th re-la, common to both
modes, °
In assigning such melodies or compositions to certain
modes there is a difference between the practice described by
Agricola and that discussed by G-larean, The former believes
that in identifying the mode of such a composition, the usual
practice of observing the course of the melody, repercussion
and final is to be followed. According to him, the most de
cisive factor for the identity of the mode is whether the song
descends from the 5th to its final, in which case it is as
signed to the authentic; or, whether it ascends from the 3rd
or 4th below up to the final, in which case the mode is the
plagal. On the other hand, Glarean points out very clearly
that in identifying and naming the modes of these examples
one does not assign them to a specific authentic or plagal
mode. This can be observed in the following paragraph;
If, therefore, the systems of two modes are joined

together, then we say they are mixed modes; many be
lieve these should be ascribed to the plagal modes. I,
however, hold this to be the case, that the nature of
both modes must be observed; for that they are mixed
modes not anyone can deny,9
Under the 12-mode system, Glarean considers the prac
tice described above in much greater detail as he has
H e i n r i c h Glareanus, ■Dodecachordon (Basle, 1547) , tr.

by Peter Bohn, Publlkatlonen alterer praktlscher und theore-
tlscher Muslkwerke, XVI;2 6 , Leipzig, 1828.
9Ibld., pp. 26-27.
208
Example 46. Mixture of the First and Second Modes in the

Sequence, Victimae Paschali Laudes. (Glarean,
p . 26.)
' r 1 f *■ t - 1— r- ■>• ^ r - f -
\ f)
^ t o - h v - U '
\ F t ' - r T T L r f ------------- 1
.m — # — J - - 1* — #
1 J 11 « i z E j d "T
L T - * /
3)
P— PCItE
t - , - « V V ------------------------------------------------ » -----1 ---- ' f ' #
&ih|,'-o.^f p tts n -tir -f J Mors c t w'^+ 1>, d u e l lo. C « n /K X Ye rrt i reV, Jo : rrm c
^ * • "" ^
i\S Oc fto -tn * IA& ►* a —■ C^Hii Vid'ifh ?l»nsb Vi i V n f i 5 ( C-f
r-
t o r p 11 '~n— r ^ .h . _...i.... .............
- - r - h - m ►■
:
-*
t o L t o t o
--quq^.-
— r- 0
0
,— f ------i-------- ^ U J
w
4 ‘U:p±Jl-=
- rU- -r~
Hi. -K 3Mr IjenUs- /1„ iI asJ f/j fcj J wJo h a m (ff ■ Saara%.t &<sriuSp< .Ii.fuaCaJat S«o3
m iCgrJ;;.;t■J
f p - i L , . ? [’(■ I ' U r . t f . T l
in<*» li - l/«i: * a *n . S:)h»jd'*-i 5t u » 3urYt)i;LC'3f. ^ / ( • ' ‘ L i s ! /f T{ -juhcii^ /1 cfbr

asfl l l F E ^ r - f = ^ L
jfrjt. In, Jc ft
0
- rc
0 9 0
f\ — »v*\ •
S H
/l|-|c -|u -
14
209
promised earlier. However, in this part of his treatise, he
does not refer to this as the "mixing of the modes," hut
rather as a "binding11 or "Joining" of each two modes which
are related to each other as a main mode and its collateral.
Of these mixtures he says;
As therefore, out of those seven harmonically and

arithmetically divided octave-species, twelve modes
have arisen, which we have examined up to this point,
so, on the other hand, arises out of these seven spe
cies, six combinations of every two modes . .
Glarean speaks of the "great natural wonder" of this fact
that every two modes which differ through position and octave
species can have one and the same body. The reason is that
the 5th is the same for both modes, and the 4th is different
only through its position and not because of its nature. At
the close of his discussion, Glarean gives the extension of
the ambitus for each of the modes of a pair and shows that
such an extended modal range is the result of the combination
of both modes. This may be observed in Figure 14, page 210.
lOG-larean, p. 106. Glarean calls this combination of

authentic and its plagal, a Verblndung of the modes in con
trast to Vermischung, the term used to refer to this combina
tion under the 6-moae system.
210
Figure 14. Die Verblndung der Modi. (Glarean, p. 106.)
Dorian Phrygian Lydian Mixolydian

--------- 1
zrffy*:. ^ ---- — f — 7- [ f W
-- & H----- ' . “ i
■br-f
--------- •t i t ------ ------- 1-- >11 -----^ — « = L — -J
Hypodorian Hypophrygian Hypolydian Hypomixolydian
D E F G
Aeolian Hyperaoolian Ionian

rejectus I
/h "1 n *>-: w ---------- * 0rm x

....- * ------ j---------- * - + -
1-:...:. V- » * -.--- -------------
or1 ■ ' -«_ ■w+ r
V
Hypoaeolian Hyperpbrygian ■ Hypoionian

rejectus II
a b e
It is obvious that for Glarean, In the melodies which
show a combined range of the authentic and plagal modes, the
distinction between the two is not nearly so important as the
community which they share. This community of the two modes
of a pair is even more strongly emphasized by Zarlino who
discusses this relationship in connection with the modal fi
nals. Very briefly, he states that the final which serves
every two modes is found to give the modes such binding and
affinity that if one wished to separate them it would not be
possible. For example, the lowest note of the 5th, C-g, is
the final common to both modes having this 5th, which in
his order are the first and second mode. From this fact,
211
Zarlino draws the conclusion that the first mode may he
accompanied hy the second, the third by the fourth, and all
the others in order, and . . if all these things are under
stood then there will not be anyone that, considering such,
does not know how to accompany the mode authentic with its
plagal.1,11
With such an emphasis on the affinity between authentic
and plagal modes it is not surprising that, in the classifi
cation of modal melodies according to ambitus, Zarlino dis
cards the traditional modo mlxto, for the combined or mixed
authentic and plagal melodies, in favor of modi communi;
There is found to be another difference in the

modes; that is, when the uneven and even-numbered
modes go beyond their octaves; the latter above, and
the former below, and when they extend as much as
four notes beyond the octave , such modes will be
called communi: for these will be composed of the prin
cipal and its collateral; and all of the compositions
in these modes are found to be of eleven notes, that
are common to both the authentic and plagal modes.I2
Zarlino does not go into further detail on this matter
except to mention that many songs among the ecclesiastical me
lodies are found to use these modi communi. As examples he
mentions the sequence given by Glarean, Victimae Paschall
Laudes, the antiphon Salve Regina, and other plainsong melo
dies as well. Contrary to the opinion expressed by Glarean,
HZar l l n o , L ^ s t l t u z l o n e harmoniche (Venice, 1589),

p. 384.
l2Ibid., p. 385. The ambitus of eleven notes given by

Zarlino may be compared to the extension of the mode shown in
the table of Ornithoparcus, see ch. I, fig. 1.
212
Zarlino believes that in the melodies which use the combined
authentic and plagal modes, the mode is to be identified and
named from the principal, or authentic mode, ", . . because
(according to custom) everything should be called by the thing

1 3
more perfect, more dignified and more noble,11
In many of the treatises of the period follovring Zar
lino, while most of the theorists acknowledge dependence on
either G-larean or Zarlino, there are many who continue to de
fine the combination of authentic and plagal as mixed modes
rather than as the "binding" or "joining" of the modes Just
described. An example is Cerone who, in the earlier part of
his treatise, holds the traditional view of this practice.
As a result, he classifies modes according to the use of the
ambitus exactly as the earlier theorists. In his system of
classification, he includes tonus mixtus, which he defines as
the mixture of the authentic and plagal modes,14
Further consideration of this type of mixture is unne
cessary since it is clear that such a practice involves no
real change from one mode to another. The fact that it was
defined as a mixture of modes, and to the early modal theo
rists constituted a change from one mode to another, is depen
dent on two things. The first of these is that in the earlier
15Zarlino, p, 385.
l^Cerone, as do both Zarlino and G-larean, depends on

G-afori as his authority. He refers to the latter on the sub
ject of mixed modes giving two classes of modo mlxto, i.e.
Perfect and Imperfect, These are distinguished by the amount
of each mode found in the other.
213
period of theory there was a clear distinction between the
authentic and plagal forms of the modes. When, in a melody
of extended range, both forms of the mode were present, a
change from the authentic to the plagal region, or vice versa,
was considered to be a change from one mode to the other.
Such melodies were assigned to the class, modo mlxto, or sim
ply described as the mixing of the two modes.
A second reason for considering the mixture of authen
tic and plagal modes as a change of mode, although in a limit
ed sense, is that, traditionally, the pure church modes were
believed to exist only within the limits of one octave. Even
in G-larean's time, the Importance of this idea may be observed
in his discussion of modal structure, where he continually
places emphasis on the octave species. Gradually, as G-larean
himself points out, the need for melodic extension in the am
bitus of the mode led to the use of one that was clearly the
plagal and authentic modes combined. Such combinations were
defined as mixtures because the extension of the modal ambitus
was never considered as a repetition of the original octave
above or below, but rather a participation in the 4th or 5th
species of another mode, and thus in the mode itself. Since
such an extension actually did destroy the purity of the modal
octave, it was logically considered as a change from one mode
to another.15
15A very clear discussion of this problem is given by

Robert Wienphal in "Modal Usage in Masses of the 15th Century,11
JAMS V, #1:40-43, 1952.
214
Up to this point in our discussion of mixed modes we
have considered only the extension of modal ambitus in which
the addition of a 4th Qr 5th common to the mode is the end
result. In melodies of this type, there is no actual change
in modal flavor, nor in the interval relation within the mode.
Therefore, it is obvious that such extensions could not be con
sidered true changes of mode, except in the limited fashion ex
plained above. By the time of the theoretical acceptance of
the 12-mode system, the theorists themselves were aware of this
fact, the evidence for which is clearly seen in the change in
describing the extension in both G-larean and Zarlino. For
both theorists recognize and emphasize the common features of
the two modes of each pair, and now define the mixture of au
thentic and plagal as the combining, or joining of the two
modes.16
In the introductory remarks to this chapter, it was
pointed out that a change from one mode to another could be
made by means of an alteration within the ambitus of the ori
ginal mode. It was also explained that such alterations were
of two different kinds* first, a change from the emphasis on
the 4th or 5th species characteristic of the mode to that of
a different 4th or 5th species, sometimes both, which,
16The distinction between the authentic and plagal

modes, originally derived in connection with their use in
plainsong, has little significance for polyphonic music. Both
modes of a pair are necessarily found among the voices of
polyphonic music because of the range of the voice parts.
This fact, recognized by Zarlino and Glarean, led to the use
of the term "mixed modes" in connection with polyphonic music.
215
though contained within the modal ambitus in question, are not
those belonging to the mode itself; second, the use of acciden
tals to change the 4th or 5th species of one mode to those be
longing to another mode. In both cases, an extension of the
original modal octave is more likely to be present than not,
since in such an extended ambitus there is a greater possibi
lity of the new 4th and 5th species being emphasized, with or
without accidentals. Nevertheless, that such changes were
present, both with and without extension of the ambitus, will
be observed in the examination of this second type of modal
change in the treatises of this period.
The Mixture of Modes Through the Alteration of the
4th-5th Species within the Mode
In describing the second type of modal mixture, the theo
rists fall into two general groups according to their manner
of handling the problem. First, there are those who follow
the regular tradition of classifying melodies according to the
use of modal ambitus. These theorists assign melodies which
have a mixture of 4th-5th species from different modes to a
class known as modo commixto, or tonus commixtus as it is
called by the earlier modal theori s t s . ^ Second, there are
those theorists who consider this type of modal mixture in a
l^Tonus Commixtus is first described by Marchetus da

Padua in Lucidarium in arte muslcae planae, 1274 (see Couss.
Scrlptorum de muslca medll aevl, Milan, 1951, III). The term
is usually varied according to the language of the treatise.
216
more general fashion, and who identify such a practice as the
change from one mode to another. A further distinction between
these two types occurs in the fact that, in connection with
the first-mentioned type, the theorists, who describe the
practice of mixed inodes, are concerned primarily with its evi
dence in plainsong melody. In contrast, that of the second
type is described by the theorists primarily as it is observed
in connection with polyphonic composition. With this we shall
not be concerned in this chapter. Instead, we shall consider
the analysis and explanation of modo commlxto, or tonus
commlxtus, as this is observed in plainsong by the theorists
who follow the traditional method of classifying modal melo
dies according to the use of the modal ambitus.
The traditional classification of melodies according
to the use of modal ambitus, among which is found that called
tonus commlxtus, antedates the theoretical period of the 16th
and 17th centuries with which we have been concerned thus far.
Nevertheless, not only does the practice of classification,
and specifically the class of tonus commlxtus, persist into
Renaissance theory, but the general principles with respect
to the use of mixed modes are likewise preserved in the later
period. This will be apparent from an examination of tonus
commlxtus described by Tlnctoris, a pre-16th century theorist,
and a comparison of his ideas on the subject with those of
several theorists of the Renaissance period. In a contemporary
study of Tinctoris1 treatise on modes, Liber de natura et
217
proprletate de Tonorum,18 the author, Dr, Lucie Balmer, has
given a penetrating analysis of the problem of tonus commlx
tus according to Tinctoris.^8 We shall turn to this section
of her study for a general clarification of the problem of
comlxtlo as it is described by the earlier theorists.
In beginning her explanation of tonus commlxtus, Balmer
suggests that there is a special significance in the emphasis
which Tinctoris places on the 4th-5th species in the construc
tion of the modes and of the modal melodies. To find an
explanation for this emphasis, she proposes an analysis of
the Irregular connections of the 4th-5th species which Tinc
toris calls commixtiones, and which he defined as follows:
"Tonus oommixtus is that which, if authentic will be mixed
with other than its own plagal, and if plagal, will be mixed
with other than its own a u t h e n t i c . T o illustrate this de
finition, Balmer gives two examples from the treatise De
Natura of Tinctoris;^1
^ J o h a n n e s Tinctoris, Liber de natura et proorletate

de Tonorum, Coussemaker, IV;lb-41.
l®Dr. Lucie Balmer, Tonsystem und Kirchentone bel

Johannes Tinctoris, Heft 2. Berner Verffffehtilchungen zur Kuslk-
forschung (Bern, 1935), edited by Ernst Kurtn, pp. 195-206.
^Tinctoris, Dlfflnltorlum, Coussemaker, IV:190. Bal

mer, p. 201, gives a similar definition.
21T inctoris designates the mixture for every example

given in his discussion of commixtiones, in the treatise, Liber
de natura et proprletate de Tonorum.
218
Example 47, First Mode commixed with the Seventh,

(Balmer, p, 195,)
-,j L,-JJ
Example 48, Second Mode commixed with the Eighth,

(Balmer, p, 195.)
Observing these first two examples, Balmer says:
Theoretically, it is immediately evident that with

in the octave D-d of the first example and the 10th A-c
of the second example, more than one 4th-5th species
have a place. However, what do the 4th-5th species,
other than the regular ones, that is those belonging to
the mode, signify within this mode, and moreover, how
is one to recognize such Irregular intervals, especially
if no foreign tones appear in them?22
For an answer to this question, Balmer says that we must look
to the above examples, in which she has Indicated both the
regular and Irregular 4th-5th species.
Now then, we see that the strange mixed 5th and 4th
species g-d, d-g, and g-c, c-g emerge in the melodic
movement. The melody, however, toward its close, again
clearly distinguishes the 5th species a-d characteristic
of the original mode and in descending motion. Accord
ingly, therefore, the 4th-5th species in the individual
22 Balmer, p. 195.
219
modes must be manifest as characteristic melodic don-

figurations. 6
In these examples then, Balmer finds a special meaning
in the fact that throughout his treatment of the modes,
Tinctoris emphasizes the importance of the 4th-5th .species in
the construction of the modal scales. She points out further,
that this is confirmed by the compositions of the time accord
ing to which Tinctoris has formed his theory, among which com
positions are included works of Ockeghem, Dufay, and Busnols.
As an illustration of this point, Balmer gives several melodic
excerpts from the single voice parts of three Ockeghem masses.
She shows that in these, as well as in the commlxtiones, the
4th-5th species characteristic of the mode involved are dis
tinctive features in the melody.
For Tinctoris, according to Balmer, the important tones
of the 4th-5th species are the final and the higher 5th or
lower 4th, or in other words, the final and 5th degree of the
regular mode. For the commlxtiones, in addition to those of
the regular mode, one must add the final and the upper 5th, or
lower 4th of another scale. From this fact, Balmer believes
that, applying our modern terminology, it is possible to
speak of dominant color in a melodic sense. She also ques
tions whether this may not even be an early reflection of the
dominant feeling which is characteristic of the developing
major-minor tonality.
25Balmer, p. 195.
220
Returning once more to the specific problem of the
commlxtiones, Balmer states that, in this section of his work,
Tinctoris gives detailed consideration to the problem of nam
ing the mixed tones; ' "For, since each 5th and each 4th species
is common to two tones, one authentic and one plagal, then
with every commlxtlo there arises the question; With which of
the two tones, the authentic or the plagal, does the mixture
24
take place"? The identification or naming of the oommixtio,
or the assigning of a melody of this type to a specific mode
depends on several factors. These are explained by Balmer
with examples from Tinctoris, and with reference to his own
discussion of the problem.
Generally speaking, one could always say it is a ■

question of the mixture of two tones. Tinctoris,
however, Introduces a strange 5th or 4th into a cer
tain tone, and in the following fashion; By simply
not always assigning a 5th to the authentic tone to
which it belongs, and a 4th to the plagal, as in the
accompanying examples.25
Example 49. Third Tone commixed with the Seventh.

(Balmer, p. 198.)
P re
I k]
*— s IL
24Balmer, p. 19?,
25 Ibld., p. 198.
221
Example 50. Fourth Tone commixed with the Eighth.

(Balmer, p. 198. )
However, Balmer points out, mixtures of the scales with the
4th are distinguished by Tinctoris, according to the position
in which the new 4th species enters into the mode.
Therefore, if the 4th of one tone is transported

out of the position over the 5th to another tone, then
will the latter [i.e.* the new tone]] be designated au
thentic mixed to the one concerned. And a 4th in the
position of the plagal 4th of its scale [i.e. of the
scale concerned], gives to the mixed tone, the desig
nation according to thejolagal tone, as the above
cited examples confirm.1^
A close examination of the examples mentioned will cla
rify this somewhat obscure explanation. In the first of
these, Example 49, within the ambitus E-e of the original mode,
which is the third or Phrygian mode, Tinctoris has introduced
above its 5th species, E-b, a strange 4th, d-g, belonging to
both the seventh and eighth modes. In addition, he has also
introduced a strange 5th, d -G r, in descending fashion, and
belonging to the same two modes as the strange 4th. It is ob
vious that it is this factor, i.e. the appearance of both in
tervals in the correct position for the seventh mode which,
though not mentioned by Balmer, gives to this example the
26Balmer, p. 198.
222
designation of the third mode commixed with the seventh. In
the second example above, Example 50, Tinctoris has introduced
into the position of the 4th of the plagal mode, which is the
Hypophrygian or fourth mode, the strange 4th, C-f. Prom this
he obtains the mixture of the two plagal tones, the fourth
with the eighth, as indicated.
Continuing with this discussion of the naming of the
commlxtiones according to Tinctoris, Balmer says; "However,
it can also happen that the 4th may enter into another tone
in the authentic, as well as in the plagal position; in such
cases, Tinctoris proposes the naming according to both the
authentic and plagal tones. 1,27 In the accompanying example,
it may be observed that, within the" ambitus of the seventh
mode, &-g, and both above and below its characteristic 5th
G-d, Tinctoris has introduced the strange 4th f-c, thus
causing the seventh tone to be mixed with both the fifth and
sixth.
27Balmer, p. 199.
223
Example 51. Seventh Tone commixed with the Fifth and Sixth.
(Balmer, p. 1S9.)
* - -— T v
tf [<) h - i \ le-* t ] C-) 4][f «•J
* I* 5 -J
A final type of commlxtiones discussed by Tinctoris is
one in which several 4th-5th species are exhibited, of which
the following is an illustration.
Example 52, Several 4th-5th Species Mixed with the Eighth

Tone. (Balmer, p. 200.)
... f ■#- r~ r
• r \ 0 # 0 FFfi
j - t -L.i L j . , ' .
.Q t :: -A t -< Lfcfct -U - —
* ^ 4 a- J u 1r t- f- 0 0 e-a) \ c
For the naming of the mode in such mixtures as this example
shows, Tinctoris states that the last 4th or 5th species is
decisive. Since this example closes with the 5th d-g, belong
ing to the eighth tone, it is assigned to the eighth mode as
Balmer indicates. However, it should be pointed out that not
only does this example close with the 5th of the eighth tone,
it also opens with the 4th characteristic of the same tone.
Since the interval steps e-a, and c-f, therefore those of the
3rd and 5th tones, are clearly recognized in the melody, a
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission
224
fact which Balmer, herself, points out, it is understandable
that this melody is designated by Tinctoris as the eighth
tone commixed with the third and fifth tones.
In her further consideration of the practice according
to Tinctoris, Balmer is concerned with the reasons which he
gives for the commixtiones. In his treatise, Tinctoris empha
sizes that commlxtio is made either by "necessity" or "volun
tarily." Concerning the latter, there are no illustrations
and only a brief explanation is given to make clear the mean
ing of the word used by Tinctoris which is voluntate. By
"voluntary" commlxtio, Tinctoris understands the mixture of
4th-5th species according to the free will of the composer.
On the other hand, a commlxtio which arises from "necessity"
happens, when a perfect consonance must be created from the
tritone Hni-fa" in the combination of two parts of a polyphonic
composition. This is shown in an illustration given by
Tinctoris and analyzed by Balmer.
^ B a l m e r also points out that, for her, the interval

d-a seems to stand forth as clearly as those indicated, e-a,
and c-f. This would imply still another tone, the first, to
be designated mixed with those already mentioned.
225
Example 53, Polyphonic Example with Commixtio. (Balmer,

p, 202.)
T t T T H i
—y-t 7— r
0
.ft.
if ♦ - ’
*
»’- .1: L-.r f g c n v i

r ^ ~ \ * f r t * 1 n* ~
In this two-voiced example, there arises of itself,

necessarily, a commlxtio of the second with the’fourth
tone, since to the f (fa) in the Tenor, in the place
of h (mi) [i.e. b natural] in the contra-tenor,* b
[i.e. b flatj must be sung to avoid a tritone. There
fore, the 4th species a h c d of the second tone,
here descending, is transformed into a b e d . This is
a change of thepfirst 4th species (t-s-t) into the
second (s-t-t).~9
The correction of the first tritone, b-f, indicated be
tween the two voices (by the first of the vertical dotted
lines), is clearly in accordance with the explanation of
Tinctoris. However, though the b flat in the tenor voice is
understood, no mention is made of its use to correct either
the melodic trltone with the preceding note f, or the imper
fect octave with the second b flat in the contra-tenor (as
indicated by the second vertical dotted line).30
From her study of the commlxtiones as illustrated and
described by Tinctoris, and a comparison of his ideas with
29Balmer, p. 202.
30It should also be pointed out that no mention is

made of the very obvious perfect octaves between the voices,
moving parallel, which was contradictory to the contrapuntal
rules of this time.
226
those found in some of the earlier treatises, Balmer reaches
a conclusion about the practice which she states at the end
of her discussion as follows*
The commlxtiones are, therefore, a kind of transpo

sition, for, wnile the 4th-5th species of a different
kind, therefore derived from other scales, are contained
in a melody, sounds of other scales play in the one
[i.e. in the one given] scale. According to the ex
amples, the mixtures seem to occur, above all, with
tones characteristic to the scale Li. e. with tones be
longing to, or part of the scale].31
The illustrations of this practice given by Tinctoris, and the
analyses of these by Balmer, but according to Tinctoris1 own
explanation, are intended to be reasonable evidence of the
nature of commlxtiones. Therefore, Balmer*s conclusion that
these are a type of transposition, is a questionable one.
There are three reasons for this, which must be considered in
order to reach a more valid conclusion.
The first reason becomes apparent at once, when one re
considers the practice of transposition described earlier
(see pp. 43 to 51), and compares it with the commlxtiones
explained by Tinctoris. Transposition means that a mode is
moved from its regular octave position, to that of another
octave, either higher or lower, with the condition that the
4th-5th species characteristic of the mode must be preserved
in the new octave, exactly as they appear in the regular
octave position. Thus a melody or polyphonic composition
31Balmer, p. 203.
227
which was transposed was one in which the entire melody or
polyphonic composition moved in a different octave from the
usual one of the mode concerned. However, whether the trans
position concerned the entire melody, or only a section, which
would be the implication from Balmer*s conclusion of the
examples, the 4th-5th species had to remain the same as in the
original position of the mode. It is obvious then, that,
since in the commlxtiones, the 4th-5th species introduced into
the melodies are those which are foreign to the original mode,
with these "strange species" it is impossible to have a trans
position. Moreover, the examples support this conclusion
since the melodies contain species of more than one mode. A
further point concerning the transposition idea might be
added. This is that the regular transposition for the period
represented by Tinctoris is that of a fourth higher with the
use of b flat, the same as that of the early 15th century trea
tises. In the examples given there is no evidence of any for
eign tone. But with or without foreign tones, the strange
4th-5th species Interpolated within the melodies bear no rela
tion to the species of the original modes in question, which
they should do if this were a case of transposition.
A second reason for questioning Balmer's conclusion
becomes evident from a close analysis of the conclusion it
self. Here, if one accepts the practice of transposition as
explained (and Balmer gives us no reason to assume a different
interpretation), there is certainly a contradiction expressed
228
in her conclusion. For, after stating that "oommixtlones are
a kind of transposition,11 she points out that the "4th-5th
species of a different kind," and we must presume that they
are different from the ones belonging to the mode in question,
are contained in a melody, and further, that "sounds of other
scales play in one scale." Finally, the last statement of
this concluding paragraph is somewhat ambiguous and needs
clarification. She says that the commixtiones occur above
all with tones characteristic of the scale. It may be that
the idea of transposition could be inferred from the use of
"characteristic" tones of the scale. However, the real mean
ing of this is that the "foreign species" are made up of only
the diatonic tones found in the scale itself, or in any of the
other modes, therefore, that no accidentals are ever used.
The important thing about these is not the Individual tones,
for these do not determine either a transposition or a com
mlxtio, but the "melodic configurations" which the 4th-5th
species represent within a tone "to which they do not belong

3 2
as its regular species."
The third reason for opposing Balmer1s interpretation
of the commlxtiones as transposition is found in another con
clusion which she gives earlier. In this, she says that the
examples from Tinctoris show clearly what Tinctoris calls
commlxtio, and which she states by a recapitulation of his
^ B a l m e r points out that these 4th-5th species, as

"melodic configurations" in the modes, may be compared to the
major-minor 3rds which serve the major-minor scales in the same
manner, i.e. as intervals which are distinctive for the modes
in both cases.
229
definition; "A commixtio is therefore . . . a mixture of 4th
and 5th species with a tone to which they do not belong as
its characteristic 4th and 5th species. From the evidence
which has been presented, and above all, from the examples
themselves, this is the only accurate interpretation which can
be given to the commlxtiones.
Though the brevity of the Tinctoris examples makes them
seem Inconclusive as examples of a bona fide change from one
mode to another, nevertheless the principle of such a change
or of a mixture of modes is clearly demonstrated.®^ The pre
sence of strange 4th-5th species in a melody indicates that,
for the moment, the melody has entered the modal "tonality" of
these strange species, or in other words, has "modulated" to a
different mode than, the one in which it begins and ends.
Therefore, it must be concluded of such melodies, which are
illustrated in Tinctoris1 examples, that they are a type of
modal modulation, and not, as Balmer believes, a type of trans
position.
Such a conclusion is valid for the class of tonus com
mlxtus in the treatises throughout the entire period of modal
theory for which Tinctoris may be said to be
®®Balmer, p. 201.
34The brevity of these examples is undoubtedly due. to

a fact which Balmer herself suggests. They were constructed
by Tinctoris to serve a diaactory purpose in his treatise,
and needed to be just long enough to demonstrate the principle
of commlxtus clearly.
230
representative.35 In the Renaissance treatises which contain
the traditional classification of melodies according to the
use of modal ambitus, we may expect that this same interpreta
tion will be given to the classes involving mixed modes. How
ever, whether this is substantiated or not, can be determined
only by a study of the practice as it is described and illus
trated in Renaissance theory.
Of the 16th century treatises studied in connection
with the 8-mode system, those of Agricola and Ornithoparcus
give no evidence of recognizing the practice of mixed modes.
However, Aron, who is not concerned with modal classification
in his Trattato, describes a practice similar to that of
Tinctoris, which he calls tonl commlstl. It is found in a
discussion of the importance of the final for determining
mode, in which Aron says only this;
First consider those compositions that have their

finals on d sol-re, and, that at the beginning or in
their course proceed with the species of the third,
fifth, sixth, seventh or eighth tone; All these are
in my opinion to be judged only from their proper and
regular final, provided that they contain contradictory
and unsuitable procedures for no other tone has a
difference ending on this step. And as to those ending
on E la-mi, these are subject in the same way only to
^ A c c o r d i n g to Balmer, Tinctoris stands at the close of

the Medieval period. His treatise sums up the best of medie
val theoretical knowledge, and at the same time anticipates
some of the changes that are to take place in the Renaissance,
particularly in the way of analyzing mode in polyphonic prac
tice. See especially Virginia Seay "A Contribution to the
Problem of Mode in Medieval Music,11 Hamllne Studies in Musi
cology, ed, by Ernst Krenek 1*48-54, Minneapolis, l9"¥5.
231
their oivn form. Such compositions are best, said to be

long to mixed tones (tonl commisti).^6
Though this reference is inconclusive for the problem, since
there are no illustrations, it is evident that, for Aron as
for Tinctoris, the mixed tone depends on the Interpolation of
foreign species of 4ths and 5ths, The fact that these are to
be recognized by their finals also suggests, as in Tinctoris1
examples, after the appearance of foreign species, there is a
return to the regular species or the correct course of the
original tone and a close on its proper final.
In another work, I_1 Gompendlolo, Aron gives the tradi
tional classification of melodies according to the modal am
bitus, and among them includes Commlsto. H e defines it more
specifically as follows; "Tono commlsto is that form, which
when it is authentic or plagal, they find in it species of
other tropes or tones different from their original form or
composition.11^ The relation between this definition and
that of Tinctoris for Tonus Oommixtus is clearly apparent.
Therefore, the nature of the practice described can be inferred,
from the problem studied according to Tinctoris.
Glarean's discussion of mixed modes in connection with
the 8-mode system is limited to the extension of modal ambitus
which results in the mixture of the plagal and authentic
5®01iver Strunk, Source Readings in Music History (New

York, 1950), p. 210.
37pietro Aron, Compendlolo di Holti Dubbl, Segreti et

Setenze Intorno al Canto Flrmo et 7fgurato. (Milan; 1545), no
paging.
232
modes. His concern with mixed modes in the 12-mode system
is chiefly in connection with the polyphonic practice and
this is to be considered later. Nevertheless, though he does
not define it as such, Glarean discusses certain practices in
Plainsong which may be identified with the commlxtlo already
considered.
In considering problems that arise in the identifica
tion of the mode, Glarean points out that a melody may move
within an ambitus which is not its own. For example, the
Phrygian may move between D-d, or the Dorian between 0-c, and
so on. If in such an example, the species of the mode are
clear, or if one can recognize the 5th alone, or the phrasls,
the mode can nevertheless be identified in spite of its irre
gular ambitus. However, Glarean points out that there are
examples of this type, in which either the phrasls or the
species are so undecided that it is difficult to determine the
mode of such a song. In this case, the usual solution is to
rely on the final for the correct identity of the mode. Un
fortunately, according to Glarean, the final too may be mis
represented, and if a melody "moves in so undirected a manner,
and plays in the phrasls of so many modes, . . . one cannot

*ZQ
judge easily in what mode the song may close." The follow
ing melody is given by Glarean as an illustration of the
3®3ee pages 206-207. Glarean never classifies modes

in the traditional fashion.
59Glarean, p. 121,
233
practice described*
Example 54. Antiphon: A solis ortus. Phrygian Mode with

Irregular Ambitus, and the Species of the First
and Third Modes Mixed. (Glarean, p. 121.)
r
n r r .* r i " - f - ---- ;
{ \> I- t i i ~ y = ^ = U: .J L L - L J
A So- It’s Or - hs Car---- -I‘ . A US - |M£i f a r - rat 11- y n i — fC/71 PhriS-
9: i'l [ if f f ‘ if f ..'I'-VyTi'T-
■ L h g i - g
-turn f(L- 'la. - h\ia3- t-rrn - e- 1 - j)erv\ — iVn — tVn\ M'.n-jJ- Vir-j1 Tie.--.
Glarean assigns this antiphon to the Phrygian mode because of
the phrasis of the mode, mi-fa, (E-c) clearly shown in the
second part, and also because of its descent through the 5th
of the mode to the final E. However, Glarean says that, since
the phrasis of the Dorian mode is also clearly shown in the
melody, there are some who give another close to it, as in
the example below. In this, at the end is shown the descent
of the Dorian to D, causing the melody with this ending to be
assigned to the Dorian mode.
Example 55. A Second Closing for the Antiphon, A solis ortus

assigned to the Dorian Mode, with tEe Final, D.
(Glarean, p. 122.)
* *— 0 * * \ * ■* *— , °-----
1 V f J. f1 I
1 -.r * ••
r *-1
-J
1
234
A study of this example with the Phrygian close
(Example 54), reveals that it has a strong Dorian feeling, be
ginning as it does on the Dorian final, and rising immediately
to a, thus outlining the phrasis of the first mode. However,
in the course of the melody, the phrasls of the Phrygian mode
is quite predominant, and with the first close on E, after a
descent from c, one obtains a strong impression of the Phry
gian mode.4® On the other hand, with the second ending
(Example 55), the final section shows the phrasis of the
Dorian, descending here, as it ascends at the beginning.
Since it is followed by the close on the final of the Dorian,
on D, the Impression in this example is more strongly Dorian.
A second example of this type may be observed in the
introit Gaudeamus of which Glarean says; "While the limits of
the Dorian mode are the same as those of the Hypomixolydlan,
namely D-d, nevertheless, the introit Gaudeamus is conducted
as if it belonged to the Hypolonian, while the phrasis for
this shows that it belongs to the D o r i a n . T h e introit
follows;
4®In the Ant. p. 242, this melody is assigned to the

Phrygian mode and closes on E. The phrasis of the Dorian does
not seem to be so predominant as in Glarean1s version of the
melody.
41Glarean, p. 121.
255
Example 56. The Introit Gaudeamus with Irregular Ambitus,

and the Phrasis and Final of the Dorian.
(L.U. p. 1724.)
-
f-
rj t*■n
ib+
r
r'T
Tlfl
r v i4- J -j— \— \ a— =*— s u m
IT -T
*>*>j ii'-em
n J T 3
^ £« - U -- U»-«n ' tes S w t tie -rto - rc S a n c -to • >■« r n -*i> wnr\-.
P * j - * - j -/- » * 4j , • • ^ ^ *r<
dc. - 5 o le m h i - f a ' -------------- tc - j *U '4e>,t /5 n
^j»‘ * r - «' i J * \ ±=±± TTTT

*
Tn
l...»
V 9
A ...
U j et tel-lbM c(<n 1~ F i -------- - t i - u » , ----------- Oc
It may be observed of this introit, that though it begins on
C, it shows the phrasis of the Dorian ascending at the begin
ning, which it maintains through the first part. However, in
the second section, the melody seems to exhibit the phrasis
fa-fa usually assigned to the Lydian mode, or with the b flat,
to the Ionian, This prevails until the closing phrase xvhere
again is shown the Dorian, this time in descending fashion,
and the final of this mode.
While Glarean does not define such irregularities as
mixtures, nevertheless, he admits that the phrasis and
236
species of more than one mode are present in these melodies.
If these examples are compared to those given by Tinctoris,
it is clear that in the first one there is a mixture of the
first and third modes, regardless of which ending is chosen,
because there are found in the melody the species and phrases
of both modes. In the second example the mixture is that
of the first and fifth modes, the melody beginning and closing
in the first mode, but showing the interpolation of the 5th
species belonging to the fifth or Lydian mode. Though Glarean
speaks of these melodies as being confusing, and assigns each
one to a mode according to the final, it is clear that such
melodies represent exactly the same type of mixture as des-

AO
cribed and defined by Tinctoris in his commlxtiones.
In the traditional manner of classifying melodies
according to modal ambitus, Zarlino recognizes a type of modal
usage in which the modal ambitus shows a mixture of 4th and
5th species from different modes. This he identifies as
modo misto and explains it as follows;
Nevertheless, if in this [i.e. in the course of a

mode within a melody] there is heard repeated many
times, the 5th or 4th species which might serve another
mode, e.g. the fifth or sixth; such a mode will be
called mixed; because the 4th or 5th of one mode comes
to mix with the song of another; as can be seen in the
introit Splrltus Domini replevit. . ...... which it was
4în considering identification of the mode Glarean

illustrates and discusses the 5ths as they are found in melo
dies of different modes, e.g. re-la of the Dorian, the Mixo-
lydian, Phrygian, etc. This happens with the other 5ths and
the 4ths also. Many of such melodies seem to have mixed
modes. See Chapter III, pp. 154-157.
237
said was composed in the tenth mode and has in its

beginning, the second species of 5th which is that of
the fourth mode, D-a [in other words Zarlino1s Hypo-
dorian], and there is repeated many times in the course
of the melody, the 4th species which serves the seventh
or eighth modes, as can be seen in this.43
Applying Zarlino's analysis to the Introit Splrltus Do
mini (Example 57 below), his reason for identifying it as modo
misto is clear. According to him the melody is assigned to
the tenth or Hypomixolydian mode.44 The reason for this is
that though there is little evidence of the species or charac
teristic interval of this mode, the melody lies within the
compass of the tenth mode, and closes on its final. The mix
ture which Zarlino finds in the melody is attributed to the
interpolation of the 5th species, D-a, of the Hypodorian mode,
the 4th species, c-g descending, which he assigns to the
Lydian-Hypolydian modes, but which is true only if the modes
have the b flat. However, other species not mentioned by
Zarlino are just as prominent, which further analysis will
show.
43Zarllno, p. 336.
44In this discussion, all references to specific modes

are made with both name and number to avoid confusion because of
Zarlino's order which places the Ionian f i~t.
238
Example 57. The Introit, Splritus Domini reolevit, Modo

Mlxto according to Zarlino. (l T u . p. 87577
rjfl j J .Tip, j j 'fj3

•f* “ C. Cr —
~
jfi-ri — +*4* . hii rtf pic-* - t o r - be rvy i’ci— >a. - r Urv\
=
—j —
f p # r
r * f» f ) i - n$- »^ - r»
. - -j
\ £ l— # riiTv j 3
i3 3 £
t* el 15 ‘ tJ
U — ia et ' Kt?t — 4 ‘
— ttet &/yn — m*fl. .
IqiniTirSfMa ^ i[4
al — k
so-i-t-h- +i - c.m • ko^ - ix-t V o «-'i } «1- Ic
3 Ik -
f ‘ ( f j ' ««■— »f ° i« —
=i
=*3 ii Hs- 11 4
in la
lu—
Although in Zarlino1s analysis the 5th species, D-a,
represents the fourth or Hypodorian mode, it also belongs to
the third or Dorian mode. Since, in the course of the melody
(see the verse beginning soientlam). the 4th species of this
mode is also heard, it is more logical to assign the beginning
D-a to the third mode. I n the middle of the melody it is true
that the descending 4th, o-g, is heard repeated many times.
However, the 5th species, F-c, is also prominent, and seems to
give stronger evidence of the seventh and eighth modes
(Zarlino1s Lydlan-Hypolydian), than the 4th, g-c. Also, it
should be pointed out that this 4th, which is the same as the
259
4th species, c-f, of the Lydian-Hypolydian with b flat, never
theless, as it is found here, belongs also to the Ionian modes,
Zarlino's first and second. Therefore, it is clear that this
melody should be analyzed as an example of mixed modes, since,
though it has the compass of the Hypomixolydian, D-d, and its
own proper final which is &, it contains other species not
belonging to this mode. These foreign species are obviously
from the third, seventh, and first modes, found within the
compass of the tenth mode, and thus it may be said that the
melody is an example of the Hypomixolydian mixed with the
Dorian, Lydian, and Ionian modes.
In the early 17th century, the problem of mixed modes
is considered in detail in Cerone's El Melopeo v Maestro. In
his treatise, Cerone suggests that, as an aid to identifying
the mode in plalnsong melodies, it is convenient to know the
traditional classifications according to modal ambitus. This
may be observed in the following statement: "The difference
of all the kinds of tones which there are, viz. Tono Perfeto,
Tono Imperfeto, Tono Plusquamperfeto, Tono Mlxto and Tono
Comixto, including the greater and lesser Comistlones, as well
as the Comlxtlon Mixta . . . can be seen in the rules necessary
for singing . . .1,45
In his discussion, Cerone states that tones are mixed
because they bear the characteristics of more than one tone,
in some cases of several of the different tones. ¥ith this
4{5Cerone, p. 351.
240
explanation in mind, Cerone makes more precise distinctions
among the comlxtiones than may he found among the earlier
theorists considered up to this time. He divides tono comixto
into four different types according to the way in which the
mixture occurs. Each of these is described in some detail and
illustrated with plainsong examples.
The first type of mixture considered by Cerone is that
which he calls perfect comixto. He defines it as follows:
The perfect comixto is nothing else than when in

the mixed, tones, one mode passes beyond its octave by a
note or more, that is, in the part ascending up to its
final; and in the plagals, it is passing its octave by
a note or more in the part descending, for which reason,
in the commixed song, there is to be found the final of
one octave, and composition of another tone, than that
which ends the song. But it must have in it some spe
cies, of either the 5th or of the 4th, foreign with re
gard to the tone, in order to cause the comixtlon.4”
As an example of this type of comixto, Cerone gives a melody
which he designates as an illustration of the first tone com
mixed with the third perfect regular.4 "? The reason for this
is clear from a study of the example which is shown below.
46Cerone, p. 440.
47That is with the regular third tone, perfect because

it uses only its own octave ambitus E-e. See discussion in
Chapter III, p. 147.
241
Example 58. Comlxtion perfeta. First Tone Commixed with the

Third Perfect Regular. (Cerone, p. 440.)
r—^ ------ :
4- - r M - - - -i rt Pi rTfr - _
T * J '
»] J - J (O' e ft*V(
tKu'~ “1 L
4-— ^ - p n — i■ -- --- .. -. ... .... ..... — j

An: ^ i J --------------
T*.i]
An analysis of the melody shows at the beginning it has
the 5th species, D-a, of the Dorian, and continues to ascend
until the octave ambitus of the mode is complete, following
which it shows the extension of the octave with the added tone.
This alone does not cause a comlxtion, for the Dorian may add
the _e above its octave by license. However, in this example,
not only does the Dorian add this tone, it is also apparent
that the entire compass of the Phrygian mode, E-e, appears in
the melody. In addition, as Cerone points out; "But it also
has in it [i.e. in the octave of the Phrygian mode] several
times, its own 5th which says ml-mi or its 4th which says
mi-la.1,48 Since this melody has the note or more added to its
original octave, and within this new octave caused by the
added tone shows the 4th and 5th species of another tone, it
fits very well the description of oomixtlon perfeta given by
Cerone.
A second example of this same type of comixto given by
Cerone may be observed in the following melody.
48Cerone, p. 440.
242
Example 59, Comlxtion perfeta. First Tone Commixed with the

Seventh Perfect Regular. (Cerone, p. 440.)
s' fr - d
5-J - [
- r£-
t- b
15 *n
r*i rT - ------------------- --------------------------

— * _ 4_
« u ' —r
Cerone describes this melody as follows;
Let us demonstrate another first tone commixed with

the seventh tone perfect, because there is contained in
it the whole compass of the seventh mode; which is from
the low G sol-re-ut, to the high g sol-re-ut; and more
over it has its regular 5th from G sol-re-ut to d
la-sol-re; and another irregular, from C sol-fa-ut to g
G sol-re-ut above, which says ut-sol, or ut-ml-fa-sol.
As in the preceding example, the mode at the beginning
of this melody is the first, shown clearly by the 5th species
D-a. V/ithin its course, the melody adds to the first tone
(whose whole compass D-d may be seen) the entire octave of the
seventh mode, and in such a way that its 5th species, G-d, and
its 4th species, g-d descending, are clearly outlined. The
irregular 5th, c-g, mentioned by Cerone, is heard only once
and since the species of the seventh mode are more predominant,
this irregularity is not too important. In concluding the
discussion of this type of comixto Cerone re-emphasizes the
fact that, though an extended range is a characteristic of
^^Cerone, p. 440.
243
this type of mixture, this alone does not cause the comixto.
The melody must also show species foreign to the old tone.
Thus, of this second example, in which we have observed a
greater extension of range than in the preceding melody,
Cerone says; "But, take notice that not having any species
i.e. species as the characteristic of a different tone it
will be neither comixto, nor simple; and one will call it the
first tone plusquamperfeto, according to the order of the
ancient musicians.1,50
The second and third types of comixtion discussed by
Cerone as two different classes of comlxtion imperfeta, in
contrast to the first type, comlxtion perfeta, do not include
the perfect ambitus of two different tones juxtaposed. These
two classes are named comixtion mayor Imperfeta and comlxtion
menor imperfeta. The distinction between them seems to lie
in the words mayor and m e n o r .^1 If one takes the literal
meanings of these terms, greater and lesser, and applies
these to modes which are commixed with a given tone, the new
tones represent the imperfect class. These new tones found
in melodies, are those which do not use their entire ambitus
in the course of the melody, and in connection with the
comixto, as indicated, are further distinguished by a greater
or lesser imperfection. Such a distinction seems justified
&^Loc, clt.
S^The Spanish forms of these words are retained through

out the discussion since their exact application is not entire
ly clear.
244
in contrast to the first type of comixto, in which modes of
the perfect class were mixed. However, as will be observed
later (see p, 249), in connection with the final type of co-
mlxtlon, Cerone distinguishes the imperfect comixtion in
relation to the use of the 5th and 4th species. Though the
mayor is that form connected with the interpolation of strange
5th, and the menor with strange 4th species, they do not seem
tc be used in the sense of a mixture with the authentic, or
with the plagal respectively, as may be observed in the ex
amples.
Of the first of these two types, the comlxtion mayor
imperfeta, Cerone gives a brief explanation; "The comlxtion
mayor Imperfeta is nothing other than the interval of a 5th
doubled, and a similar species placed in a song of a different
tone,1,52 Unfortunately, the meaning of this is not completely
clear since the examples given by way of illustration do not
fit exactly into the conditions set forth. This may be sub
stantiated by examining two of the plainsong melodies suggest
ed by Cerone as illustrations of this type. The first of
these is the verse of Alleluia to St, John the Baptist, in
Example 60, below,
Cerone calls this melody an example of the second tone
commixed with the seventh of the comixtlon mayor Imperfeta.
According to his explanation above, we should expect the me
lody to show the second tone at the beginning, and in its
52Cerone, p. 442,
245
course, the 5th species of the seventh tone doubled, but in a
different p o s i t i o n . T h e melody does show the second tone
by the 5th species D-a at its beginning, then descending again
to the D, and after repeating this same pattern, continues
its descent down to the low A, filling out the entire octave
of the second mode. Another 5th, g-G, descending, alternates
with the first one, a-D, and later reappears alternately with
the original 5th in both ascending and descending position.
Thus the melody may be seen to contain the whole second tone,
and a 5th doubled. However, the second 5th species is not the
same species as the first, nor does either species ever appear
doubled in another position. Furthermore, it is difficult to
determine the seventh tone from the 5th species, C-g, unless
this tone is understood to be in transposed position, of which
there is no indication.
®^The use of the word "doubled" in Cerone's definitions

is never made very clear. Sometimes it seems to refer to the
appearance of the same interval twice, at other times, in
connection with the words "of a lilce species, " it seems to
mean that the 5th of the mode in question appears again in a
different position. For example, ut-sol of the 7th mode,
which is &-D, may be thought to be doubled if it appears as
ut-sol of the 5th mode, the same species, but in the position,
F-c, with b flat.
246
Example 60. Comlxtion mayor Imperfeta. Tu puer propheta, the

Second Tone commixed with the Seventh. (L.U.
p. 1501)
^ i-Hj
Al- lc- lu— i«.
h f 1 I-1 ' ^ r'^ m r r ^ A
T«, r «
~r * r— ■ » ■» z # t , I*"#~T
m
p s * g f l p s § m g F t
-s t«. A(- r!j
fkc. —
• 1
M
-V _ y _
» ii \;o - td —■ pr«Co’l
i S e±
t,j r C .J 1 1 o
,, (J m cl-5 - ^ - c , 7 J , *■
- fc Op
.
— - — ■— Tr\\ fljwi pd -to.*rt '
/i* *5 4 C “
A second example among those given to represent this
class of comlxtion is the first antiphon of the Dominica at
Vespers, which may he observed as follows;
Exanple 61. Comlxtion mayor Imperfeta; Antiphon, Dixit

Dominus. (Ant.p. 135.)
s1 «] * - -«
0i*it 0<Tmin*s DiTm'ne mt-o •. 5c\e <k -I t t f r . s mtis .
Cerone says of this melody that it represents the seventh tone
commixed with the fifth of the comlxtion mayor imperfeta. It
24?
Is obvious that within the brief compass of this antiphon,
neither mode represented can be perfect. Again the melody,
in outlining the 5th, D-G descending, gives evidence of the
seventh tone from the beginning. The second section, though
very short, outlines the 5th species, F-c ascending, which is
of the 5th mode and at the same time the same species as the
5th, G-D, but in a different position. The close on G indi
cates a return to the seventh mode. This example is even more
Inconclusive than the first of this type of comlxtion for, al
though the presence of the two different 5ths is obvious, the
brevity of the melody and the strong close on G make the
seventh mode predominant.
The next type of comixto described by Cerone is that
called comlxtion menor imperfeta. This comlxtion in contrast
to the preceding occurs when, within a melody of a given tone,
there is heard repeated, several times, different species of
4ths. In addition to the Interval of the 4th species admitted
as the foreign species Cerone also emphasizes that this
comlxtion menor imperfeta occurs in long melodies, concerning
which he implies tiresome repetition of species. This may be
observed in the example of an introit which he gives as an
illustration.
248
Example 62. Comlxtion menor Imperfeta; Introit, Dominus

illumlnaflo mea. tfhe Second Tone Commixed with
the Fifth. T l 7 u . 998.)
-ft ■■ , i-f r . , . " . r - P - ' . ' v

± &
e e :
Mt-r*-4a
Ob mi - n u j - ♦ il- +1 o me
-j--— — ;—frig
#-i— r— r—i — *■*—» , *— * —• * t > ,■ » .
S B i. i n C m f t k f t f t a a i g f
-<U-» U - 4 - <! 1 Ji
— - hd • — . mi -yius —* cAe*•J'cvn— S'*1" Vl to-r -me —
> -i *
J-.) L . 0-jt— t . f y * ~ * 0—+-^
a -#— r- -c— r-t— ■— t
<d ta ^ tt
t+ W»*
« M ^ 1 l i
c
' a
a + r r - p i - 4 « /' to ? ^ u i tY'f — bu . l a r i l ---------- >ie v»»i- ftli-t/
~Pr. — r*— M — 1
— 1---- 1~ — * -»— *— * * *- - - - - *- rl -1 * *— * * * * — ^ -------
f- -- e- f
me - ------- Samf et C.C - *4 — 4c — rmnt.
As indicated, Cerone assigns this to the second tone
which is shown commixed with the fifth of the class comlxtion
menor Imperf eta. The second tone appears at the beginning
through its 4th species, ascending from A to D, and at the
words Dominus defensor, the octave of this second tone Is com
pleted through the addition of the 5th species, D-a. In
.addition, it may be observed that, shortly after the beginning,
there appear in succession, the 4th species, C-F, ascending,
then D-G both ascending and descending, and finally, F-b flat.
The presence of the strange 4ths, in this case three different
249
ones, causes this particular type of comixto according to
Cerone's explanation. While the species of the second tone
are clear, as also the 4th, C-F, representing the fifth tone,
the other 4th species, D-G-, of the seventh and eighth modes,
as well as the 5th, C-G-, of the eleventh and twelfth modes,
all seem distinctive enough to give recognition to the modes
mentioned. The strange 4th species, F-b flat, is the same
type as that of the 6th mode, C-F, and can be Interpreted as
a transposition of this mode, or simply the addition of the
compass of the mode Itself, the b flat used to correct the
tritone. However, such an interpretation would make the
comixto take place with the sixth mode, while Cerone states
it is with the fifth.
The final type of comlxtion considered by Cerone is
that which he calls the comlxtion mixta which he explains as
follows:
The comlxtion mixta is nothing other than the inter

val of one 6th and of one 4th, doubled and of the same
species placed in the composition of another tone. As
for example, if we find in a first tone, the second spe
cies of 5th mi-mi, and tiô 4ths which say mi-la, . . .
which being species of the third tone, we will say that
such a song is composed of the first tone commixed with
the third of the comlxtion mixta; that is to say, of
the greater comixto and tne lesser comixto; in as much
as the 5th is attributed to the greater comixto, and
the two 4ths to the lesser. 3o that finding a 5th which
is the mark of the greater comlxtion, and the two 4ths
which are the mark of the lesser, we may form the comlx
tion mixta; whereas each part of those remaining . . .
cannot cause the whole comixto.54
54.
‘Cerone, p. 446. Note here at the close of this quo
tation the reference to the second and third types of comix
tion, mentioned earlier, see p. 244, as giving some further
clarification of the use of the terms mayor and menor.
250
To Illustrate this type of comlxtion, Cerone suggests the
verse of the Alleluia for the Sunday, Infra, act, de Pasquales,
which begins, Post dies octo. As may be seen, he calls this
an example of the seventh tone comixto with the fifth of the
comlxtion mixta. The melody may be examined below.
Example 63. Comlxtion mixta; The Verse of an Alleluia show-

ing the Seventh Tone Commixed with the Fifth.
(L.U. p. 810.)
ft «T A , V -JLF „ i" : — __
— #-----------
t1 t 3 - ^ J J f - f- t «* . a e 1 - j ~J
Post - 4 i - cs o ---- --------------------------- e t o , j ft " ,s cIckn —- Sift , sN' lit -
-F H — A -— j * . • -*— \ ' ■* f \ f * * 1■* * { t— M 7 J T 1 — v- n

y i n U U -i U
£-*■, . :
✓ 3‘ 3
d—
I * — ram
^ê.T - pv< • lt> r
---- C> — r** m)
Ic ---- Sus lift iftie — ---------- 4' ~ 0
o -i — m i 1 [ i ■ if ,• ------ H -------
J - ------ (ft----* » > * J * » J ---- 9 *----- *— J ----\ ~
jT 1 Cf -e . J '
d di K i t“ • ---- vD —. j
(V t J/- f f f » -j .1~"
O - c T - LJ r ^ ’ ?1
If, in examining this melody, one interprets it liter
ally according to the first part of Cerone's explanation above,
which may be accepted as a definition of this type of comix—
tlon, it might be explained as follows; In the first half of
the melody, there appears the compass of the seventh tone.
This is apparent through the ascent at the beginning of the
5th species &-d, and the course of the entire ambitus of the
251
mode •which follows, minus a note at the top. In the second
part of the melody, and after the opening words, et dixit,
within the compass of the seventh tone, there appears the 5th,
F-c, which is the same species as that of the seventh tone,
G-d, but in a different position. Also, in the same part,
there is one 4th, c-G, which appears twice in descending
fashion. According to Cerone's definition, the 4th should be
doubled and of a similar species.55 However, if this 4th is
intended to represent a strange species and indicative of
another mode, it cannot, like the 5th F-c, represent the 5th
mode. Though this 4th is of the same species as that of the
5th mode, for c-f equals g-c, in its position here, it repre
sents the 11th or 12th modes. In such a case the mixture with
the 11th or 12th tone. While such an interpretation is possi
ble it does not seem to be what Cerone means from his own
explanation.
Cerone says of this example, that the melody Illustrates
a comixto of the seventh and fifth tones " . . . because of a
5th which says fa-re-fa, from F fa-ut below, to c fa-ut above,
and of two 4ths from the position G sol-re-ut to c sol-fa-ut,
which say ut-re-fa, and u t - f a . "56 As indicated above, the
Again the reference to "doubled" is not clear. Here

it seems to mean that the species of 4th, g-c, actually appears
twice. The 5th species, it may be noted, appears three times.
Cerone, p. 445. The description of the 5th saying

"fa-re-fa" is very confusing, since the interval fa-re-fa
appears in the beginning of the melody, where presumably the
5th species F-c does not appear. At this point the first fa-re-
fa, f-d-f, in the melody is repeated below from c-a-c, thus in
sequence.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout permission.
252
strange 5th species, F-c, marking the fifth tone, appears in
the second half of the melody and this species is the same as
that of the seventh tone. While, as also pointed out, the 4th,
G-c does appear in this same part, it neither belongs to the
5th tone, nor does it seem to he the 4th referred to by Cerone.
For in the brief analysis which he gives, Cerone specifies
this 4th in two particular positions, both of which are found
in the first part of the melody. The first of these is the
4th, G-c, which says ut-re-fa, and which is the opening 3-note
section of the melody. The second 4th, G-c, is that which says
ut-fa, and this may be observed as the initial interval of the
second line. In this part of the melody these two 4ths cannot
be interpreted as foreign, for they are heard only as part of
the opening section of the seventh tone, of which, here, the
5th is the distinctive interval.
In a comparison between Cerone1s discussion of the prac
tice of comixtion and that given from the earlier theorists,
it is clear that there are two differences. The first of these
is that in Cerone's treatment of the problem, the comlxtion,
a.lmost without exception, occurs within the extended ambitus
of the original mode. In contrast to this, in the practice
described by the earlier theorists, the ambitus of the origi
nal mode remains the same, and the mixture of modes occurs be
cause of the interpolation of strange species within the
253
original ambitus. The second difference is that Cerone,
unlike his predecessors, shows a division of the comlxtion in
to four distinct types.
It is clear that the subdivision of the general class
of modal usage, comlxtion, indicating mixed modes, does nothing
to clarify the practice as described earlier according to other
theorists. On the other hand, if these confusing distinctions
are omitted or not taken too literally, in Cerone1s treatment
of this problem of modal usage, there remains an Interpretation
which conforms very closely to that of his predecessors.
Therefore, it may be concluded that Cerone's melodies and his
explanation Indicate a recognition and understanding of the
problem of mixed modes in the music of his time. For, in his
melodies, and according to his description, a comixto is found
in a melody when in its course there appear strange 4th and
5th species which belong to other tones.. Because of this a
melody may show the presence of two or more different modes,
and will then be designated as an example of mixed modes.
5?ln a comparison of commlxtlo and mixtio in Tinctoris,

on this point of the ambitus, Balmer says, "By the commlxtlo,
the 4th-5th species of other modes will be joined together in
a melody without overstepping or extending the normal modal
ambitus." (Balmer, p. 232.)
254
CHAPTER V
THE CHANGE FROM ONE MODE TO ANOTHER IN POLYPHONIC COMPOSITION
ACCORDING- TO 16TH AND 17TH CENTURY THEORY
In the study of mixed modes in the preceding chapter,
we were especially concerned with the practice which has been
described and illustrated as tonus commlxtus.1 Such a classi
fication applied solely to the practice found in plainsong me
lodies, with the single exception of the polyphonic example
given by Tinctoris (see p. 225). In the remainder of the
study of this problem in 16th and 17th century theory, it is
necessary to consider other aspects of the practice of mixed
modes as they appear in the treatises concerned. Though there
is no change in the principle involved, that is, that the
change is caused by the alterations within the ambitus of the
mode, there are tvro basic differences found in the treatment
of the problem by the theorists. The first is that mixed
modes are no longer classified as tonus commlxtus according
to the traditional system, but are discussed as a change from
one mode to another. The second difference is that as indi
cated, the changes are observed within the framework of a
polyphonic composition, even though they actually occur in
the melodic lines of the Individual voice parts.
^-Exceptions to the classification as tonus commlxtus

are Glarean, who does not mention the traditional system, but
describes a similar practice in his discussion of identifi
c a t i o n in plainsong melodies; and Zarlino, who identifies the
practice of mixed modes as modo mixto. Exceptions do not in
clude the variations in the term itself.
255
The change from one mode to another is first mentioned
by Glarean, who considers the practice immediately after the
exposition of the structure of the twelve modes. As it may
be recalled, in his exposition he has repeatedly stressed the
fact that alterations in the 5th species of the Lydian and its
plagal, and the Dorian and its plagal, are responsible for the
rediscovery of the two modes, the Ionian and Aeolian and their
plagals. However, in this connection the alteration within
the ambitus of the Lydian, or of the Dorian, was not treated
as a shift from one mode to another iirithln a composition.
Rather, it was described as a type of alteration within a giv
en ambitus xtfhich, for exa.mple, caused the Ionian mode to ap
pear in the Lydian octave F-f, and the Aeolian mode within the
Dorian octave D-d. ^
However, when Glarean mentions these changes in his
discussion of the problem of changing from one mode to another,
the particular alterations described above seem to take on a
different meaning. This may be observed in the following
paragraph;
The modes were also changed from one to another,

however, not with equal success. For with many of
them, the change from one to another happens in a way
that a sensitive and sharp ear scarcely notices it;
indeed, often, to the great pleasure of the listener
. . . one which is quite general today, that of the
change of the Lydian into the Ionian . . . with others,
the change is laborious and seldom without offense
în his discussion of structure, Glarean actually re

garded these changes as the transposition of the Ionian and
Aeolian modes a fourth higher.
256
to the ears, as for example, that of the Dorian into

the Phrygian.3
The logical interpretation of the change from the Lydian to
the Ionian mode, as well as from the Dorian to the Aeolian,
which, though not mentioned here belongs in the same category,
is that of transposition. The reason for this is that the
Lydian and the Dorian modes were rarely heard without the
b flat in G-larean's time. As we have mentioned, it is this
very fact that has caused the Ionian and Aeolian modes to be
preserved from the ancient system. On the other hand, if a
composition were to begin in the old Lydian without the b flat,
but after this the b flat appeared and remained long enough to
give the impression of the Ionian mode in the F octave, and
this was followed by a return to the original Lydian without
the b flat, closing in this mode, such a song would certainly
show a distinct change from one mode to another. This inter
pretation is also logical from what G-larean says above, but
he gives no further explanation of the matter, nor any examples
to show exactly what he means.
In connection with t h . other change, that of the Dorian
to the Phrygian, Grlarean is concerned with two modes whose re
lationship is more distant than that of the Lydian-Ionian
modes. For, if the Dorian is changed into the Phrygian mode
in the first manner described above, both e and b flats must
be used to maintain the correct succession of tones of the
3&larean, p. 70.
257
Phrygian mode in the Dorian octave. This is apparent if one
realizes that to change the Dorian 5th, re-la, to that of the
Phrygian, mi-mi, e flat is necessary. Likewise the b flat in
the Dorian 4th, re-sol, will change this to the 4th species of
the Phrygian, or mi-la. Such a change of the Dorian into the
Phrygian is a transposition of the latter into the Dorian posi
tion, or a step lower. For this transposition, there is no pre
cedent in Glarean1s treatment of the modes. Therefore, it must
be concluded that Glarean means here only an actual change from
the Dorian to the Phrygian mode, within the course of a composi
tion.
Glarean continues his discussion of the change of mode
in the following paragraph.
These [i.e. the changes mentioned above] are under

stood by those who play instruments and who know how to
sing the verses of the poets according to musical rules,
and who, when they do it artistically, deserve praise,
especially when they change the Ionian into the Dorian.4
The change of the Ionian into the Dorian, mentioned here, can
be Interpreted in the same two ways as the changes of mode
4Glarean, p. 70. From his reference to "those who play

instruments and who know how to sing . . . according to musi
cal rules,11 Glarean may have in mind the "folk-song" of his
time. With the more advanced tendencies of this music toward
major-minor tonality, and consequent more clear harmonic re
lations, "change of mode" o r , •actually, simple modulations
were apparent. Moser in "Das Deutsche Ivlonodische Kunstlied
um 1500," (Festschrift Peter Wagner zum 50. Geburtstag, edited
by Karl Wienman, Leipzig* 19267 pp. 146-170) considers this
problem at some length. He points out that the German monodic
art-song of the early 15th century shows "tonality" and
"modal modulation" similar to the major-minor folk song of the
period, and thus is a link between this ahd the regular modal
church song. See especially pp. 158-159 of Moser's study.
258
previously considered. If by this reference Glarean means
transposition of the Dorian mode to the Ionian octave, the
latter mode will have its 5th species changed by adding e
flat, its 4th, by adding b flat. Prom this, the Dorian suc
cession of tones will be derived within the Ionian or C oc
tave or, in other words, the Dorian is transposed a step
lower. On the other hand, according to the second manner of
interpretation, and what seems to be Glarean*s real meaning,
within the course of a composition there is an actual change
from the Ionian mode, either on F with b flat, or C, to the
Dorian. Further consideration of this last quotation will
support such an Interpretation.
In his reference to "the setting of the poet's verses
according to the music rules," Glarean undoubtedly has the
problem of the ethos of the mode in mind. By this is under
stood the particular emotional effects conveyed by certain
modes, so that one mode is more suited to represent joy, an
other martial fervor, another sadness, etc. It is logical to
assume that variation in emotional effects would occur natu
rally throughout the verses of a poetic text, or of Biblical
texts such as those used in the "Penitential Psalms" set by
so many of the composers of the 16th and 17th centuries.^
The implication by Glarean is that, within a composition,
5These are Psalms 6, 32, 38, 51, 102, 130, and 143 in
the Authorized Version. In music history the Penitential
Psalms are famous particularly through Orlando di Lasso's com
position of the whole series of texts, (Psalmi penltentiales,
1565). Willi Apel, Harvard Dictionary of Music, p. 565.
259
there may be needed a shift from one mode to another, in order
to convey the meaning and spirit of the text as this changes.
Thus, to preserve the correct ethos of the modes in relation
to the text, the changes mentioned by Glarean, such as Dorian
to Phrygian, or Dorian to Ionian, and others as well, become
necessary within the course of a composition.
In a manner that gives support to the above hypothesis,
Glarean returns to a more detailed consideration of the change
from the Dorian to the Phrygian mode. He says of this; "It
is on this matter, I believe, on which touches the proverb:
'From Dorian into Phrygian,1 i.e. from that which is natural
to the less natural, or from good composition into unsuitable
composition, etc. . . . He states further that Gafori also
mentions this same proverb in connection with the change of
mode, saying; "If one turns, however, from the most peaceful
and serious things to that which is Joyful and gay, then one
says, as it were according to the proverb, •From Dorian to
Phrygian'."7
Concerning this proverb, Glarean explains its meaning
as follows:
The meaning of the proverb, "From Dorian into Phry

gian" is therefore, as it has been said; Falling from
anything at all definite into a far different thing.
With the new musicians as well as with the old ones, in
so far as it is known to us, there is no other basis
for this, than the nature of the song and the guidance
6Glarean, p. 70.
7Ibid., p. 71.
260
of the ear. Therefore, I consider it necessary to

penetrate deeper into the matter, and to be sure,
briefly, and in the diatonic species which are now in
use.®
As he promises in this explanation of the "proverb," to clari
fy the matter Glarean turns to a consideration of the diatonic
species, and how they are related to the change of mode. He
discusses specifically, and in order, the 5th species connect
ed with the three changes of mode discussed earlier, i.e. the
Lydian to the Ionian, the Ionian to the Dorian, and the Dorian
to the Phrygian.
Concerning the diatonic octave species, (Glarean points
out that, as he has explained earlier, the distinction of the
modes consists solely in the diversity of the 4th and 5th spe
cies within the octave. For example, the Lydian and Hypolydlan
modes have the third species of 5th, or fa-fa, while the Phry
gian and Hypophrygian have the second species of 5th, or ml-mi.
Both species enclose the tritone, though the half-step is in
a different place in each 5th. Concerned only with the tri
tone in the Lydian 5th, Glarean says that, in his time it has
become the custom to change the Lydian-Hypolydian into the
lonian-Hypoionian. This is accomplished by changing b natural
to b flat, thus making of the Lydian 5th species, fa-fa, that
of the Ionian mode, or ut-sol. Since the 4th species of the
two modes are the same, the change of the 5th is made natu
rally, and is heard as a pleasant change because one goes from
®Glarean, p. 72.
261
a mode with a tritone to one without this objectionable inter
val.9
Glarean continues his examination of the diatonic spe
cies by explaining the other two specific changes of modes
mentioned above. The first of these, the change from the
Ionian to the Dorian, may be compared to that of the Lydian
to the Ionian for its smoothness. Of this, Glarean says;
The Dorian and Hypodorlan have the first 5th spe

cies, re-la, which . , . has no tritone. If one, there
fore, changes the Ionian and Hypoionian again into the
Dorian or Hypodorlan, then will the 5th change, but
without a tritone, wherefore the ear will not be offend
ed, but will be moved oleasantly by the exchange of the
modes . . .1°
Of the last change of mode mentioned specifically, that of the
Dorian to the Phrygian, in contrast to the other txtfo changes,
Glarean emphasizes that this is much less pleasing and smooth.
However, if one wishes to proceed from the Dorian

or Hypodorlan, into the Phrygian or Hypophrygian, then
one' moves into modes, whose 5th has a tritone, a rough
interval, as we have designated it, so that, as it
were, another nature of the song seems to arise; accord
ingly, the hearing excited by reason of the newness of
the mode, feels an uncomfortable change and is startled.
It is obvious that, though Glarean gives no illustrations of
any of the specific changes of mode described, in the last two
9Again, Glarean does not make it clear whether this

change is to be understood as an actual change from the Lydian
to the Ionian mode, or whether it is simply a transposition of
the Ionian a 4th above its natural position.
X0Glarean, p. 72.
X1Ibid., pp. 72-73.
262
particularly, he is concerned with a practice which can only
he interpreted as an actual change from one mode to another
within a composition.
In connection with all these changes discussed, it is
apparent that Glarean1s main concern has been with the problem
of the tritone which, except for the Ionian-Dorian combination,
appears in the 5th species of the modes involved in the change.
This may be observed further in a summary of the principles
described thus far in connection with problem of change of
mode.
If, therefore, one changes the modes in a manner

that the 5th ut-sol arises, instead of fa-fa, then will
the ear, that receives a softer effect, not be offended,
when one, moving gradually from the 5th ut-sol, to that
of re-la, £thus coming from the Ionian mode] into the
Dorian, accomplishes it in a suitable manner and at the
right place. However, if, inversely, one turns away
from re-la, the Dorian 5th, into the Phrygian 5th, ml-
ml, one will scarcely avoid a certain opposition by the
ear, or a certain bewilderment of the senses, so that
one wonders wThv the melody has suddenly moved into a
different 5th.
It can be seen that, in this summary, Glarean has included all
three changes of mode which have been under specific consider
ation in his discussion of the practice. Here the comparison
of the changes from Lydian to Ionian, and Ionian to Dorian
give further support to an interpretation of these as actual
changes from one mode to another. Thus a possible judgment
of transposition in connection with these, even the Lydian-
Ionian combination, no longer seems valid.
^Glarean, p. 73.
263
Turning from this "philosophizing" of which, according
to Glarean, there has now been enough, he presents an example
which shows such changes from one mode to another as have been
described. It is interesting that, in spite of the diffi
culties encountered in going from the Dorian to the Phrygian
mode, as described by Glarean, or perhaps because of them, it
is this change which he has singled out as an illustration of
the practice. The work in which this appears is a polyphonic
setting of the psalm De Profundls by Josquin. It is described
in some detail by Glarean as follows*
In a suitable manner, and without offense to the

ear, Josquin has understood how to pass from the Dorian
into the Phrygian, in the psalm De Profundls. Here,
may each one note exactly, how tEe beginning of this
song is made, with what expression and with what digni
ty he has given to us, the words, De Profundls; the
manner in which he has changed, or moved upwards, that
mode out of its natural place, not as it is accustomed
to happen according to the rules herein, but he has
joined together the systems of both modes. At the same,
with astonishing and carefully studied elegance, he has
thrown the phrase into violent disorder, usurping now
the leap of the Lydian, now that of the Ionian, until
at length, by means of these most beautiful refine
ments, he glides, creeping unobserved and without of
fending the ear, from Dorian to Phrygian. That this
is difficult to do, especially in these two modes, the
Dorian and Phrygian, we have already shown. Thus, con
trary to the nature of the modes, he has ended the com
bined systems of the Dorian and Hypodorlan on E, the
seat of the Phrygian.13
1 Glarean, p. 325. The last part of this quotation

from the words, "At the same time," is from Strunk’s transla
tion in Source Readings, p. 222. However, Strunk's interpre
tation of this passage, explained in a footnote, is not
accepted as will be seen from the analysis of this composition
given in the following pages.
264
It is obvious that Glarean's description is only a
general analysis of the movement of modes within the composi
tion, There is no explanation of which sections show change
of mode, nor any discussion of the special features of such a
change. Therefore, of this composition which is set below, a
more detailed analysis has been necessary , ^ The purpose of
this is to show not only the changes described by Glarean,
and how these are to be recognized, but also, through this
specific example, to give some clarification to the general
problem of change from one mode to another discussed by
Glarean,
14In this, and subsequent analyses of polyphonic compo

sitions, no attempt is made to give an interpretation based on
19th-20th century tonal and harmonic concepts. The procedure
followed is that of determining mode from the Individual voices
according to the rules advanced by the 16th-17th century theo
rists. This, as described in the treatises, is the application
to individual voices of the principles of identification of
mode, Including the ambitus, characteristic modal intervals,
the 4th-5th species, and the final or other tones used as fi
nals at the cadence points. Judgement of the mode of the whole
composition, which was not a practice of theory of this period,
is based on the dominant modal complex within the individual
voices in the specific sections of the composition which are
mentioned. In connection with this, at the cadences, which
are important determining factors for the mode of the indivi
dual voice, as for the entire conplex of voices, equal weight
is given to all voices, not only to the tenor as Glarean him
self would have done.
Example 64. pe Profundls by Josquin des Prez. Mixture of
the Dorian and Phrygian Modes in Polyphony. 265
' (Qlarean. pp. 332-337.). 5
TTT
a
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j-1
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271
From a summary of the analysis given in connection with
J o s q u i n ^ De Profundls, certain features supporting the change
of mode may be pointed out. As a whole, the composition moves
within the ambitus A-d2, and shows both Aeolian and Dorian
characteristics. However, at the beginning, the phrasls in
all voices, and the cadences which occur, point clearly to the
Dorian mode. The first section is followed by a shorter one
in which Hypodorlan and Aeolian modes are present. This is
seen in the fact that both tenor and bass have the same ambi
tus, but the bass has the Hypodorlan species, A-d, the tenor,
the Aeolian 5th, A-e. The cadences in this section are Aeoli
an, mm. 23-25, This is followed by another temporary shift
to the Ionian, which moves in turn into the transposed Dorian,
with the first cadence in this mode at m. 40. The latter
mode prevails for some 8-10 measures in which there is a gra
dual transition to the Phrygian mode, with a strong Phrygian
cadence at m, 50.
With the change to the Phrygian mode, Josquin seems to
have reached a hind of climactic point in the middle of this
first section of his composition. For, following this, there
is a shift bach to the Dorian mode, as at the beginning, which
remains through m. 62. This is followed by evidence of the
same fluctuation of modes as appears in the first half dis
cussed, with the individual voices showing intervals and motion
characteristic of Dorian, Aeolian, and again of the Phrygian
modes. However, from the ambitus and phrases, the over-all
272
mode is predominantly Aeolian. This is followed in mm. 80-89
by a return to Ionian, and this in turn, by a reappearance of
the Aeolian with which this first half of De Profundls closes.
Since the second half of the composition follows the
same general pattern of changes as that observed in the first
half, only the closing portion is given and analyzed. In
this part, the beginning shows clearly, the Ionian mode with
its cadence at mm. 133-135. The final section of this motet,
from this Ionian cadence to the end, shows the same pattern
of fluctuation between the Aeolian and Phrygian modes, which
in the earlier part seemed to be between the Dorian and
Aeolian. These two modes are apparent in the individual voi
ces through the ambitus and characteristic intervals as indi
cated in the score. However, it may be observed that toward
the end the Phrygian mode gradually achieves predominance,
until the composition is brought to its final conclusion with
the Phrygian cadence.
From a comparison of this summary with Glarean*s des
cription of this motet, De Profundls, it is clear that the ba
sic change of mode mentioned by Glarean, that from Dorian to
Phrygian, does tahe place. Other changes also occur, and
though not clearly defined by Glarean, may be implied by his
reference to the fact that the "phrase is thrown Into wild
disorder," and leaps of the Lydian and Ionian both are observ
ed. Although this is the only composition which Glarean
gives as a specific illustration of the change from one mode
273
to another among the polyphonic compositions Illustrating the
12-mode system, there are others which give evidence of this
practice.Furthermore, that Glarean is fully aware of the
prevalence of these changes may be observed in his concluding
words concerning Josquin's composition.
Yet there are other compositions in which he has

done this (nor is he alone in it), evidently from an
immoderate love of novelty and an excessive eagerness
to win a little glory for being unusual. . . . None
the less, the motet remains between A and d, respect
ing the limits of the Dorian and Hypodorlan systems.
And although by his unusual procedure, he has sought
nothing else, he has at least made it plain that,
through the force of his temperament, he could bring
it about that the charge customarily brought against
the ancient musicians, namely of progressing "From
Dorian to Phrygian,11 would be brought in vain against
him by whom it was so learnedly accomplished, without
the slightest offense to the ear,1"
The evidence presented shows that Glarean recognizes
changes from one mode to another within polyphonic composition,
but that he does so within the limitations imposed by the prin
ciples of modal theory. Thus, Glarean finds changes from one
mode to another most acceptable when they occur between modes
that have a close relationship through their species, e.g.
Dorian-Aeolian, Lydian-Ionian, etc. Furthermore, these changes
are more acceptable if they are made with reference to avoid
ing, or correcting the trltone, even though they may involve
modes not so closely related. Though the changes from one
1 For example, Domlne Secundum, in two voices, by Vaque-

ras, Dodecachordon, pp. 189-190; the motet, Absalom Fill Me by
Josquin des Pres, OHM 11:77-81; and many others as well.
l6Glarean, p. 325.
274
mode to another in the motet, De Profundls, do not fall into
either of these two types, nevertheless, the changes of mode
in this composition are Justified by Glarean as evidence of
the superior genius of 'his favorite composer, Josquin. More
over, the changes of mode within this motet, occur in a manner
acceptable to the theorists of this time. The motet remains
within the same ambitus throughout, and the changes of mode
are caused by the change of emphasis on the species which ap
pear within this ambitus.
Zarlino, as does Glarean, mentions the change from one
mode to another in connection with the use of the twelve modes
in polyphony. This is found in the final summary of the gen
eral principles for the judging and naming of the modes in
polyphonic composition, where he adds to his former remarks on
mixed modes.
First, it should be pointed out, that although songs

of every one of the modes shown are found in almost an
infinite number, nonetheless, many of them are found,
which are not composed in their simple modes, but in
the mixed ones; Because we shall find the fifth mode
mixed with the twelfth, the tenth with the first, and
many similar; as can be seen from the songs mentioned;
especially those of the fifth mode, the Phrygian, which
in place of the third species of 5th, E-b, below, have
the third species of 4th, E-a; and in place of the third
species of 4th, b-e, have the second species of 5th,
a-e, above. This is done in such a manner that the
said species are contained under the same octave, that
is of E-e, but in one of the modes, the octave is har
monically divided, and is the fifth mode; wiiile, in the
other, it is arithmetically divided, and has the form
of the twelfth mode.-*-'
17Zarllno, pp. 415-416.
275
According to this reference, It is apparent that, in
the same manner as Glarean, Zarlino is concerned with the
problem of changes from one mode to another, which involve the
diatonic species within the modes. Also, as in Glarean's early
references to such changes, it is possible to give these, men
tioned by Zarlino, two interpretations.18 In the first place,
as Zarlino points out, both the twelfth and fifth modes are
contained within the octave, E-e, the former by arithmetic
division, the latter by harmonic division. If one hears the
species E-b, b-e repeated over and over, then it is the Phry
gian mode, or fifth mode with harmonic division. If, on the
other hand, one hears in place of these species, the 4th E-a,
and the 5th a-e, "hearing such species repeated over and over,
not only the major part of the composition has no part of the
fifth mode, but the entire song is composed under the
twelfth,1,18 In either case, no change of mode is involved.
However, interpreting Zarlino!s description in a second
manner, an actual change of mode within the ambitus, E-e, in
the course of a song, is clearly feasible. In this case, the
change from one mode of the octave to the other will happen
18Aceordlng to Glarean, the alternate interpretation

would always result in a transposition of the mode, with the
use of accidentals to change the species. However, in Zarli
no 's discussion, the alternate interpretation was simply an
inversion of the species within any given octave. The result,
as seen above, is that one had either the mode by harmonic
division, or that, by arithmetic division, with no foreign
tones in the octave,
l9Zarllno, p. 415.
276
when there is a shift of emphasis on the 5th and. 4th species
by harmonic division, to those which are the result of arith
metic division. Thus, as specifically defined by Zarlino,
there may be change from the Phrygian to the Hypoaeolian mode,
or a "mixture of the fifth and twelfth modes" within the
octave ambitus, E-e. Furthermore, the reverse of this change
may happen, the fifth changing to the twelfth; and this may
happen with other pairs of modes sharing the same ambitus,
such as the tenth and the first, e t c . ^ In addition to such
changes as from the mode by harmonic division to that by
arithmetic division, Zarlino also Implies recognition of
change from one mode to another between those that are closely
related through their species. These, as described by Gla
rean, Include the Dorlan-Aeolian, or Ionlan-Mixolydian. How
ever, Zarlino indicates that the mixtures of such modal pairs
are possible, not only through the species, but also because
both modes may use a common final. This point was not men-
21
tioned by Glarean.
^ T h e principle Involved in these changes is the same

as that which caused modo mlxto, described in connection with
plainsong. In both cases, the modes are mixed because strange
species are found within the normal ambitus of a mode. How
ever, under modo mixto, the strange or foreign species could
belong to any mode, not just to the alternate mode of the
octave in question, as in the above.
2lZarlino Implies that these are mixed, not so much in

the sense of a change from one to the other, but that one mixes
them up in making a judgement of them in a song. The reason
for this is that such a judgement is based only on the ambitus
and final, which as indicated are common to two modes, i.e.
a note may serve one as a final and the other as its fifth, to
which it may cadence. Therefore it is necessary to observe
the species and procedure of the song as well.
277
From what has been observed thus far in Zarlino1s dis
cussion of this problem, there is no doubt of his recognition
of change from one mode to another. This is supported, first,
by the fact that he makes a clear distinction between the
"simple" songs and the "mixed" songs; second, by his emphasis
on the necessity for considering the whole procedure of the
song for identifying the mode, and not judging this from the
final and ambitus alone. By this means it will be possible
to avoid confusing the simple songs with the mixed ones. Such
a condition applies not only to single melodies as in plain-
song, but to polyphonic songs as well. This is clear in the
folloxirlng paragraph concerning the correct procedure for
judging the mode.
Therefore, since it is the form that creates the

thing, you will judge reasonably, not only from the fi
nal note, as some have wished, but from the form of
everything contained in such a song. . . . Thus, it
is not Inconvenient that the principal mode can finish
in the middle note of its octave arithmetically divided
. . , . That this can be done nicely, can be understood
from the motet, _Si bona suscepimus de manu Domini, com
posed by Verdelot . . . which from one end to the other
has the procedure of the eleventh mode. Nevertheless,
it does not finish in its own true final note; but in
the middle.
In the attempt to determine the meaning of "mixed"
songs or "change of mode" as described by Zarlino in this sec
tion of. his treatise, two possibilities may be given some con
sideration. The first has been discussed at some length and
is that in which a change from one mode to another is the
22Zarlino, p. 416.
278
result of the mixture of species within a given ambitus.
Though this can be accepted without further discuesion, it is
Important to observe Zarlino1s final statement concerning this
as conclusive evidence of his recognition of this practice.
He says;
. . . It is not strange that many times one does

not hear any difference between a mode which finishes
in the note E, and another which ends in a; because, in
the manner that I have said, there are composed mixed
songs. But if there will be composed simple songs with
out any mixture, there is no doubt that there will be
heard a great difference of harmony between the one and
the other.23
\
The second possibility which presents itself is one re
lated to the problem of the cadences of the songs on other
notes of the mode than the final. To this matter Zarlino has
given considerable emphasis. Though he does not relate this
to the problem of the mixed modes, or to the change of mode,
it does not seem unreasonable to assume that cadences on other
notes than the final are an indication that one has shifted
from the initial mode of a song to another mode, which is iden
tified by the cadence as its final. With such a possibility- •
it is still necessary to observe the procedure of the whole
song as well as the final. The fact that the songs could have
cadences in their course, or at the end, which could be on
other notes than either the final or the fifth of the mode,
seems clear from the following discussion of Zarlino on this
problem.
25Zarlino, p. 416.
279
When, therefore, it is necessary to make a judgment

of any song whatever, we must consider carefully the
state of the principal mode to the end, and observe un
der what form it is found to be composed; whether under
the form of the first, or second, or of any other mode;
having regard for all the cadences, which throw a great
light on such matters. Finally, we shall make a judg
ment in what mode it may be composed; even though it
may not have its close in its own proper final notes,
but in the middle as well, or in some other which hap
pens by intention.24
In conclusion, it may be stated, that there is no real
clarification of the problem of mixed songs, or change from
one mode to another in Zarlino's discussion; nor, are there
examples to illustrate the practice as described, which might
show exactly what Zarlino means. However, that he recognized
that a song could contain more than one mode cannot be ques
tioned, even though such changes as are specifically defined
are limited to those between very closely related modes. Fi
nally, though such an interpretation is only conjectural, from
Zarlino's discussion of the matter it is not unreasonable to
assume that in polyphonic compositions, a change from one mode
to another occurs when one makes cadences on notes that are not
the final of the mode given, but may serve as a final for
another mode. Thus, if a composition in the Ionian mode were
to come to a final close on Q-, it could be said that in this
eong one changed from the Ionian mode to the Mixolydian. How
ever, since a mode may close on its fifth, and even on other
notes, according to Zarlino, such a close alone would not
24Zarlino, p. 416.
280
Indicate that a mixture or a change of mode has taken place.
It could be defined as such, only if, in addition, one observ
ed clearly the shift from the species of the Ionian to those
of the Mixolydian in the course of such a song.
Following Zarlino1s reference to the change of mode,
the most significant discussion of the practice is found in
the latter part of Cerone's treatise, El Pelopeo maestro.^5
In this section of his work Cerone is concerned with the rules
of composition as they apply to polyphonic song under the 12-
mode system. He states the first and one of the most impor
tant rules as follows;
The first thing necessary is that it £i.e. the songj

must be formed under one tone. That is to say, that it
should be within its limits; and that it should not
pass from the first to the seventh, nor from the seventh
to the second, and from this to any other tone . How
ever, I consider that sometimes it is necessary, and it
is done for the sake of art. . . .
In his recognition that, "for the sake of art," it is
at times necessary to leave one tone for another, Cerone is ob
viously accepting the practice as he observes it in contempo
rary polyphonic composition. However, at this point, probably
In order not to ponfuse the beginner to whom these rules for
composing are addressed, he does not carry the discussion of
leaving the tone any further. Instead, he mentions specific
^ Z a c c o n i discusses mixed tones in his Pratt lea di

Muslca, but has nothing to offer beyond that already observed
in his predecessors.
^Cerone, 672,
281
compositions in which the practice may be o b s e r v e d , ^ and
states that later he will describe in detail the "correct
manner of leaving one tone for another."
When, in the later section of his work (Book XVI), as
h e has promised, Cerone turns to a consideration of the 12-mode
system and all of its properties, he includes a study of the
probl e m of change from one tone to another. He introduces the
subject here in a chapter which he calls, "When there is dan
ger of changing one tone into another." In this discussion,
Cerone describes two ways in which changes from one to another
take place. The first one takes place. . .
. . . By changing the sequence of the natural sol-

fa into the accidental, or the accidental into the
natural; Thus, in the seventh tone, saying naturally
ut-re-mi-fa-sol re-mi-fa sol, beginning from G- sol-re-
ut ascending; and then, changing, accidentally, pro
ducing of the same passage, re-mi-fa-sol-re-mi-fa-sol,
beginning from the same G- sol-re-ut, and ascending.
Accidentally, there is derived [from this second
seriesl. the sequence of the first and of the eighth
tones.
From this explanation, it is immediately apparent that
the nature of the change Cerone is describing makes it compara
ble to those described earlier by both GKLarean and Zarlino.
For Cerone is referring first to the frequency with which one
finds a species changed by means of the accidental; and
2?The examples mentioned include Peccata mea by Mouton;

0 Admlrablle commerclum by Lloyset Compere; as well as a state-
ment that this practice is also found in compositions by
Willaert. Unfortunately it was not possible to locate these
for examination.
28Cerone, p. 914.
282
secondly, h o w within such an accidentally changed octave spe
cies, there are still two interpretations to the new octave,
depending on whether one considers the mode harmonically or
arithmetically divided. Continuing this discussion, Cerone
clarifies the above explanation of this first type of change.
In order that the ne w composer may not be confused,

let him observe what I have said in the second chapter
of this book, on the point of the different divisions
of the octave; and he will see that one and the same
series serves two tones. That is, by saying fa in
b-fa-h-ml, and dividing the series harmonically, the
above series leaves the seventh tone and enters the
first; but, dividing arithmetically, comes from the se
venth and enters into the eighth. The same must be
understood of the other series which may leave from a
Tone; nor is it necessary to say anything more. Who
ever has all that information concerning the formation
of the tones, the natural as well as the accidental,
will know what we have been talking about; since, I have
explained and demonstrated all of this.29
A summary of the facts concerning this first manner of
leaving one tone for another, described b y Cerone, shows clear
ly its relation to the change from one mode to another des
cribed by Glarean and Zarlino. For, taking the natural series
of tones in the octave G-g, which is that of the seventh tone,
Cerone says that one leaves this tone (i.e. the seventh) by
adding b flat. However, not only does one leave the seventh
tone, but he may enter either one of two other tones. This
is possible because the octave G~g with b flat, if divided
harmonically, gives the same series of tones as found in the
first mode, D-d, and thus, by adding b flat, one may leave the
29Cerone, p. 914.
283
seventh for the first tone. On the other hand, if the same
series in the G^-g octave is divided arithmetically, one leaves
the seventh tone, and enters the eighth tone, which is normal
ly found in the D-d octave divided arithmetically. As Cerone
points out, in agreement with both Glarean and Zarlino, such
a manner of changing one tone into another may be understood
of all the rest of the tones as well.
Without further discussion of the first manner, and
without specific examples illustrating the practice, Cerone
turns Immediately to an explanation of the second manner of
leaving one tone for another. Of this, he says:
. . . The second manner of leaving the tone is to

make cadences outside of the first tone in w h ich you be
gan, For example, in the first tone, making a cadence
of the fifth or sixth tones; or of the eleventh, or
twelfth in C sol-fa-ut; or, of the fourth in e-la-ml.
in the manner that has been explained another time.0®
As Cerone indicates here, this matter of cadences (or closes
as he calls them) has been explained in earlier sections of
his work in some detail. Though he does not give a specific
reference, it may be assumed that he has in mind, particularly,
the description and illustration of all the clausulae which
were used in the various modes, and which are explained and
illustrated in great detail at several points throughout his
•^Cerone, p. 914.
284
treatise.However, the important thing here is that the
change of mode, which Zarlino seems to suggest in his refer
ence to cadences on other notes of the mode than its final
(see page 279), is defined clearly by Cerone. For Cerone re
cognizes that if, in a composition in the first tone, one
makes a cadence on the note which serves as the final of the
fifth or sixth tone, or that of the eleventh or twelfth tones,
or on any other tone, it is clear that one has left the first
tone and has entered the new tone defined by such a cadence.
Thus, Cerone is the first of the theorists considered in this
study who states the principle of a practice which can be de
fined as a "modulation" within the modal framework without any
question . u
SlThese are given in connection with plainsong practice

(Book VI), where Cerone discusses the intermediate and irregu
lar endings of all the modes. Cadences are also considered in
detail in connection with polyphonic composition, and in ano
ther section, Cerone devotes a large part of one book to cer
tain Irregularities of the cadence. In his treatise see espe
cially Books X, XII, and XV. Again, it may be mentioned that
R u t h Hannas, The Evolution of Harmonic Consciousness (dlss.,
Eastman, 1 9 3 4 examines iri~3etail and with extensive illustra
tion, the problem of cadences as treated by Cerone. For a
reference to this matter, see Hannas', "Cerone, Philosopher
and Teacher," 2l;4l9, 1935.
^ % n some of the German treatises, e.g. those by Calvi-

sius, Lippius, Baryphonus and Cruger, there may be found evi
dence of a position either as advanced as, or more so than that
of Cerone. The authors named represent the same period as Ce
rone, but since their works are in Latin, acquaintance with
them is limited to that found in secondary sources, the chief
of which is Gehrmann, "Johann Gottfried V/alther als Theoretiker"
VfL 7:465-578, 1891. Gehrmann gives no specific discussion of
the problem of change of mode in his study. Nevertheless from
certain references there is evidence of some consideration of
the problem by these authors. For further evidence, see also,
Kurt Benndorf, "Sethius Calvisius als Musiktheoretiker," VfM
285
Without any further discussion of the manner in which
the process of leaving one tone and entering another is accom
plished, Cerone describes two reasons for leaving one tone for
another. The first reason is ", . . for the completing and
perfecting of any species, or to excuse any dissonance of the
trlto n e . "33 This is accomplished by changing b natural into
b flat, or vice versa, and obviously occurs particularly in
connection with tones which involve the trltone. The second
reason for leaving one tone for another is given as that in
which, in composing a song above a cantus in a certain mode,
if the cantus leaves the given mode for another, it is neces
sary for the whole composition to leave the tone at the same
point.
It is clear that in Cerone's discussion of this prac
tice, the second manner of leaving one tone for another is by
far the most significant. This may be observed when, in refer
ence to examples of this in composition, Cerone says that one
perceives the transition to different tones at the cadence
points. The reason is that the parts all leave a tone at the
cadence, since they all accompany the cantus firnus, usually
in the tenor, when this part leaves one tone for another.
66*411-470, 1894; and Riemann, Geschlchte der Muslktheorie

(Leipzig, 1898) Chapters 12 and 13.
Cerone, p. 914. The first of these seems most close

ly related to the first manner of leaving one tone for another
described by Cerone. The same reasons are given by Tinctoris,
Glarean, and Zarlino.
286
Cerone does not describe specific examples of these, but says
that such examples may be observed in the setting of the plain-
song hymn, Ave Marla Stella, by Palestrina, and in other works
of this and other composers of the period. The hymn in ques
tion is given below, with an analysis, particularly with refer
ence to changes of mode in the second manner defined by

*ZA
Cerone.0 The plainsong melody used as cantus firmus is cor
rectly assigned to the first mode in the Antiphonary. It is
given in full, preceding the polyphonic setting of Palestrina,
in order that it may be observed in relation to the Palestrina
composition.^
34The analysis of this is based primarily on the same

principles as those used in connection with the analysis of
the example, De P r ofundis, given by Glarean. However, more
weight is placed on the cadences, and on the vertical complex,
w i t h attention to the apparent harmonic pull toward the caden
ces that mark changes of mode in the various sections of the
whole. The reason for this is that Palestrina's style shows
more clear tonal and harmonic relations (i.e. in the major-
minor sense), than that of Josquin. It is more difficult,
therefore, to define mode as clearly from modal intervals and
ambitus as in the latter. Justification for this procedure
is based on a comparison of the style of Palestrina with that
of the Netherlands and Venetian schools preceding him, repre
sented by such composers as Josquin, Mouton, Wlllaert, and
Arcadelt. In Palestrina's works, especially the masses and
motets, the absence of chromaticism, quieter flow of harmony
, and rhythm, a symmetrical structure achieved by note-to-note
setting of individual voices, and the predominance of sylla
bic textual setting give strong xyeight to the vertical tex
ture, and emphasize the feeling of movement governed by har
monic laws. For further discussion of this, see Hugh Haigh,
The Harmony of Palestrina (diss. Harvard, 1945); R. 0. Morris,
Contrapuntal Technique in the 16th Century (London, 1922),
especially pp. 45-44; Reese, Music in the Renaissance (Mew
York, 1954), pp. 459-486.
The inclplt of the plainsong given by Cerone, also

shown, is in the transposed position used by Palestrina in
his setting.
Example 65 . Karia .Stella by Palestrina. Showing 287
Change of Mode at the Cadences According to
Cerone. (Palestrina, O p e r e .C o m p l e t e . XIV: 85-9.1)
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From the analysis of the Palestrina composition, it is
clear that a change from one tone to another is supported by
cadences on tones other than the finals of the mode, as des
cribed by Cerone. In the first section of the hymn there is
only one change of mode, that from the transposed Dorian, in
the & octave, the transposed Ionian in F-f, with a return to
the Initial modes. The transition seems to be made through
the dominant of the Dorian, which is emphasized by means of a
converging of the voices to a vertical complex on this tone,
before the shift to the Ionian section. The return to the
Dorian, and the movement to the final cadence, show a suc
cession of harmonies which progress quite clearly according
to the laws on which the chord movement of major-minor tonali
ty is based.
In the second section of the composition (labelled III),
the modality, and consequently the changes from one tone to
another, are less clearly perceived than in the first part.
The beginning is ambiguous because of the prominence of inter-
vals and ambitus characteristic of the C-c mode, but is
probably more correctly assigned to the transposed Dorian than
to any other mode. For, after the opening measures, the ambi
tus and intervals of the G-Dorian become predominant, especial
ly in Individual voices, which is, however, interrupted by
cadences on the dominant of this mode. This section closing
36Even this C-mode is ambiguous for while it shows cha

racteristic intervals and species of the Dorian, the b natural
seems to contradict this mode, In favor of Ionian.
293
with a strong cadence on G in raeas. 16, is followed "by a shift
to the transposed Ionian on B flat. Again, this change of
mode is made smoothly by means of a transitional section in
the F-Ionian, which is anticipated even before the strong ca
dence in the G mode (meas. 16) by the evidence of the inter
vals and procedure of this F-mode, especially In the altus.
The return from the B flat-Ionian to the G-Dorian is made by
the same connecting section in the F-Ionian region mentioned
above. However, as in the first complete section of this
Palestrina hymn, the succession of harmonies in the final mea
sures is strongly dominated by the pulls found in major-minor
compositions, particularly at cadential sections, and is de
fined here through an apparent descending root movement in
fourths.
In contrast to J o s q u i n 1 s JDe Pro fundi s , in these two
sections of the Palestrina Ave Marla Stella, the changes of
> mode are more distinctly defined. The reason is that there is
a strong feeling of the progression of chords in the vertical
complex, governed by the harmonic laws of the major-minor to
nality. The change from one tone to another is marked by this
factor, especially at the cadences, rather than by the change
of species and characteristic Intervals within a given ambi
tus, which is so clearly the dominating factor in Josquin's
composition. Moreover, in the latter, the changes from one
mode to another, though more frequent, culminate finally in
the close of the composition in a mode very different from
294
that in which it began. On the other hand, in the Palestrina
composition, both parts open and close in the same modes.
This results in establishing a balanced form which gives fur
ther support to the evidence of the tonal and harmonic clarity
in this composition.
Returning to C e r o n e 1s discussion of the change from one
tone to another, there is further explanation of the practice
w h ich has significance in connection with the above analysis.
This may be observed in the following paragraph;
When these things happen [i.e. the change of tone

by the making of cadences in other tones], it should
not be understood, that it is absolutely true, that one
leaves the tone in which one first began, and takes
another, different one, to follow it purposefully to
the end, but only until the 5th or 4th are completed,
or the cadence is made, and then one returns to follow
the tone first begun.37
F r o m this, it is clear that in spite of the emphasis placed on
the cadence as the most important factor in the'second manner
of leaving one tone for another, Cerone does not disregard the
species. They are included as a necessary element for defin
ing the mode to which the change is made. Further, such
changes of mode within a composition are only temporary and
thus the composition must begin and end in the same tone.
In conclusion, it may be pointed out that Cerone*s dis
cussion of leaving one tone for another shows a more clear
understanding of the practice, and of the manner in which it
takes place, than observed previously. Nevertheless, it is
37Cerone, p. 915.
295
also clear that the advances shown in his ideas concerning the
change of mode, like those of his predecessors, are limited
by the necessity Cerone feels for the regulation of these
changes of mode, according to the principles of traditional
modal theory. This is supported by Cerone's criticism of the
freedom with which such changes are made in the "vulgar" music
of his time. In this manner, though in a negative way, Cerone
gives a final emphasis to the principles given in the above
discussion for the defining and regulating of the practice of
leaving one tone for another.
In the vulgar [i.e. common] songs, many times, no

attention is given to the use of cadences in relation
to the modes; not only this, but neither to the minor
rules nor to the important ones concerning the tones;
nor in respect to the species; proceeding at times in
all parts, by irregular intervals; and what is worse,
without necessity and without purpose, but by w h i m . . .
[as it were] by a craving of a pregnant woman.38
In the period from the appearance of Cerone's treatise
to the close of the 17th century, there continues to be dis
cussion of the subject of mixed modes, or change from one mode
to another in the treatises concerned with modal theory.
Among these, for example, in his Harmonle Unlverselle (1636),
Mersenne finds that the modes are often mixed in the composi
tions of his time, and refers to the mixture of the fifth with
the twelfth, or the tenth with the first, and so on. However,
such mixtures are clearly the same as those described by
38Cerone, p. 915.
296
Zarlino, In which the mixture is of the two modes which share
the same octave, the one derived by harmonic, the other by
arithmetic division of the octave.^®
In the treatise by Andreas Herbst, Muslca Poetlca (1636),
there is likewise a reference to mixed modes comparable to
that given by one of the earlier theorists. Herbst, as does
Glarean, emphasizes the problem of ethos in his discussion of
the practice. He also, hotirever, points out that changes of
mode are made by means of making cadences on other notes of a
mode than those normally used for this purpose. As in Cerone*s
discussion, he emphasizes that such changes in the course of a
composition must be followed by a return of the original mode.
H e refers to the composition of Orlando de Lasso as that in
which this practice has been used to achieve more expressive
effects in the music.
Further discussion of these, or of other references to
the practice of change of mode found in the treatises of the
17th century is unnecessary. It is apparent that there are
no new ideas which indicate that in connection with this prob
lem, progress has been made beyond that of the theorists al-
40
ready considered. At this point, it is of more significance
39jhis is true only of the mixture of the first two men

tioned, the Phrygian and Hypoaeolian modes in Mersenne's order.
The tenth and first may be an error on Mersenne's part, and
given for the tenth and third, for the relation described does
not exist between the tenth and the first.
4®An exception already mentioned is that further contri
butions may be found in the Latin treatises of this period.
Further exceptions include the ideas of the 17th century theo
rists, and those in the early figured-bass treatises, both to
be considered in subsequent chapters.
297
to give consideration to an evaluation of the ideas concerning
change of mode which have been presented in the two chapters
preceding, in order that geners.1 conclusions regarding this
practice may be reached.
It is significant to point out that in the study of the
practice of mixed modes, or change from one mode to another,
the theorists whose ideas have been emphasized represent four
points of development in the polyphonic period of the 15th and
16th centuries. These may be defined as follows; 1) Tlnctoris
as the representative of the development of medieval polyphony,
with the work of Okeghem as the high point of the period;
2) G-larean, as the representative of the period wh ich rises to
the first high point of the Renaissance polyphony in the com
position of Josquin; 3) Zarlino, who represents the incipience
of the period of chromaticism in vocal and instrumental poly
phony with emphasis on the composition of Wlllaert; and,
4) Cerone, who may be called the representative of the last
high point of development in modal vocal polyphony in the work
of Palestrina.
It should be understood that there is by no means a
wide separation between the so-called "periods11 of development
distinguished in this manner. In fact, the similarity of the
ideas of the theorists concerned, on the subject of mixed
modes, negates completely such a conclusion. Furthermore,
frequent reference by a theorist representative of one period
to composers of the other periods are found in all of the
298
treatises. At the same time, though such a distinction is
primarily for the sake of convenience, there is evidence that
a difference in the styles of the composers concerned is a de
cisive factor in the differences in the ideas of the theorists
concerning the practice. Such differences, though slight, are
important as a means of showing "stages" of progress in the
development of the concept of "modulation" in modal theory.
For this reason, among the four theorists concerned, the dis
tinctions described have validity, and give a more firm basis
for comparison of the concepts of the theorists concerning the
practice of "mixed modes" or "change from one mode to
anoth e r . "
While (Glarean's position on the change of modes is
somewhat- obscured by his "philosophizing"— as he himself calls
it— nevertheless, certain principles are fairly clear. As
does Tinctoris before him, he recognizes change of mode from
one to another through the alteration within the mode of the
4th-5th species. For both theorists, the alterations seem to
be related to the problem of the tritone although in a differ
ent manner. Tinctoris, who gives the avoidance of the tritone
as a reason for changing the modes, shows the interval in a
harmonic sense only. In his analysis of the practice of mix
ing modes in melodies, he does not seem at all concerned with
the tritone and allows a considerable latitude to the changes
possible through the alteration of the 4th-5th species. In
contrast, G-larean's entire discussion seems to revolve about
299
the necessity for correcting the melodic tritone, and parti
cularly in connection with the Lydian and Phrygian modes.
However, the most important difference between the out
look of these two theorists on the subject of changed modes
is occasioned by the practice which is illustrated and des
cribed in each case. Tinctoris is concerned with the practice
of a period whose peak of development is attained in the work
of Okeghem, and further, his attention is concentrated solely
on the practice of mixed modes in plainsong melodies. On the
other hand, G-larean, whose treatise appears some sixty years
later, is concerned with the music whose highest exponent is
Josquin. It is clear also, that though he analyzes the mixture
of modes in individual lines, G-larean is concerned with the
problem in reference to polyphonic practice. The increasing
complexity of polyphonic composition of Josquin and his con
temporaries has been accompanied to some extent by advances in
the thinking of the theorists, with reference particularly to
changing tonality in the compositions. Nevertheless, theory
is still far behind practice which accounts to a large extent
for the confusion so evident in G-larean1s discussion. This
in turn may be said to result from the application of the tra
ditional principles to a more complex type of music, than that
for which such principles were designed.
A similar comparison might well be made between Zarlino
and G-larean. Zarlino's analysis of mo do mlxto in plainsong
melodies, though never so clear as that in Tinctoris, resembles
300
the traditional concept found under this classification as
described by earlier theorists. This contrasts with the dis
cussion of mixture in plainsong by G-larean, which is only in
cidental to his consideration of problems of identification
of the modes. In both treatises, however, the mixture in
plainsong takes place in the same manner as described by
Tinctoris, that is through the presence of species foreign to
the mode in which they are found as mixtures.
In the treatises of G-larean and Zarlino, the mixture of
modes observed in polyphony is more important than that in
connection with plainsong. In his analysis of the use of the
modes, while Zarlino mentions Josquin and other composers con
sidered by Glarean, there is more frequent reference to the
works of composers representative of a later period of musical
expression, e.g. the chromatic polyphony of Wiilaert, Verdelot,
and Arcadelt. Glarean, in his attempt to analyze the mixture
of modes in polyphony, though in a vague manner seems to indi
cate a perception of the mode as a whole. This is in contrast
to his usual manner of considering mode only in the Individual
voices. On the other hand, in Zarlino’s analysis there is a
more clear evidence of the perception that mode in polyphony,
and thus the changes from one mode to another, must be observ
ed in relation to the vertical complex of the voices. Though
it cannot be said that he actually defines this, nevertheless
support for such an idea may be found in his recognition that
changes of mode take place through the use of irregular
301
cadences; and further, his emphasis on the fact that the bass
voice is the foundation for the other voices, and of equal
importance with the tenor for determining the movement of voi
ces and the definition of mode.
Cerone's discussion of modo commixto in relation to
plainsong is very clearly a reflection of traditional ideas,
complicated by his exacting division into various types of
comixto. In his description of changes from one mode to ano- v
ther in polyphonic practice, he is more clear in presenting
the matter than either Zarlino or Glarean, The reason for
this is his recognition of the logic of irregular cadences as
a sign that the mode has changed. While there is not unequi
vocal approval of the practice in Cerone, there is a clear
recognition of the necessity for its use. Further, C e r o n e 1s
reference to this in connection with composers representing
the final period of pure modal polyphonic practice, such as
in Lassus and Palestrina, is an important factor on which to
b ase differences between his concept and that of preceding
practice. Perhaps because this music is more diatonic or per
haps for other reasons, it shows a more quiet harmonic move
ment. This harmonic movement seems to be dependent on har
monic structure and tension within the music, in contrast to
that in the chromatic composition preceding it which may be
said to depend on the polyphonic interweaving of the voices.
In conclusion, it may be said thp.t the description of
the practice of mixed modes and change from one mode to another
in the treatises of this time, indicates clearly the inception
of a concept of modulation in theory. Such a concept is not
clearly defined by the theorists, not only because the lan
guage of modal theory does not lend itself to this purpose,
but even more, because the tonal and harmonic concepts neces
sary for a definition of modulation are likewise not yet deve
loped to the point where they can be formulated in theory.
Hoxyever, in the four treatises emphasized in this discussion,
there is evidence that, as we may find the beginning of the
theoretical recognition of the major-minor tonal system, we
may also find the beginning of clarification of.harmonic
principles, and thus the beginning of the concept of modula
tion, Some further development of these ideas may be found
in connection with the modal theory of the Latin treatises
mentioned earlier (see p. 284, fn. 32), Nevertheless it is
evident that the clarification of these concepts in theory
depends on the correct definition of the elements of the new
musical style, and a more accurate representation of these

41
elements by the theorists. This, as we shall observe, takes
4Ît should be pointed out that in muslcological inves

tigation of the music of the 16th and 17th centuries, consi
derable a ttention has been given to the problem of "modula
tion" in such music. Since the chief concern of this study
is the investigation of the problem in the theoretical
treatises, while in the studies mentioned the chief emphasis
is on the practical aspects with only incidental reference to
theory, it was decided to omit consideration of such studies
of the problem. However, these studies were read with inter
est, and undoubtedly influenced some of the conclusions reach
ed above. Therefore, they will be listed in the bibliography
even though no specific reference is made to many of them in
the text of this study.
303
place in the 17th century when the development of the accom
panie d song and of the figured-bass theory, causes further
decline in modal music and traditional theory, until they are
completely superseded by the new style.
304
CHAPTER VI
TONALITY AND MODULATION IN ENGLISH THEORY
In English theory of the late 16th and 17th centuries,
there is an emphasis on the knowledge of keys and an under
standing of their use, which is comparable to the correct know
ledge and understanding of the modes and their use in music,
found in continental theory of the same period. However, the
English theorists are not concerned with the necessity for
maintaining the strict modal traditions of plainsong practice,
and thus are less hampered by traditional modal theory than
their continental contemporaries. As a result of this, English
treatises of the 17th century give evidence of considerable
progress In the development of new concepts of tonality, of
key-relatlonshlp and of modulation. To show this development
in English theory, it is necessary to consider the above-
mentioned subjects as they are discussed in the treatises and
so-called "Instruction11 books of the period from 1597 to the
close of the 1 7 t h century.^
The "Tonal" System in Thomas M o r l e y ^ Treatise^
In the text of M o r l e y ’s treatise, the most important
reference to tonality occurs in a discussion between the pupil,
iThey are referred to in this manner by H. C. Colles,

"Seventeenth Century Instruction Books," proceedings of the
Musical A ssociation, 55th y r . , p. 31.
^Thomas Morley, Plaine and Easie Introduction to

Practlcall Musicke (1597)", "B’acs. ed. with IntroductiorT’by E.
Et. Fellowes, 1937.'
305
Philomathes, and his master, who represents Morley himself.
Concerning the keeping of the key in a song, the latter says,
"every key hath a peculiar ayre proper unto itself . , . " s o
that if in writing you go into another than the one in which
the song was begun, you change the air of the song and thus
%
its nature. Emphasizing the importance of this knowledge of
"proper a y r e , " the master refers his pupil to the sources
w h er e such knowledge may be obtained;
The perfect knowledge of these aires (which the an

tiquity termed M o d i ) was in such estimation amongst the
learned, as therein they placed the perfection of mu-
sicke, as you may perceive at large in the fourth book
of Severinus Boethius his musieke, and Glareanus hath
written a learned book which he tooke in hande onely for
the explanation of those moodes;*
Apparently desiring a more practical approach to the
problem, Philomathes asks for a general rule for keeping of
the key. He is told that it must proceed from the Judgment
of the composer; nevertheless,
. . . the church men for keeping their keyes have

devised certaine notes commonlie called the eight tunes,
so that according to the tune which is to be observed,
at that time if it beglnne in ..uch a key, it may end in
such and such others, as you shall immediately know.
And these be (although not the true substance yet) some
3Morley, p. 146. M o r l e y 1s treatise is in familiar

dialogue form found in some Italian treatises of the late 16th
century, and possibly copied from these works. In English
theory, the w o r d key is always used to refer to "scale" in
the same sense as mode in the treatises considered previous
ly.
^Loc. c i t 0
306
shadow of the ancient modi whereof Boethius and G-larea-

nus have written so mucHT®
Following this, in response to the pupil's request for the
"eight tunes," the master gives four-part settings of these,
in which the tenor has the plainsong tune. From Morley's four-
part settings, of these tunes in each mode, only the tenors are
given in the example which follows.
Example 66. The Tenors of the "Eight Tunes." (Morley, p. 147.)
The First Tune The Second Tune
The Third Tune The Fourth Tune
7 7
The Fifth Tune The Sixth Tune
g> V (7 & & & 0
The Seventh Tune The Eighth Tune
With these examples and the preceding dialogue, Morley
concludes the only discussion concerning mode or key found
within the text of his treatise. However, aware that the mat
ter is not very clear, or perhaps to conform with the modal
tradition of continental theory with which he is
5Morley, p. 146.
307
well acquainted, Morley adds further explanation of the matter,
and thus gives support to. the emphasis placed on the knowing
and keeping of the key. He gives this explanation in the "anno
tations" to the third book of his treatise, which the reader is
advised to omit until he has finished the study of the text
itself.
Turning to these annotations, we find that Morley gives
an exposition of the "tunes" or "modi musici," following Gla-
rean almost verbatim, with a resume from the latter* s account
of both the eight and twelve mode systems as they are found in
the first and second books of the Dodecachordon. He states
here, again, that the eight tunes given earlier are "not the
true and essential forms" of the modes or keys, but the forms
of giving the tunes to the psalms in the church.6 Morley con
cludes his review of the exposition of the modes from Glarean’s
treatise with the following remarks;
And thus much for the twelve tunes, which if any

man desire to know more at large, let him read the sec
ond and third books of Glareanus, his Dodecachordon,
the fourth book of Zaccone, his practise of music, and
the fourth part of Zarlino, his harmonlcall institu
tions, where he may satisfy his desire at full, for with
the dielp of this which here is set down, he may under
stand easily all which is there handled, . . .
6It is possible Morley means the Psalms of the Anglican

church which explains why there is so little resemblance between
his "eight tunes" and the psalm tones or other formulae observed
under the 8-mode system of the early theorists. For, with the
change from Catholicism to the Anglican church, the liturgy and
music were changed and adapted to the service of the new church.
^Thomas Morley, A Plain and Easle Introduction to Prac

tical Music (1597), ed.l^y Alec Harman (London, 1952},
I
308
In Morley's discussion of key or tune, certain basic
facts are made clear. First, there is an emphasis on the ne
cessity for keeping "the aire in which you begin your song."
Second, in spite of this necessity, Morley does not give a
rule for keeping of the key, but says it must be left to the
composer's judgment. But, aware of his inconsistency, and
perhaps with some concern for the amateur for whom he is wri
ting, he sets the "eight tunes" as a guide, at the same time

'j
stating that these are only the "substance" or "shadow" of
the "ancient Modi. " Finally, Morley shows that he feels an
obligation to his reader concerning the modes, both because
of their historical importance to musical development and
their established position in theory-. Therefore, in the anno
tations to his text he gives the detailed exposition of the
"ancient Modi" according to a foreign treatise.
It is to be noted that Morley never really explains
what he means by tune, key, or mode, all of which terms are
used in his discussion, presumably to refer to tonality. Nei
ther does he give any conclusive information concerning the
status of the modal system and its use in English music at
this time. The fact that Morley does not subscribe to the mo
dal system, as it is found in continental theory of the 16th
century, may be deduced from his reference to the modes as
the "ancient modi" and further, from his relegation of an ex
position of the system to the annotations to his text.
"Annotations to the Third Part," p. 304. This is the only

reference to this edition of Morley's treatise.
309
From all the evidence given above it is possible to
draw several conclusions concerning the tonal system, both in
relation to Morley's treatise, and also as it may be found in
the musical practice of his time. It was not possible for
theorists to give a satisfactory definition, nor to clarify
the matter of key or mode for this period. This is clear, not
only in the treatises of Morley and other English theorists,

Q
but also in the continental treatises of the same period.0
Tonality was in a state of transition, the modes gradually be
ing superseded by the major-minor scale system of classical
tonality. Morley himself, a composer of the first rank, must
have perceived instinctively— that the old modes were no long
er a satisfactory tonal basis for the music of the time, either
his own, or that of other composers. On the other hand, the
concepts of a new tonal system and the relations of tones
within that system were not yet clarified to a point where
they could be formulated and described in terms that were both
suitable and adequate for defining such a tonal system. There
fore, Morley treats the matter casually, and correctly leaves
^However, in the continental treatises, as already

observed, the modal tradition persisted until the close of
the 17th century. In contrast, with the exception of Morley's
treatment in the manner described, the subject of the modes
is never given any serious attention in the English treatises.
Q
It to tne instinct or Judgment of the composer. A study of
the music of Morley and his contemporaries supports this con
clusion.^0
Since Morley is so indefinite concerning key Itself,
it is not surprising to find him equally so on the change of
key or tune. Within his text there are only two specific re
ferences to the subject. The first has already been mentioned,
at least in part, in the conversation about key between Philo-
mathes and his master. The latter has pointed out, in one of
his pupil's examples, that he has gone out of the key, and
calls it one of the "grossest faults." When Philomathes
presses for an explanation of the meaning of "going out of the
key," the master replies as follows;
The leaving of that key wherein you did begin, and

ending in another, . , .for every key hath a peculiar
ayre proper unto itself, so that if you go into another
then that wherein you begun, you change the alre of the
song, which is, as much as to wrest a thing out of his
nature, . .
SRobert Stevenson, "Thomas Morley's 'Plalne and Easie1

Introduction to the Modes," Muslca Disclpllna, VI (1952), Pas. 4,
179-184, believes the indifference of Corley to modes, in con
trast to the attitude of continental theorists, is evidence
that modal science was not stressed in England. He says that
support for this may be found in Tudor church compositions
which show a use of "tones," rather than the tonal schemes of
composers such as Festa, Lassus, and Palestrina.
10(jompositions by Morley and his contemporaries are easi

ly accessible in the English Madrigal School, Ed. by E. H.
Fellowes, 36 vols. 1914-24. See ’especially, vols. II and IV
(Morley), vol. VII (Wilbye), vol. XI (Weelkes). Also see
Tudor Church Music, Ed. by P. C. Buck, et al. 10 vols., 1922-29,
especially vol. It (Byrd); and vol. IV (Gibbons).
llMorley, Plalne and Easie Introduction, Facs. Ed. with

Introduction by E. H. Fellowes, 193V, p. 146.
311
A second reference to change of key occurs at the close
of this same paragraph. After mentioning G-larean's book for
the explanation of these modes, Morley concludes his discus
sion as seen in the paragraph below;
. . . and though the ayre of every key be different

one from the other, yet some love (by a wonder of na
ture) to be Joyned to others so that if you begin your
song in G-am-ut, you may conclude either in C fa-ut or
D sol-re, and from thence come again to G-am-ut; like
wise if you begin your song in D sol-re, you may end in
A-re and come again to D sol-re.
In this brief discussion of key-change, two things
stand out; First, Morley considers change of key unnatural
and evidently believes it should be avoided especially by the
beginning composer. Second, it is obvious that he recognizes
the existence of a natural affinity between keys a fourth and
fifth apart, such as G- to G, or to D, and again, D to A, in
both cases emphasizing a return to the initial key. It is not
clear, however, whether Morley considers this within the frame
work of the modes or whether in terms of the later key system,
since both interpretations are possible. On the one hand,
within the modal system the fourth and fifth above the final
were readily admitted as cadence points within the modal com
pass.13 On the other hand, an examination of Morley*s music
shows that the affinity of a tonal center with its two
l2Morley, p. 146.
13
■L That is, as the confinals of the regular modes.
312
dominants is a principle frequently utilized for contrast.14
It may be concluded that, as in the case of tonality, the
principles involved in change of hey had not been formulated
to the point of verbalization by the theorists. Therefore,
as in connection with "hey," except for a word of caution to
the amateur, and a tacit recognition of the practice, Morley
leaves the matter of change of hey to the instinctive judgment
of the composer.
The precedent established by Morley, in a worh whose
purpose was to acquaint the amateur with the elements of musi
cal science, is followed by the authors of the "instruction"
boohs of the 17th century. Beyond this fact, further compari
son between Morley and his successors is unprofitable. With
M o n e y ' s treatise, at least in England, an era of theoretical
thinhing and writing is brought to a close. In the first im
portant theoretical worh published in 17th century England,
new concepts of hey and hey relationship are immediately
apparent, and as was pointed out at the beginning of this
14p0r example, see Thomas Mo r l e y ; First Booh of Madri

gals to Four Voices, #'s 1 and 2; and, First Book of Balletts
for Five V o i c e s , #'s 3 and 4. These are Vols. II a n d ”!V of
The English Madrigal School, ed. by Fellowes (1914-24). For
further discussion on the problem of modal vs. tonal scales,
and tonality in general in English Music of this Period, see
especially R. 0. Morris, Contrapuntal Technique in the 16th
Century (London, 1922), p. 6b; and, G-ustave Reese, ~Muslc In
the Renaissance (New Yorh, 1954), Chs. 15 and 16. Other "stu
dies on English Music are listed in the bibliography.
313
chapter, rapidly become the accepted tradition, completely re
placing that of the modal system.15
Thomaa Campion and Hla "New Waye"1 6
Underlining the importance of the knowledge of key,
Thomaa Oampion begin8 his discusaion "Of the Tone of Muslcke"
w i t h the following explanation:
Of all thinga that belong to the making of a Musi-

tlon, the most necesaary and usefull for h i m is the true
knowledge of the key or Moode, or Tone, for all signifie
the same thing, w i t h the closes belonging unto it, for
there is no tune that can have any grace or sweetnesae,
unlesse it b e bounded within a proper key, without run
ning into atrange keyes which have no affinity with the
aire of the song. I have therefore thought good in an
easie and brlefe discourse to endeavour to expresse
that, w hich many in large and obscure volumes have made
fearefull to the idle Header.17
In his explanation of key, Campion demonstrates the di
vision of the octave into the 4th and 5th and, in the
15The first English treatise of the 17th century was

actually Thomas R a v e n s c r o f t 1s A Brlefe Discourse . . . Of
this Pulver says that "it gives the sum "of theoretical know
ledge of the Middle Ages as formalized in the 16th century."
(Jeffrey Pulver, "The English Theorists; XII, Thomas
Ravenscroft," MT 75*125, (1934).
15Campion, Complete W o r k s , Ed. by Percival Vivian

(Oxford, 1909). Vivian gives the date for the original as
ca. 1617. For further discussion, see B u k o f z e r ‘s facs. ed.
o7 Cooperario's Rules Ho w to Compose (Los Angeles, 1952),
p. 18. Colles calls C a mpion1s work a "really elementary trea
tise on composition," and says that it represents a definite
step in the development of modern concepts of tonality and
key relation. The "new way" is the calculation of harmonies
up from the bass, in which Campion reveals a harmonic v i e w
point instead of a contrapuntal one. (H. C. Colles, P M A ,
55th session, p. 31.)
17Campion, W o r k s , p. 214. The reference to "obscure
volumes" is not clear, but possibly they are the continental
treatises mentioned by Morley.
314
traditional manner, shows two arrangements of the intervals.
The first, with 4th above and 5th below, is called Modus
A ut h e n t u s : the second, with the position of the intervals re
versed, is the Modus P l a g a l l s .
Figure 15. The Division of the Octave. (Campion, p. 213.)
FI* - /3 N. t> . *i
w. 0,1 cS * / 7h t V 11) \9 * -t. . th ........
1 I/IF v ^ .. J Tn# #\ n' * ..
O ^
»
Jfh * V
' V* 1
th e a
*
-W i
1. Modus A u t h e n t u s . 2. Modus Plagalis.
However, that this ho longer has its traditional importance
may be observed as Campion continues; . . but howsoever
the fourth in the eight is placed, wee must have our eye on "Ghe
flft, for that onely discovers the key, and all the closes per
taining properly thereunto,"^®
Campion demonstrates h o w the fifth may be divided into
two thirds, a greater and a lesser and, as with the octave,
two arrangements of the thirds within the 5th are possible.
These may be compared in the examples below, of which the first
has the lesser third above, the greater third below, and the
second reverses the position of the two intervals.
ISCanrplon, Works, p. 214.
515
Figure 16. The Division of the Fifth. (Campion, p. 214.)
*
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---
---
---
---
---
---
-1?tJ*€—lc&5ie r- 3>-tl -----------------
-
---
--
Irrespective of the arrangement of its thirds, however, "The
lowest note of this flft, beares the name of the Key, ..."
and thus, in connection with the examples, ". . . if one should
demaund in what key your song is set, you must answere in
G-amut, or G- sol-re-ut, that is in G-. This same principle is
observed in a second example in which the fifth has the upper
position in the octave;
If the compasse of your song shall fall

out thus; Respect not the fourth below, but
V-. /i H
looke to your fift above, and the lowest Note
of that flft assume for your key, which is C, V
then you shall finde out all the closes that
belong to that key.20
Having demonstrated the manner in which key itself is
to be determined, Campion turns his attention to the related
probl e m of the closes of the key. As he has already Indicated,
these are determined by the manner in which the fifth is divi
ded. If the lesser third is below, the greater above, the
closes are defined as follows; The main or fundamental close
Is in the key itself, and it is this close which maintains the
"air" of the key and i3 therefore used most often. The second
19Campion, Works, p. 214.
20L o c . clt.
316
close is in the upper note of the fifth, and the third is in
the upper note of the lowest third. These are illustrated be
l ow in the key of G with B flat.
Example 67, Closes Permitted to & With the Fifth in Arithmetic

Division. (Campion, p, 214,)
7T J--------— ^ ----- ---- ■- ^— —-=

--- AA / fti ■■0 — —=------- -----------
— “— 0 ------ 77 " 0 -------
* p «.-/ — e —
S j l ---------- f f l —_— ------------ 1----
—
/’
t lit
— ■ ■
*■ tO --------- 0 — ' i. a
— ------------------
z e — — \— :---------- ------ d --------- 0 ------
If the position of the thirds is reversed, only two
closes are really proper, one in the lowest note of the fifth,
the key Itself, the other in the uppermost note of the fifth.
Nevertheless, Campion says that for v a r i e t y ’s sake two other
closes may be permitted. Thus, he explains; "3ut if the key
should be in G. with B, sharpe, then the last close being to
be made in the greater or sharpe third is unproper, and there
fore for variety sometime the next key above is joyned with it,
wh i c h is A, and sometimes the fourth key, which is C."23-
Campion gives examples of both of the closes which he has said
may be used for variety in a sharp key. These are taken from
two beginnings of Songs.^2
^ C a m p i o n , Works, p. 215. The term "b sharp” may be

v iewed as a remnant of the modal distinction of b natural as
"hard" or "square" B. Here its use is misleading for Campion
means b natural, the opposite of b flat. Thus & with b sharp
means the key of G major; G with b flat is g minor.
^Campion, Works, p. 216.
317
Example 68. The Closes in the Key of G with B Sharp.

(Campion, pp. 215-216.)
At r~f *# l J -P-.f-r *
* T~°-
— H-|- * t r z
-n: r 1* f 1* o
±=4r~-k r1-H-
m
.. :c=
H -+ : ■' -
— p— p-
-q: *
- M — U-L- 0 u * f *---- ....
From the preceding examination of the "Tone of M u s i c k e , "
in Campion* s treatise, it is obvious that the author never pro-
jects a "system" of scales or m o d e s . F o r him, "Key, or
Moode, or Tone" all signify the same thing. The terms and
illustrations used by Campion, to show h o w a key and its closes
are determined, are "borrowed" from modal theory.2^ Neverthe
less, in spite of the evidence or lack of it, it is clear that
the "Tones of Musicke" which Campion describes belong to the
system later known as the classical system of tonality. The
properties of the major key are demonstrated in the division
2^That is, in the sense that Morley gives the "8 Tunes"
w i t h each representing one of the eight modes of the "ancient"
system, or as the twelve modes of continental theory examined
by Morley in his annotations.
24That is, the division of the octave, and the 5th, and
the terms modus authentus and modus plaga l l s . It is possible
that Morley is Campion's Immediate”source.
318
of the 5th which places the major 3rd below and the minor
above; and likewise, the properties of the minor key are real
ized in the 5th which reverses the original position of the
two 3rds; the key in both cases being named from the lowest
tone of the 5th.
Campion does not mention the subject of modulation nor
does he discuss the change of key as such in his treatise.
However, it is apparent that key change or “mixture" is de
monstrated in practice in the illustrations of the closes re
lated to a given key, and that the principles of harmonic mo
dulation must be understood by Campion, even though not
formulated in his treatise. Such a conclusion receives sup
p o r t from several references found in his discussion of keys
and their closes.
The first of these is found in the paragraph in which
Campion, considering the closes for the key of G with B sharp
says that "for variety sometimes the next key above is Joyned
w i t h it, which is A. and sometimes the fourth key which is C."
(See p. 316.) A second reference to these closes in a sharp
k e y is found in the same paragraph; "... but these changes

25
of keyes must be done with judgement, ..." Finally, hav
ing given an illustration of the changes mentioned above,
(see p. 317, Example 68) Campion says of them* "In the first
example A. is mixt with G. and in the second C. is joyned with
25Camplon, Works, p. 215.
319
G. as you may understand by the second closes of b o t h , 1,25 The
words "joyned" and "mixed," and the expression "changes of
key" are all aptly used to show that Campion has in mind, more
t han a recognition of alternate cadence points within a given
key. They indicate that h e recognizes change or movement from
one clearly defined tonal.region to another. And, though the
examples given by Campion in connection w i t h the above discus
sion are inconclusive, nevertheless, they illustrate modulation
just as surely as the terms which are used to describe it de
fine the practice,.
There is evidence that Campion recognizes one of the b a
sic principles involved in modulation, that of the way in which
k e y s are related. His understanding of this- factor may be ob
served in the concluding paragraph to his examination of the
closes in the sharp keys.
But for the other keyes that divide the fift, so

that it hath the lesser third above, and the greater
underneath, they can challenge but two proper closes,
one in the lowest Note of the flft which is the funda
mental! key, and the other in the uppermost Note of the
same wherein also you may close at pleasure. True it
is that the key next above hath a great affinity with
the right key, and may therefore as I said before be
used, as also the fourth key above the finall key.27
A final illustration in Campion's treatise gives support
to the conclusions stated above concerning his understanding of
key change. Contrary to what he has repeatedly stated, that a
26Campion, W o r k s , p. 216.
27I b l d . , p. 216.
320
key with the greater third b e l o w (therefore a major key) clo
ses improperly in the upper note of this third, he gives an
example of which he says, ". . . yet have I aptly closed in
the upper Note of the lowest third of the key, the key being
in P. and the upper Note of the third standing in A. as you
may perceive in this A i r e ; 1,88
Example 69. "Aire" Showing Exceptional Close in the Upper

Third of a Sharp Key. (Campion, p. 216.)
pw.- (•
— :-1
,. -i~7~ [»-i , l1 -
'w- 7ivr lJ i
~p: h - * n
*
Ti i_' * *
* * '1 "
i i i
--- =!-A-H— i-- 0
— T ?— 1-- ----- h-- T ~ T
- -- ---
£ i Z
.
^ -* ."!|:.. I
. - x r ' n
_ _ _ _ 3.
_
jpP i
; } • ■■ if s J~1 •
6
-z T f.. f | CT7.
1
1
---- r j ----- 4 ------ r - + - , .fr-— «— t- til--------— :—
y * j *— r+—
.i). ■ -v -.p r r j- i r - ; -■
Accompanying this example, there is a clear analysis of the
changes involved;
In this aire the first close is in the upper note

of the fift which from P. is C., the second close is in
the upper note of the great third, which from F. is A.
But the last and flnall close is in the key ltselfe,
wh ich is P. as it must ever be, wheresoever your hey
shall stand, either in G-. or C. or P. or elsewhere, the
same rule of the fift is perpetuall, . . ,29
28Campion, W o r k s , p. 216.
29I b i d , , p. 217.
321
Campion obviously believes that in this example he is
demonstrating a change of key which is contrary to the princi
ple expressed above (that it is "unproper" for a key with a
sharp 3rd to close in this 3rda,, see p. 316), and this he has
done "aptly." It is curious that he fails to see that here
his connection is not F with a, but rather C with a, and that
this is a perfectly logical progression based on simple harmo
nic relations already demonstrated— that of a hey to its fifth,
then to its relative minor, and finally a return to the initial
key. The illustration is long enough to give convincing evi
dence of change of key. At the same time Caiipion's analysis
is quite in keeping with the developments of harmonic science
which, up to this time, have not yet reached the point where
they can be succinctly formulated and stated as theoretical
principles.
In the years immediately following the publication of
Campion's treatise, the active musical life of England ceased
and remained dormant until the close of the Puritan rule under
Cromwell. For, the Puritans were severe in their condemnation
of artistic activity, and more specifically of music. More
over, the royal establishments which ha d stimulated and sup
ported musical growth for over a century were either banished
from England, or were forced to carry on the restricted mode
of living necessary under Puritan rule. At best, such condi
tions were unpropritious to significant progress in either the
practise or science of music. Thus, it is not surprising
322
that, with the single exception of Charles Butler's Principles
of Music50 (1636), no theoretical work made its appearance
from the time of Campion's Ne w Waye . ., . ca. 1617, until the
y e a r 1654, which saw publication of the first edition of John
Playford's Introduction to the Skill of Music.51
The purpose of this volume published by P l a y f o r d was
undoubtedly an attempt to reestablish the tradition of musical
instruction for the amateur, begun by Morley in 1597, In this
it succeeded, if the number of editions which followed this
first one at regular intervals for 'a full half century, is any
criteria,5 ^ Nevertheless, the first edition of Playford, that
of 1654, has no value for the present study. It is a short
w o r k comprising three distinct sections, but in none of them
30ln Butler's Principles of M u s i c , the material on key

a n d close is virtually tfie same as in Campion's treatise, though
somewhat less clearly explained. He recognizes the division-of
the fifth into two thirds, according to which the keys are dis
tinguished, and discusses and illustrates the closes permitted
to the keys in a manner similar to Campion,
51H. C. Colles, "Seventeenth Century Instruction Books,"

FMA, 55th Session (1928), pp. 31-49, gives the 1655 edition as
the first. However, the N, Y, Public Library, w h i c h owns a
complete set of the P l a y f o r d editions, shows the 1654 edition
as the first. Correspondence referring to this matter is
attached to the flyleaves of the copy, and completely validates
the authenticity of this as the first edition,
^ P l a y f o r d claims this Introduction is a "more plaine

a n d easy method" and justifies his claim in contrast to Morley,
wh o loses sight of the amateur for w h o m he is writing, and
whose work, as a result, is neither plain nor easy. (Colles,
p, 32,) Beginning w i t h the 1655 edition as the first, Colles
gives the complete list of these which includes eighteen with
the final one dated 1730, In the correspondence mentioned in
connection with the NYPL edition of 1654, there are listed
nineteen editions from 1654 to 1730.
323
is there given any information on tonality or modulation coro-
parahle to that found in C ampion’s New Ways.
In 1655, playford issued another edition w h i c h contains
the whole of Campion's treatise with annotations by Christopher
Simpson. In spite of the changes which these annotations would
seem to imply, in this and subsequent editions until near the
close of the century, the material on key and closes remains
virtually the same as in Campion's own treatise. In 1667, the
first edition of Simpson's treatise, A Compendium of Practical
M u s i c , was published. Though it shows the influence of his
acquaintance with Campion's treatise, it makes a unique contri
bution to our knowledge of the manner in which the principles
of the classical tonal system developed in English theory.
Key and Close in Sympson's Compendium35
The subject of key or tone is first introduced to the
reader in the second part of this treatise where Sympson con
siders the matter in relation to composition.
Every Composition in Music, be it long or short,

ought to be designed to some one Key or Tone in which
the Bass must always conclude. A Key is said to be
either Plat or Sharp; not in respect of Itself; but in
3 3Christopher Sympson, A Compendium, or Introduction to

Practical Music (London, 1667). "As with the Playf o r d Introduc
t i o n , tEere are several editions of this work. For this dis
cussion two different ones were collated; The first edition,
1667, obtained on microfilm from the NYPL, and the third edi
tion, 1678, owned by the Carnegie Library of Oberlln College,
Oberlin Ohio. The references in this discussion are to pages
in the 1678 edition. The Division Violist (1659), an earlier
work by Sympson (in LC), has almost the same material as the
above on key and closes.
324
relation to its Third. To distinguish this, you are

first to consider its Fifth, which consists always of a
lesser and a greater Third, as you see in those two in
stances [i.e. the figures below], the Key being in &.34
In giving the illustration of this, Sympson divides the fifth
above the tone G> in the same manner as Campion, explaining it
as follows: "If the lesser third be in the lower place next
to the Key, then is the Music said to be set in a Flat Key.
But if the greater third stand next to the Key as it does in
the second Instance, then the Key is called Sharp.1,35
Figure 17. Division of the Fifth. (Sympson, p. 23.)
V 'fg ~ ( r H a t e r Si-4- V <2 Lesser 3i-d:

----- $— i. c - fS - e - i — d W .- ---*
Concluding his discussion of the Key or Tone, Sympson illus
trates the common keys in use at this time, again preceding it
with an explanation of his diagram. He says of these;
I will shew you this Flat and Sharp third applied

to the Key in all the usual places of an Octave; to
which may be referred such as are less usual; for how
ever the Key be placed, it must always have its 5th di
vid e d according to one of these two ways; and consequent
ly, must be either a Flat or a Sharp key.36
34Sympson, p. 22.
55ibid. , p. 23.
56xbid., p. 23.
325
Figure 18. The Usual "Flat and Sharp" Keys. (Sympson, p. 23.)
Flat Sharp Flat Sharp Flat Sharp Flat Sharp

■■"V* —p t -
--- o p ----- —
w n* II ....... r."
Flat 'Sharp Flat Sharp Flat Sharp

— ---y — ■-O- ---- 7r-°- -- TfTD— ^ — ---- — "--
■=&- 0 0 - j * * — ---rr-“ --- - r r ^ --------------- . a ■
L 0
---------- IL— 27-kc-- LzrJUd ---
It is obvious that in respect to Key or Tone, Sympson
shoxirs a distinct advance over Campion; first, in his clear de
finition of two types, i.e. the flat or sharp; and second, in
his projection of a system of Keys represented by the tones of
the octave which are "the usual places" where the key is pe r
mitted. However, for an explanation of the prevailing tonality
of his period, he is not much more helpful than Campion. He
neither defines the terms key or tone, nor distinguishes be
tween them, and moreover, he says nothing of the'extent or com
pass of a Key, Tone, or Moode. On the other hand, in the third
section of his treatise, there is a chapter "Of the Three
Scales of Music" which may help to clarify the p r oblem of pre
vailing tonality according to Sympson1s treatise.
In the chapter mentioned, Sympson defines and illustrates
three types of scales v/hich he calls Soala Diatonlca, Scala
Cromatica, and Scala Enharmonica. O f the diatonic scale,
illustrated below, Sympson says;
^ D i s c u s s i o n of the Scala Enharmonica, which Sympson

says has no value for practical music, is omitted since it
does not offer any clarification of the problem of scale.
326
The Diatonic Scale is that which rises to a fifth

by three Tones and a Semitone? and from thence to the
eighth by two Tones and one Semitone. . . . This is (in
effect) the old Grecian Scale, consisting of four Tetra-
chords or Fourths extending to a double Octave; which
Guido . . . changed into the form in which it now is;
setting this Greek letter (Gamma) as the bottom of it,
to acknowledge from whence he had it; and this (for its
general use) is now called the Common Scale of Music.3°
Figure 19. The Diatonic Scale. (Sympson, p. 47.)

'5th 4th
Of the Cromatic Scale, w h ich he illustrates next, he says;
"It rises to a fifth by a tone and five Semitones; and from
thence proceeds to an eighth by five Semitones m o r e . 1,39
Figure 20. The Cromatic Scale. (Sympson, p. 47.)
5th 4th
)- - \- \ : „-------- a
— C X I __ —__ 1 w . - j ____ i______ |________u
Sympson explains that this is not the usual method of setting'
the Cromatic scale, but he has done so believing it to be more
simple for the amateur for its use in practical music. He
points out that the chromatic signs, formerly belonging to B
only, are applied to all the notes of the diatonic scale.
Such music w h ich moves in semitones is "commonly called
38Sympson, p. 47. The origin of the diatonic scale as

Sympson describes it is, of course, purely hypothetical.
59I b l d . , p. 47.
327
cromatic m u s i c , 11 In conclusion, Sympson gives his opinion of
the two scales described.
Now, as to my Opinion concerning our common Scale

of Music; taking it w i t h its mixture of the Chromatic;
I think it lies not in the wit of Man to frame a better,
as to all Intents and Purposes for Practical Music,
And, as for those little Dissonances (for so I call
them, for want of a better Eord to express them) the
fault is not in the Scale, whose Office and Design is
no more than to denote the Distances of the Concords
and Discords, according to the Lines and Spaces of which
it does consist; and to shew by what Degrees of Tones
and Semitones a Voice may rise or Pall,50
The result of the preceding examination of Key and
Scale in Sympson's treatise is basically the same as that
found in connection with our examination of Key, Tone, or
"Moode" in Campion's xyork. Likewise, the interpretation given
to these results is basically the same. Evidence for the exis
tence of the classical system of tonality in practice is un
questioned, and while the theoretical demonstration of this is
convincing, Sympson, like Campion, is still at a loss to formu
late the principles c l e a r l y . H o w e v e r , it is obvious that in
Sympson's flat and sharp keys there is implied the major-minor
scale system limited in number of keys, to be sure, by the
^Sympson, p.‘ 49.
41That is it would be difficult to project the major

scale with its two equal tetrachords, or the natural minor,
on Sympson's "diatonic" and "cromatic" scales. Though he dis
cusses the sol-fa system derived from the old hexachord (which
in English theory has become an eight-tone system even before
the beginning of the 17th century), he does not connect this
w i t h scale. Further, Sympson never connects either the scales
or the sol-fa system to key or tone in any way.
528
inadequacies of the prevailing temperament. At the same time,
h is recognition of the "common scale of music" formed from the
combination of the diatonic and chromatic scales, leads to the
surmise that the major and minor scales were the two most com
mon forms of the mixture. Further support for these ideas may
be found in Sympson's treatise, in his explanation of the
Closes or Cadences.
In considering the proper closes or cadences belonging
to the flat and sharp keys, Sympson is concise. To determine
the proper closes, he states that it is necessary to consider
again the fifth and its two thirds, for "upon them depends the
Air of every Composition; they serving as Bounds or Limits
wh i c h keep the Music in due decorum. 1,42 Synpson explains the
closes for the flat key first:
Of these, the chief and principal is the Key Itself,

in which (as hath been said) the Bass must always con
clude; and this may be used also for a middle Close near
the beginning of a Song, if one think fit. The next in
dignity, is the fifth above; and the next after that the
third. In these three places middle Closes may properly
be made, when the Key is flat.43
They are demonstrated in the following bass;
42Synpson, p. 23.
43Ibid., p. 24.
329
Example 70. Closes Proper to a Plat Key. (Sympson, p. 24.)
-f* r° 1 . - C ■~ Vi -*>— t—
UjJ — —&— LI - ^ 4
Ke 5 th 3rd Key
Turning to the closes in the sharp key, Sympson again explains
first and then illustrates with a bass similar to the preced
ing, as follows;
But if the Bass be set in a sharp Key; then it is

not so proper, nor easy, to make a middle Close or Ca
dence to end upon the Sharp third and therefore (in
stead thereof) we commonly make use of the fourth or
second above the Key for middle Closes.44
Example 71. Closes Proper to a Sharp Key, (Sympson, p. 24.)
-i&r* — * -----& -- .1.

V
— 7T,--
■
-7,
i
V - < ..» ■ .
it- p M I * ■ i-
5 th 2nd K ey
<<J
4th
CD
Unlike Campion, Sympson takes for granted that the
reader will understand that the sharp key, like the flat, may
close in the key itself and its fifth. Further, it may be
p o i n t e d out, that while Campion says "sometime a key may close
in its second and fourth above the key," (see quotation,
p. 316) Sympson considers these common closes. The fact that
the key and closes demonstrated are to serve as models for
all the other keys is po i n t e d out in the concluding statement
to Sympson'e discussion: "Thus you see what Closes belong to
the Key, both flat and sharp; and by these two Examples set
44Sympson, p. 24.
330
in G-, you may know what is to be done, though the Key be re
moved to any other Letter of the Scale."4®
Sympson, unlike Campion, never mentions such words as
"joyned" or "mixed" in connection with the closes, neither
does h e mention "changes of keys," nor consider the problem
of key relation. Nevertheless, even though the examples given
are inconclusive for an adequate demonstration if key change,
modulation in a limited sense is inherent in these short
basses. They demonstrate that Sympson, like Campion, under
stood the affinity between a key and its closest constituents,
i.e. the two dominants and the relative minors.46 Finally,
the fact that Sympson recognized the use of the principles of
key relation as a formal device in music is apparent in his
description of the various types of Instrumental compositions.
As a conclusion to the study of Sympson1s Compendium, excerpts
from his discussion of instrumental music are quoted below.
An examination of these will give further evidence of Sympson's
understanding of modulation as used in the musical practice
of his time.
All Music concludes in the Key of its Composition;

w hich is known by the Bass, as hath been shewn. This
Key has always other Keys proper to it for middle Clo
ses. If your Pavan (or what else) be of three Strains,
the first Strain may end in the Key of the Composition,
45Sympson, p. 24.
4®That Sympson recognized other connections as well may

b e seen in the following; "True it is, that a skilful compo
ser may (for variety) carry on his Music (sometimes) to make
a middle Close or Cadence in any Key." (Sympson, p. 24.)
331
as the last does; but the middle Strain must always

end in the Key of the Middle Close.
Sometimes the first Strain ends in a middle Close;

and then the middle Strain must end in some other mid
dle Close: for two Strains following immediately one
another, ought not to end in the same Key. The reason
thereof is obvious; to wit, the ending still in the same
Key, doth reiterate the Air too much; and different end
ings produce more variety. Therefore when there are but
two Strains, let the first end in a middle Close that
bot h Strains may not end alike.4 ”
Playford' s Introduction to the Skill of Music
Between the appearance of Campion's New VTaye and
Sympson's Compendium, several of the early editions of John
Playford's Introduction were published. In this work it was
evidently Playford's intention to offer an easily understood
manual for the instruction of the musical amateur in the essen
tials of theoretical knowledge, and as pointed out earlier,
Playfo r d succeeded very well in accomplishing this purpose.
Though the first edition (1654) contains no material relevant
to the matter of tonality or modulation, in the edition of
1655, a discussion of key and its closes is found in two sec
tions of the work. In the first part, this is given by
Playford himself, and in the third part the treatment is that
found in Campion's treatise with Sympson's annotations. How
ever, the discussions of key and close in both sections are
identical with that found in Campion's original treatise
(ca. 1617), considered in detail earlier in this chapter
4?3ympson, p. 74.
332
(see pp. 313-323).48
With the edition of 1687, the Introduction to the Skill
of M u s i c , p ublished for almost half a century by John Playford,
appears for the first time under the name of his son, Henry,
following the death of his father in 1686. Beginning with- the
editions of the last decade of the 17th century, the work gives
evidence of the influence of the ideas of a new editor, the
composer Purcell, particularly in the alterations which appear
w i t h regard to the subjects of "key and its c l o s e s , 1,49 These
changes are first clearly apparent in the edition of 1697 in
which, though Playford's own ideas in the first part of the
w o r k remain the same as before, the third part edited by
Purcell already shows new developments in regard to tonality
and modulation.59 In subsequent editions of P l a y f o r d 1s
Introduction, the changes on "key and close" initiated by
Purcell appear in both the first and third parts of the work,
and thus it is in these editions that we may expect to find
48Colles says that "the crucial change in the make-up

of the 'Introduction' arrived in the tenth edition of 1683.11
In this edition, Playford evidently felt Campion's treatise
to be out of date, and replaced it with a section called "Art
of Descant," so that the entire work now seems to be that of
Playf o r d himself. (H. C. Coiles, "Seventeenth Century In
struction Books," P M A , 55th session, p. 37.)
49According to Coiles, the first edition giving Purcell

as editor is that of 1694 (or the 12th), in w h ich the major
change was the rewriting of the 3rd section of the work.
50W. Barclay Squire, "Purcell as Theorist," SIM

V I ; 521, says, "A comparison of the various editions of Play-
ford's Introduction to the Skill of M u s i c , particularly the
11th through the l3tH7 ah'ows considerable change in Purcell's
theoretical thinking,"
333
the most complete discussion of tonality and modulation in
17th century English theory.
In the first part of the 1702 edition, the subject of
tonality is introduced in a chapter entitled; "Of the Several
Keys of Mustek; . . ,"51 preceding this, Playford has de
fined the sharps and flats, and now at the beginning of this
chapter he instructs the reader that several alterations of
Key are produced by the placing of the sharps and flats at the
beginning of the five lines. Key itself is defined as follows;
"A Key is a Song or Tune depending on a sound given, as a
Sermon does on a Text, and, when it ends, it gives such a satis
faction to the ear, that nothing more is expected after and no
more depending on it."5 ^
While we are told that the Key must always be named in
reference to the bass, it is clear that a problem arises in
the fact that a song may begin in the Key Itself, likewise in
the third or fifth degrees above this Key. Therefore, a new
rule must be given which is that the key is to be judged from
the bass at the end of the song. Playford says that there are
only two keys in music, viz. the one flat, the other sharp.
On this point, Purcell agrees in his discussion of Key in the
3rd part of the treatise. However, contrary to P l a y f o r d 1s
^ P l a y f o r d , p. 22. The discussion in the remainder of

this chapter is based on the 1702 edition of Playford as b e
ing the first to show in all parts of the work, the new ideas
on tonality and modulation credited to Purcell.
52Playford, p. 22.
334
rule, he explains that the flat and sharp keys are determined,
not in relation to the first or last note of a piece of music,
but in relation to the type of third found above that note.
As did the earlier theorists, Purcell explains further that in
order to determine the key of a piece, you must examine wheth
er the third above the key be flat or sharp.
Returning to Playford*s discussion, it is clear that
the natural keys are to serve as models. These are the flat
key with no flats or sharps at the beginning, wh i c h is A-re,
and the sharp key with no flat or sharps at its beginning,
which is G fa-ut or G sol fa, of which Playford says; "These
we call the two natural keys, because a song may be set in
either of them without the help of flats or sharps which can
not be done in any other key, but there must be either flats
or sharps placed at the beginning of your five rules or l i n e s . "53
Following this, a summary of the principal keys in use at this
time is given by Playford;
The principal Keys made use of, are as follows;

Gamut flat and sharp, A-re natural and sharp; B-mi natu
ral and Flat; C fa-ut natural and flat; D sol-re natural
and sharp; E la-mi natural and flat and sometimes sharp;
F fa-ut, natural and flat and sometimes sharp. There
may be more thought on to puzzle young Beginners, but
not of any Use, here being Variety enough to please the
Ear.54
Purcell, like Playford, explains the two natural keys,
and then states that all the others may be formed by adding
53Playford, p. 22.
54ibld., p. 24.
535
either flats or sharps. In both parts of this treatise the
beginner is u r g e d to study and to know well the two natural
keys, for then all the rest will come easy. In the first part,
Playford concludes his discussion of the matter by setting a
tune in all the “flat or m e l a ncholy” keys, and another in all
the "natural sharp or cheereful" keys.
In the later editions of Playf o r d as in the Campion
treatise, the discussion of key change is found in connection
w i t h the explanation of the closes or cadences proper to a key.
Following his treatment of key Itself, Purcell turns to a
brief consideration of the closes proper to each type key.
Summarizing from his discussion, the closes are given below:
To a flat key: The principal is the key itself;

the next in dignity, the fifth above; after that the
third and then the seventh above. As in the earlier
treatises, the final close must be in the key itself.
Thus, if your key is a, it may close in E, then C, and
last G, but its first close (in importance) is always
a, the key Itself.
To a sharp key; The key itself is 1st; the 5th

above is next; following this, the sixth above, and the
second above are used as closes. Thus if your key is
C, its preferred close is C, but it may close in G, in
a, and finally in D.55
In the application of the proper closes to the two natu
ral keys as types for the rest, it is fairly clear that in
principle, Purcell demonstrates the relation of the minor and
major keys to those other keys with w h ich they have the great
est affinity. For the minor key, then, the modulations
55L o o . ci t .
536
permitted are from a key to its dominant, to its relative
major, and to the relative major of its dominant. For the
major, they are from the key to the dominant, to the relative
minor, and to the key above the original.5® The relations de
monstrated by Purcell show almost no variation from those in
the earlier English treatises, and at best these indicate modu
lation within a restricted tonal area.5^ Nevertheless,
P u r c e l l ’s inclusion of the two new relations, that of the minor
key with its seventh above, and the major key with its sixth,
shows his awareness of a gradual extension in the field of
tonal relations.
It is obvious that the tonal system under discussion in
English theory is that of the major-minor keys, as opposed to
the old modal system. The evidence found in the earlier trea
tises, i.e. the determination of the Key by the nature of the
third above it, is clearly supported in later writings by the
statement that there are only two keys in music. This is fi
nally clarified by the identification of these two keys, i.e.
the "flat and sharp" keys, with the "natural" keys a and G,
so-called because they are found in these places without the
aid of sharps or flats. From this, it is apparent that the
5®This is called the "supertonic" by one commentator.

However, which relation is intended is not clear— i.e. whether
it is the relative minor of the subdominant, or dominant of
the dominant. The first seems more plausible since in both
Campion and Sympson the 4th and 2nd above the key are given
as closes.
5^That is, restricted by the absence of a temperament

such as E. T. which would permit access from a given key to
all the others.
337
scales on C_ and a may be designated as the major- and minor-
type scales. As such, they become the models for all the
others which may be formed above the remaining tones of the
"common scale of music" w i t h the addition of sharps or flats,
so that above each tone there arises a scale w h i c h corresponds
to either of the two type scales.
It may also be stated that while modulation as a term
does not yet appear in the treatises, the theoretical concept
is revealed by the theorists in their discussion of the various
closes permitted to the keys. The change of key which occurs
by reason of these closes is modulation. The principle on
which this is b a s e d is that of key relation recognized by the
theorists as the affinity of one key to certain others within
its boundaries. Finally, in support of this idea there is a
perception on the part of the theorists that the practice of
key change is necessary for obtaining variety within a compo
sition, and tljius an important element of good form in music.
There is little more of importance that remains to be
said concerning tonality a n d modulation in English theory of
the 17th century. For, it is apparent that by the close of
the century, the modern major-minor system is fully established
in the English treatises. Furthermore, the stabilization of
the key system in both theory and practice, the evidence for
which is clear by the middle of the 17th century, makes possi
ble the clarification of the principles of key relation and
modulation observed in the treatises in the last decade of
338
the century. Finally, it may be stated that the clarity with
w h ich these ideas are expressed in English theory of this
century, especially in Sympson's Compendium, and the Introduc
tion of Playford-Purcell, is found in no other theoretical
work at such an early period. In conclusion, it is clear that
the evidence found'in the study of English theory supports an
observation made earlier; That in the theoretical establish
ment of the major-minor tonal system and the development of
the principles of key-relation and modulation, the English
theorists have advanced beyond their continental contempo
raries.5®
5®0ne of the most important reasons for the difference

between English end Continental theoretical developments on
the subjects under consideration may be attributed to a fact
mentioned earlier, that of the change from Catholicism to the
Anglican church, early in the 16th century. With English re
placing Latin as the language of the service, and the develop
ment of new' forms more suited to the liturgy of the Anglican
service, the older modal system with its traditional formulae
was superseded as a tonal basis for the music. This explains
w h y speculative theory concerning all aspects of modal science
never gained a place in English theory. Further, the nature
of the English treatises suggests that their emphasis on the
practical aspects of music instruction in preference to con
cern with speculative theory was an important factor in the
clarification of tonality and modulation. However, further
discussion of this matter is beyond the scope of this study.
The fact remains that, for the reasons stated as well as for
many others, English theorists of the 17th century achieved a
development of the concepts of major-minor tonality and har
monic modulation not found in continental theory until the
figured-bass treatises of the early 18th century.
339
CHAPTER VII
THE EMERGENCE OF THE MAJOR-MINOR TONAL SYSTEM IN
1 7 TH AND EARLY 18TH CENTURY THEORY
The final stages in the transition from the modes to
the major-minor scales as the tonal basis for music, which may
be observed in the 17th century treatises, is complicated by
several factors. One of the most important of these is the
stubborn persistence of the medieval tradition in musical
thought. In the treatises this may be seen in the fact that
the traditional principles of modal theory, along wit h the
modes themselves, continue to exist side by side with concepts
wh i c h are clearly based on and derived from the newer harmonic
practice.'*' While this factor may be said to permeate every
phase of theoretical science during this period, as we shall
observe in the present chapter, its influence is felt nowhere
to such an extent as in the developments related to the tonal
system.-
A second factor which complicates the clarification of
the new tonal system, and of the harmonic practice based on
this system, is the lack of a terminology adequate for
1 Specific modal elements found even in early 18th cen

tury theory are references to the modes, the older transposi
tions, the species and finals, and the hexachords. Comparing
the contrapuntal teaching based on mode to the newer harmonic
practice, Gehrmann says; "The Universal undivided rule of
counterpoint is shaken £in 17th c.J , the Instruction in
counterpoint must soon come to grips with the teaching of har
mony, by means of which the latter succeeds to the superior
position." (Hermann Gehrmann, "Johann Gottfried Walther als
T h e o r e t i k e r , " VfM VII;468, (1891).)
340
defining and systematizing the principles of the new harmonic
science. It may be pointed out that though the theorists
actually perceived n e w developments in practice in the 16th
century, those who attempted to describe and systematize them
could do so only in terms of the contrapuntal practice with

2
which they were familiar. As we will observe in our study of
the later 17th century treatises, terminology suited to harmon
ic science continues to evolve slowly. This factor remains a
stumbling block to theorists long after the basic harmonic
principles are fully established in practice.
Finally, a third factor which has significance for this
transitional period in theory is that of the increased experi
mentation with interval measurement which led to the develop
ment of the tempered scale. While the inadequacies of the un
tempered tuning were not unrecognized prior to this period,
the attempts to correct these h a d achieved little beyond the
development of a large body of speculative literature concern
ing this matter.3 However, in the 17th century, with
Ûndoubtedly the extension of the modal system, the p re

occupation with irregularities in use of the modes such as the
changes of species to derive the major-type modes, and other
such.devices, are evidence of perception and explanation of
the new developments in practice, in terms of modal science,
given by both G-larean and Zarlino.
3see especially James Hurray Barbour, "Equal Tempera

ment: Its History from Ramis (1482) to Rameau (1737)," unpub.
diss. (Cornell, 1932), and Wilhelm Dupont, G-eschlchte der
Muslkallschen Temperatur (Kassel, 1935) for a study of'the
problems in relation to the historical development of E. T.
a nd a thorough review of all the Important theoretical liter
ature of the 16th-17th centuries connected with the problem.
341
increasing emphasis on the accompanied solo song, and the
evolution of a more truly idiomatic instrumental style, the
difficulties caused by the prevailing system of tuning became
more and more obvious. The result was an increased attention
to these problems but with emphasis on the practical applica
tion of experimental procedures to the keyboard Instruments,
and as mentioned above, the successful evolving of the equal-
tempered system of tuning.
With this Introduction to the most important problems
involved in the clarification of the tonal system in 17th and
early 18th century theory, it is necessary to turn to the trea
tises themselves for further consideration of the matter.
Even a cursory examination of these works reveals immediately
that there is considerable variation in the manner in which
the tonal system is described by the theorists. For this rea
son it has seemed advisable to classify the treatises of the
period concerned into three specific categories. These may
be defined as follows: 1) that in which the works retain the
traditional modal system as the tonal basis for music; 2) that
in which the treatises make a fairly clear distinction between
both tonal systems, according to the specific use of each, and
in some instances give evidence of prejudice in favor of one
or the other; and finally, 5) that containing the figured-bass
treatises in which the major-minor system is defined and un
equivocally accepted as the only tonal basis for the practice
with which these theorists are concerned.
342
Of the three classifications given here, it is apparent
that the theorists represent three different stages in the
transition from the older modal system to the new key system.
The treatises of the first group have already been considered
in some detail earlier in this study.4 Since such works do no
more than summarize modal practice of this time, further dis
cussion of these has no value for the transition from the modes
to the major-minor system at this time. As indicated, the pri
mary concern in this chapter is the final stage in the evolu
tion of the new tonal system in 17th and early 18th century
theory. Therefore, the major emphasis will be placed on the
treatises given in the se'Cond and third categories, where the
most important developments with which we are concerned may
be found.
The Modal System Versus the Tonal System in
17th and Early 18th Century Theory
Properly speaking, among the treatises to be considered
under the second category, the more important are those which
appear toward the end of the century. Nevertheless, there is
a special group of theorists whose works span the 17th century,
and whose contributions to the clarification of tonality cannot
be overlooked. These theorists, whose treatises for the most
4These include: Penna's Li priml albori muslcall (1672),

Bononcinl's I I pratico musico ( 1 5 7 3 } , and Frezza1s 1 1 canto
ecclesiastico (1698). These are modal in their concept o’f~
tonality," "But must be included because of their connection with
the problem. See Ch. II, pp. 98, also 108-109.
343
part are in Latin, exemplify modal theory according to the
later ideas established by Zarlino, thus supporting and even
advancing further the most revolutionary concepts of the lat
ter, In a study of the contributions of the German theorist
Walther, Gehrmann has given a penetrating analysis of the
Latin treatises, with emphasis focused on the developments in
tonality and- related matters found in them,5 A summary of the
most significant ideas which Gehrmann presents from these
treatises, especially in regard to tonality, will be presented
in the following pages,6
The Tonal System in the "Latin Treatises11 of the 17th Century
In connection with the study of the extension of the
modal system from eight to twelve modes, it was pointed out
that Glarean, in giving theoretical sanction to the Ionian and
Aeolian modes, actually opened the door to the major-minor sys
tem in theory, Zarlino not only supported Glarean1s extension,
and agreed with his predecessor on the frequence of the use of
these modes in contemporary practice, but he carried the matter
5Gehrmann, pp. 468-578, For earlier reference see

Ch. II, p. 83, fn, 23. Though Gehrmann is concerned specifi
cally with 17th century developments in the teaching of compo
sition in the ms. treatise of Walther, he states that this
work gives a summary of the collective musical-theoretical
literature of the 17th century having any significance for
composition.
60f the treatises considered in Gehrmann1s study, only

those works which show fluctuation between the old and new
systems of tonality, and thus, only those which can be proper
ly classified in the second category with tyhich we are con
cerned, will be considered here.
344
even further. This may be observed in the fact that Zarlino
makes a distinction between the modes on the basis of the
harmonic-arithmetic division of the 5th of the mode, and the
relative position of the two thirds which result from this di
vision. Thus for the first time, the idea is projected that
the modes can be reduced to two types; those in which the
greater third lies below the lesser, and those in which this
position is reversed. It is this principle, the basis of the
distinction between our own major and minor modes, which is
the most significant for the developments observed by

7
Gehrmann in the Latin treatises.
The first treatise of the 17th century which shows the
Influence of the above-mentioned ideas of Zarlino is that of

Q
Johannes Lipplus, Synopsis muslcae novae (1612). In a des
cription of the elements of harmonic song, Lippius discusses
the harmonic triad, pointing out its two-fold nature, namely,
natural-perfect, or minor-imperfect. After the manner of
Zarlino, he refers this distinction to the harmonic or arith
metic division of the fifth and position of the two thirds
''’Gehrmann believes the impetus for change from the con

trapuntal to the harmonic viewpoint stems from Zarlino1s pro
jection of the syntonic scale and the arithmetic-harmonic di
vision of the 5th for the distinction of the modes. (Riemann,
Gesch. d. M t . , and Benndorf, "Seth. Calvisius als Musiktheo-
retiker," VfM, 1894, agree with Gehrmann's point of view and
for the same reasons.)
sGehrmann states that actually the first theorist to

give support to Zarlino*s ideas is Calvisius in his Melopolla
(1592), who nevertheless remains predominantly contrapuntal
in his viewpoint, basing most of his treatise on the 3rd and
4th books of L <Iatltuzlone. (Gehrmann, p. 475.)
345
within the fifth. However, the most significant aspect of
this discussion of Lippius is the manner in which he applies
these ideas to his description of the modes. Gehrmann explains
this as follows:
Further, his division of the modes is important,

which, much more than with Zarlino, points to our major
and minor. He recognizes two kinds of modes; The first
is natural, because in it, one finds the natural triad;
the other, for similar reasons, is minor. To the first
type belong the Ionian, Lydian, Mixolgdian; to the
second, Dorian, Phrygian and Aeolian.9
The second of the group of Latin treatises showing the
influence of Zarlino1s ideas is that of Henricus Baryphonus,
Plejades musloae (1615), Gehrmann states that in this work
the wavering between the old and the new interpretation of mu
sic becomes most clearly perceived. Baryphonus emphasizes
the treatment of the consonances and dissonances as the most
important matter for composition, which he bases on the system
of the syntonic scales10 Concerning the modes, he considers
not only the types of relationships and species of intervals
found in them, but also their designation through the
9Gehrmann, p. 478. The significance of Lippius' con

tribution may be seen in the following; "Apart from the ter
minology of Zarlino and Salinas which distinguishes sharply
between major and minor, probably the oldest authentic term
for the triad (major and minor commixed) is trlas harmonica,
by Joh. Lippius in his three musical Disputations ( 1 6 6 9 - 1 0 ) ,
and his Synopsis musicae novae (1612; p. 16; "In practice
one observes the Harmonic Triad"(J). (Riemann, Gescht. d.
Mt., p. 417.)
l^Gehrmann, p. 480. See earlier reference to

Gehrmann's discussion of Zarlino's syntonic scale, Ch. II,
p, 83, fn. 23.
346
solmisation-syllables, the possibility of their harmonic and
arithmetic division, and an etymology of their names. As
with Lippius, the harmonic triad is differentiated into major
and minor, and composition is introduced on the grounds of the
general-bass.
In Synopsis Muslca (1624) by Johannes Cruger, G-ehrmann
calls attention to the influence of both Lippius and Calvisius
which are evident in this work.11 Considering the trlas har
monica, Cruger distinguishes the same two types noted in
Lippius, but calls them natlvae and fictlles, the former, re
presenting the harmonic division of the fifth, and thus the
major triad, the latter, the arithmetic, or the minor triad.
Following this, he considers the modes which, after the manner
of Zarlino, he reckons up from the Ionian as the first. An
interesting connection of these to the division of the triads
into the two types is pointed out by G-ehrmann. He says, "a s
with Lippius, these [i.e. the modes] fall on the one hand into
the natural and soft, on the other hand Into the authentic and
plagal also, according to whether one adds the h&rmonic triad
above or below the fourth,u1^
In concluding his consideration of Cruger, G-ehrmann
points out several important Ideas of the latter which show
^G-ehrmann, p^. 480-485. According to G-ehrmann, a

second edition of Cruger* s work (1630) is better than the
first. Though the latter leans heavily on the sources mention
ed, he makes a unique contribution in his emphasis on a harmon
ic basis for instruction in composition.
i^G-ehrmann, p. 481.
347
the confusion between the old and new viewpoints that is com
mon to many of the treatises of this time. Though these re
late to all aspects of theory, only those concerning the modes
need to be mentioned here. Examples of these may be seen
When, following the older ideas of Calvisius, CriHger states
that the recognition of the mode depends on the tenor, and fur
ther, that an authentic tenor and descant require a plagal
bass and alto. On the other hand, influenced by the more mod
ern ideas of Lippius, he gives the harmonic triads for each
mode, not only in the authentic and plagal positions, but also
for both the regular and transposed locations.
G-ehrmann informs us that the ideas of Cruger are car
ried even further by the theorists who follow him in the re
mainder of this century. However, before turning to these, he
gives attention to two contemporaries of Cruger, whose chief
importance lies in their practical ideas concerning instrumen
tal composition. Of these two, Praetorlus and Sweelinck, only
the second is considered in any detail, since his "Rules for
Composition" offer the most significant expansion of the mate
rial for teaching found in Cruger1s work.
In the second part of Sweelinck1s work, "p. Sweelingcks
Kompositionsregeln," there is a
short section devoted to a
description of the modes. Here, the eight church modes begin
ning from D are explained individually, followed by illustra
tions in the regular as well as the transposed positions.
These are the same as are found in Cruger's Synopsis, except
348
that the latter gives the 12-mode system only, and begins this
from C. However, it is clear that Sweelinck differentiates
between the eight tones used for church composition and the
twelve used for instrumental music. For, following this first
mention he repeats what he has said in "Instruction concerning
all the twelve tones," a later section of his tfork. In this
part again the order of modes begins on D, and there are melod
ic examples for each mode in both the regular and transposed
positions as before. Though, in respect to the tonal system,
it is clear that Sweelinck has an older point of view, his work
is important because of its practical application of the ideas
of Cruger to the teaching of instrumental composition.'1'5
Of the remaining treatises described by Gehrmann, the
only one to be considered in any detail is that of Johann
Gottfried Walther. This work, "Komposltionslehre" (c. 1708),
appears in manuscript form only and, according to Gehrmann, is
one of the most important sources of information concerning
the theoretical developments of the entire 17th century. In
support of this statement, Gehrmann gives a summation of all
the treatises from which Walther has drawn either directly or
indirectly as a basis for his ideas. Gehrmann divides these
treatises into two groups: The first consists of immediate
sources; the second group, on the other hand, includes those
•^Gehrmann, pp. 484-489, According to Gehrmann, Swee

linck attempts to apply Zarlino*s vocal contrapuntal rules to
instrumental composition, especially for the organ.
349
whose influence is less direct.14 At the close of his summary
of their contents and evaluation of their significance to
Walther, Gehrmann comments on them as follows;
Of these main sources, Walther used those writings

most often, which stood closest to him chronologically
or were most accessible. Thus Able, Werckmeister,
Bernhardt, Printz and Snegassius were most often quoted.
From these he was led to Kircher, Herbst, Cruder, Bary
phonus, Lippius and Calvisius, and through Cruger and
Lippius, he was of necessity led to Gumpelzhaimer and
Wallister.l5
Following this mention of sources, Gehrmann calls atten
tion to the fact that with one exception— Bononcini*s II
pratlco muslco (1673)— the works used by Walther are all Ger
man.1® The treatment of modes by Bononcini has been examined,
earlier in this study (see Ch. II, pp. 108-109) and needs no
detailed discussion at this point. However, it may be pointed
out that Bononcini is one of the sources in which is reflected
the confusion of the period caused by the prevalence of the
two points of view with regard to the tonal systems. The
14A s may be noticed from the names in the quotation be

low, the second group includes those given by Gehrmann in con
siderable detail so far, and thus those who have been the basis
for the present discussion. However, that not all of the works
given are analyzed, is due simply to the fact that not all of
their ideas on tonality are relevant to the present discussion.
l5Though not mentioned in Gehrmann1s article up to this

time, the first group of these theorists is considered in the
part of Gehrmann1s discussion which follows, in connection
with specific ideas of Walther with which the respective theo
rists show the most in common.
^ G e h r m a n n also mentions Janowska (Eitner gives this as

Janoitfka), who was an organist in Prague, and of the Czech,
nationality.
with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission
350
influence of Bononcini's ideas, as well as his indecisive
state of mind regarding the tonal system, will he immediately
apparent in Walther's treatise.
According to G-ehrmann's survey of the contents of this
work, one of the first indications of Walther's position on
the modes or tonal system of music is found in a discussion of
song, Walther defines song and divides it into two types
which are either naturalis, those which have no accidentals to
denote transposition; or artificiali3, those which do use a
signature of accidentals presumably to denote transposition.
The relation of the modes to these distinctions may be seen in
the following comment; "That mode of both [i.e. natural or
artificial] is major, if it has a large third above its
key-note in its melodic ascent, and minor, if it has a small
third.1,17
This comparatively clear distinction of the major-minor
key principle representing a more modern conception of tonality,
is later both counteracted, and again given further support by
Walther, On the one hand, for an explanation of transposition
of the modes, he turns to the older science, showing these only
in the earlier forms, i.e. a fourth higher or a fifth lower.
On the other hand, he again describes the harmonic triad, this
time in the same manner as Cruger and Lippius, saying that it
•*-7G-ehrmann, p, 513, The reference to the harmonic

triad as natural (without chromatics) or artificial (with
chromatics) is an extension of Cruger's idea that the dur and
moll are commixed in that they consist partly of diatonic and
partly of chromatic tones.
351
can be either simple or composite. Further, he points out that
the different position of the thirds is of the greatest impor
tance for the major or minor character for the song, as well
as for the triad itself.
According to G-ehrmann, the second large division of this
work is concerned with the modal system in greater detail than
earlier, and with the cadences in the modes. Walther describes
the twelve modes, not only for their historical importance and
interest, but because they still play an important part in the
musical practice. The chorales used in the church are composed
in these modes, and it is necessary for the organist to be
familiar with them. Concerning himself with the principles of
modal science, he defines, describes, and arranges the modes
in order, from the Ionian. He explains the Greek, names, and
the factors in their Identification which he states.as
follows: "... a mode will be known 1) through the ambitus,
2) through the clausulae formales, and 3) through the
Repercussio.
In the chapter following this explanation of the modes
with reference to the older traditions, Walther gives further
attention to the modes, this time mentioning both the older
and the newer tonal systems. This may be observed in the
introductory statement from his discussion which G-ehrmann
quotes as follows;
l®Gehrmann, p. 542. According to the latter, Walther

gives a very penetrating discussion of the clausulae, viewing
them both melodically and harmonically.
352
Although with the musicians of today, only the

Dorian, Aeolian and Ionian are in use, nevertheless
we want to consider [the modes]' altogether (all the
more so, as the choral^songs are almost completely com
posed in all the modes) together with their ambitus,
clausulae, and repercussions . . ,19
This reduction of the modes with major character to one scale,
those.with minor character to two scales, is one of the most
significant and original communications concerning the use
of the modes in Walther’s time, according to G-ehrmann. How
ever, the matter needs further clarification which he proceeds
to give in the next part of his discussion.
Concerning the major-type scale, G-ehrmann reminds us
that even in G-larean’s time, the Ionian mode was so favored in
use that the modes on F and G- were usually transformed to the
Ionian. This happened very naturally in the F-mode (the
Lydian), because of the b flat used to correct the tritone.
It occurred in the G- mode (the Mixclydian), because the raised
7th degree provided with f sharp was preferred in the cadence.
However, the process with the minor scales was not so simple,
since both the Dorian and Aeolian could be minor types. In
connection with these two modes, G-ehrmann points out that the
theorists of the period were divided into two groups depending
on which type mode they preferred for the minor. On the one
hand were those who felt that since the major scale was charac
terized by the major 3rd, 6th, and 7th, the minor paired with
this should have the minor 3rd, 6th, and 7th, the
iQlbld., p. 543.
353
characteristic intervals of the Aeolian. On the other hand,
there was a second group of theorists who favored the Dorian
as a minor type because of the ease with which one could
cadence from this mode into the upper and lower dominant.^0
According to Gehrmann, no definite decision for either
of the minors is reached in the treatises of this p e r i o d . ^
However, the theorists observed that the Dorian because of its
major 6th was really closer to the major mode in quality. On
the other hand, the Aeolian with the minor 6th had the softness
generally associated with the minor mode, and thus the quality
the theorists felt was needed in this mode. Considering this,
Gehrmann comes to a conclusion about the minor which he states
as follows;
Through this [i.e. the facts mentioned just above

concerning both minor-type modes}, as well as through
the lesser capability of modulating (only half-cadences
on the dominant are possible) and finally, through the
inclination to the plagal or transposed position opposed
to the Dorian, these scales [i.e. Aeolian] compared to
the Dorian, contain a more gentle, more peaceful and
melancholy character, defined in their nature. More
over the new type of fugal answer favors a reduction of
the modes to Ionian and Aeolian, not the D o r i a n . ^
^°Gehrmann, pp. 543T545« This last' statement refers

to the fact that the Dorian could cadence to either G (Lower
dominant), or A (upper dominant) without using chromatics not
in the diatonic system at this time. This the Aeolian could
not do.
^-The Dorian mode as a minor-type persists also in

other 18th century treatises e.g. it may be seen in the ex
amples of the minor triads from Charles Masson's Nouveau
traitef, shown in Figure 24, p. 372.
^Gehrmann, p. 545. As an influential factor in the

final choice of the Aeolian for the minor, Gehrmann may be
354
Following this discussion of major and minor, Walther
returns to his presentation of the 12-mode system according
to the older science. He distinguishes bet\*een the plagal and
authentic positions of the modes, sets examples of all the
modes in chorale style, gives a discussion of the repercus
sions, and finally, considers transposition. In this discus
sion of the subject, Walther emphasizes that a major scale
must be transposed to a major, a minor to a minor. Because
of the view the latter expresses, that transposition may be
made to every tone of the twelve, G-ehrmann believes that some
sort of equal temperament must be Imown to the theorists of
this time.
In his conclusion to the study of Walther's ideas on
"tonality," G-ehrmann supports the obvious position of this
theorist as a transitional figure. He points out that though
the latter presents most of the material concerning the modes
according to traditional modal theory, at the same time he
also brings into prominence the modern point of view on scales.
Evidence appears in Walther1s work in many ways, but perhaps
it is more clearly realized through the introduction of fac
tors not found in the treatises preceding his work. For
example, in his final discussion of the reduction of the modes
to the two scales— major and minor— he gives, in support of
referring specifically to the Dorian 5th which was out of tune

in the syntonic scale, and would thus prohibit, or certainly
make' very difficult, the fugal answer in the upper dominant.
355
this distinction, a discussion of cadences and the new method
of fugal answer, both of which factors are wholly dependent
on a harmonic point of view.23
In making an evaluation of the contributions of Walther
to a solution of the problems of tonality, Gehrmann, though
indirectly, also evaluates the position of the l?th century
theorists who influenced Walther’s ideas. He believes that
the developments observed in th ese treatises concerning tona=
lity and related matters, depend more than any other factor,
on the clarification of the new harmonic point of view. While
in practice, the older, purely contrapuntal methods have be
come submerged and superseded by the nevrer harmonic develop
ments, the new point of vieitf is. not yet completely established
in theory.^4 This may be observed in the treatises of
Gasparini, and also of Werckmeister, whose works are contempo
rary with that of Walther, and who, like him, support both the
old modes and the newer major-minor scales as a tonal basis
for music.
23The first is the distinction of the cadences from the

clausulae by showing that the former are closes based on a
harmonic ~foundation, the most important of which for each mode,
is the final cadence built on the tonic, and always complete.
The other factor, already mentioned, is the clarification of
the modes in their relation to each other as determined by the
new type of fugal answer in practice, i.e. the importance of
the upper and lower dominants.
S^That considerable progress has been made toward this

viewpoint can be observed in the manner in which harmonic
ideas have permeated every phase of theory toward the close
of the 17th century.
356
The "Tonal11 System According to Gasparini
In his treatise on figured-bass, Iârmonlco prattlco al
clmballo (1683), G-asparini states that one of the first things
necessary to know in music is in what tone a composition is to
move. Though he realizes the necessity for giving the know
ledge concerning the quality and quantity of all the tones and
their formation, he says that "it is a matter for a long trea
tise and already shown by many celebrated authors.11 Turning
from this, which is evidently a reference to the older modal
system, G-asparini continues with the following;
It is enough then to point out that .any composition

whatever is formed either with the major third or with
the minor third. And this is Immediately obvious from
the reading of the notes; now with the major third, we
shall represent it in this fashion, that, beginning with
the very chord which constitutes the composition, that
is to say; ut-re-mi; and for the other with the minor
third, we shall say re-mi-fa; leaving aside the reflec
tions concerning the third and fourth tones which regu
larly should be read mi-fa-sol.26
The examples referred to in the above quotation may be observed
in Figure 21. These are illustrations of the common keys in
use at this time, each with its proper accidentals, and the
thirds, ut-re-mi, or re-mi-fa, which distinguish the major and
minor keys.
25Oasparini, p. 46.
26Ibid,, p. 47. The last sentence refers to the method

for distinguishing the Phrygian and Hypophryglan modes in the
same manner as the first two mentioned, i.e. by the first
three tones of the mode. A similarity might be pointed out
between G-asparini's method of distinguishing these three as
"type" scales, and G-larean's reference to three "type" modes.
See Ch. Ill, p. 199, fn. 68.
357
Figure 21. The Common Keys of the "Major and Minor Modes"
used in G-asparini's Time. (G-asparini, p. 47.)
fV — s - e — A •
"'cr" . -- fr-j y t5> ■ '
/' ') *
o ° V kfj & 0
— -— o o —
t / a ’t u m l M a jo r T h ir d s . /la c id a n To j M *j or T h ir d s tr iU F U ti .
~‘
7 .dT ... .. p Q f~\ % j*. »= ,
& o O / * "j/ -tb if* !

J _ (i J i4t S # W ~ 0 * '
A C.e.iA C Y l ' t «/ O K tU ) r d s IMf "Hi SJl 4 r p j s .
(V ri~ ,.... ii k-». .r d &

]• A O & *]•
J r 7f & \ / *
_ * o - & -------- ii_— ", — r-- ---“------------ -r........ .......... IL'
J/af that M i not- Thirds. ftac.iclenj'al Mi ner- Thirds n /ifh F l q t s .
----------- 7 T - 0 * 2 - 1 0 ; # ------- r - 7 T -
/ J - t . c °
N a~t *ra.l Miner Thirds vtiih f\e.e.ide nfa / M ‘no r Thirds Wt fh

Sho-rps • Sharps ■
In addition to the first "rule" for recognizing a tone
which is illustrated in the examples, Gasparini mentions that
it is also necessary to know the principle oorde of the tone.
For example, if the composition is formed on G- sol-

re-ut (i.e. in G- major key), one observes that the ma
jor third above D, which is f sharp, is also the major
sixth above A. . . . In the scale or tone of A, the im
portant chord is that which has E and above this, G-
sharp, and this chord cadences to A.
The significance of this idea cannot be overlooked, when it is
realized that G-asparini is stating a basic principle for the
clarification of key in the major-minor system. This is the
fact that the key depends as much on its dominant, and the
harmonic tension exerted by this toward the tonic, as upon the
27G-aspar ini, p. 48,
358
identity of the, key through the tonic alone.
G-asparini1s emphasis on the two principles given for
the recognition of key, as well as his explanation of modula
tion (to be considered later), shows that he supports the new
system of tonality. However, though no real discussion of
the modes is given, there is no doubt that Gasparini recogni
zes the importance in the contrapuntal practice. This has
already been mentioned in connection with his reference to
tones. Further than this he says only that they are not prac
ticed with their natural rigor today, and particularly in re
gard to transposition. Thus, it may be surmised from his lack
of concern with the modes and his emphasis on the "two-key"
system which is the one in "practical and common use" at this
time, Gasparini has in mind the necessity of providing for the
practical aspects of the figured bass.
The Tonal System in the Treatises of Andreas Werckmelster^
In Hodegus curlosus (1687), Y/erckmeister is far more
concerned with the problems of tuning the intervals of the
scale than with the more practical aspects of the tonal system
itself. Nevertheless, toward the middle of his treatise he
considers both systems, i.e. the modes and the major-minor
scales, in some detail. Concerning the modes, he points out
^®The three treatises considered in this chapter are

the folloxtfing; Muslca mathematicae hodegus curlosus (Leipzig,
1687); Die no thwendlg's ten Anmerokungen (Aschersleben, 1698);
and Harmonologla musica Oder Kurze Anleltung fflr musloalischen
Komposltlon (Leipzig, 170%). In all of these Werckmeister
gives attention to the problem of temperament in relation to
the scales.
with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission
that the older musicians used this system with limits to each
hey, in which they composed all of their songs. Furthermore,
the harmony of these songs remained within the limits of the
key and did not go from one unusual progression to another.
In contrast to this, Werckmeister complains that in his time
the inexperienced musicians do not knot* the limits of the old
scales or modes, and thus they are inclined to alter the
scales with chromatic notes, especially at the cadences.
The basis for the older system is the diatonic scale
whose ambitus is the octave. The system is derived by apply
ing this diatonic octave to each of the white keys from C-c on
the clavichord, as the initial note, except for the note B.
From this, Werckmeister points cut that we will have the sys
tem of modes of which there are altogether six princlpales,
and six mlnus-prlnclpales. T h i s system, which begins with
the Ionian mode on C, may be transposed regularly a fourth
higher with b flat. However, it may be transposed to other
degrees as well, in which case it requires the use of 11flota"
and is called irregular.30
In distinguishing between the modes with flota and
those without, Werckmeister compares these two types used today
^°That these are the old authentic and plagal modes is

clear from the table of the modal system given by Werckmeister
(Ch. 41), in which he shows the 4th-5th division for all the
modes and the place of the semitones in each. However, the
only importance attached to these is for recognition of the
mode in a transposed position.
^ T h e relation of this discussion of transposition to

that in the older science may be observed by comparing it to
that found in Zarlino's treatise. (See Ch. Ill, pp. 158-163.)
360
with those of the ancients. The latter, he says, used three
scales which were the diatonic, chromatic, and enharmonic. Of
these, the diatonic could he divided two ways, ij, e. either
arithmetically or harmonically according to its 4ths and 5ths.
In the old scales, the octaves, 4ths and 5ths vrere pure and
thus consonant, while the 3rds and 6ths were impure and there
fore not consonant.31 Though the ancients did not permit the
mixing of the scal.es, in the later music the scales were mixed
because of the more frequent use of the flcta or chromatic
tones. In these mixtures, difficulty arose because of the im
pure intervals and it was necessary to find a new way of deter
mining the proportions of the intervals in the scales. Werck-
meister points out that many theorists experimented with
different methods but he believes that Zarlino's, which he
calls the "dlatonlca syntona,11 is the best. Of this he says:
11. . . this dlatonlca syntona has been so divided that finally
all the consonances therein are found to be pure with the

g o
exception that they are a comma 81:80 too small."
31Werckmeister, pp. 116-117. (This discussion actually

occupies most of Ch. 40 in W . 's treatise.) While the music
remained melodic, or even in the early stages of polyphony, so
long as no flcta were used, these impure consonants were no
real problem. Werckmeister does not distinguish exactly what
he means by the "ancients."
^Werckmeister, pp. 116-117. Zarlino's syntonic scale

was an improvement over the older method of tuning in that the
3rds and 6ths were consonant. The impurities which remained
could be adjusted by the ear in music for voices or stringed
instruments, but not for the keyboard. Werckmeister suggests
that these should be "well-tempered" and thus the comma, now
divided among several intervals could be tolerated.
361
In spite of the emphasis on the modes of the older sys
tem and the principles connected with these, Werckmeister shows
that he is fully cognizant of the newer system as well. The
first direct reference to this may he observed in the following
discussion:
However, since the music of today is quite differ

ent and there are perhaps only four modes in use, that
is the Ionian with the Mixolydian, and the Dorian with
the Aeolian, for the most part mixed in the ambitus of
the 4ths, therefore, there cannot be affirmed any more
than two modes, and this is not at all unnatural, if we
manage very properly with them.33
Continuing from this statement, Werckmeister points out
that since there are only these two modes, they should not be
named with any of the Greek names belonging to the old system.
Instead, they are to be called from certain characteristic
properties belonging to them. Thus, the first is called modus
naturalls because it has a major third according to the natural
order of the proportional numbers 4.5.6.8 contained for exam
ple in the notes c-e-g-c, or d-f#-a-d. The other mode is call
ed minus naturalls because it has the radical numbers in its
succession viz. 10.12.15.20, represented in the notes d-f-a-d,
etc.
In connection with the order of the modes, Werckmeister
calls attention to the fact that there has been much strife
33Werckmeister, p. 124. Werckmeister1s allusion to the

mixed 4ths is a reference to a common practice described earli
er by G-larean and Zarlino, that of changing the species— adding
f sharp to the Mixolydian 4th, thus making re-sol into ut-fa,
and the scale into the Ionian; and adding b flat to the Dorian
4th, changing re-sol into mi-la, and the scale into the Aeolian.
362
over which mode was the first. He believes that none of the
old modes such as the Dorian or Aeolian should be first. For,
since the Ionian, Lydian, and Mixolydian have the perfect
triads, they have the advantage over the others and thus one
of these ought to have the first place. In support of the
superiority of these triads, Werckmeister returns to the num
bers indicating the proportions of the intervals in relation
to the fundamental. He points out that in the order of the
harmonic proportions, 1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8, the major third is
next in importance to the fundamental.
In the second of Werckmeister's treatises to be consi
dered here, Die nothwendlgsten Anmerkungen (1698), much of the
same discussion found in the earlier work is repeated. Never
theless, both in his references to the problems of temperament,
and to those with regard to the tonal system, Werckmeister
shows significant changes in his ideas. He; mentions the old
modal system again, but points out that of this old system,
today one uses preferably only the six principal modes. More
over, not even all of these are used, for one finds only two
used very frequently— the one with the perfect harmonic triad
and the other with an imperfect harmonic triad.
In this work, it is in consideration of the identifica
tion of the modes that Werckmeister shows some confusion be
tween old and new ideas. This may be seen in his use of prin
ciples for recognition of the mode, which seem more
characteristic of the older tradition. For example, in the
octave F-f, he places the following series of tones;
363
£-g-g#-b-c-e#-d#-f. He arranges these tones according to the
old method, dividing them into the 5th and 4th species, and
locating the semitones in each of the species. From this he
derives a mode which he calls the Aeolian, and which is iden
tified with a signature of four flats— b-d-e-a. This scale
is then changed by removing the c sharp, and the mode which
remains will be the Dorian. To clarify this it is necessary
to realize that the sharps in the above scale must be replaced
with their enharmonic equivalents, and it is this fact which
gives the four-flat signature and makes the Aeolian scale
possible. These modes may be represented in the following

r- *
diagram;0*
^4After this discussion, in which Werckmeister emphasi

zes, in relation to the older modes, the Importance of knowing
the halftone position in the species, for recognition of the
"irregular" transpositions of his time, he considers modula
tion and explains how it is possible to have twenty-four keys,
or twenty-four harmonic triads by which one can go through the
circle on the Clavier and come again into the key in which one
began. This important idea causes Riemann to call Werckmeister
the real "trail-blazer" for the major-minor key system. Fur
ther, he says that the fact that these scales were mentioned
in H.q. is proof that the practical musicians had already
adopt;ea the major and minor triads, and scales, even before
1637. (Riemann, pp. 439-441, also see fns. on these pages.)
364
Figure 22, Illustration of Transposition of Scales by Chang

ing the Position of the Half-tone, according to
Werckmeister*s Explanation.
The Tone Series with f-g-gtf-bt>-c _____ , may be seen

the 5th-4th Species: c-ctf-d£-f to equal the
following Series with

the enharmonic equiva f-g-aj>-b£-c^. — ^ The Aeolian
lents of the tones of ' c-di1 Mode.
the first series.
Then by removing the f-g-a^-b^-c. the Mode chan-

di? (c# of Series 1), c-d-e^-g ges to Dorian,
In further discussion of mode and key in this work,
i.e. Nothwendigsten Anmerckungen, Werckmeister turns to a con
sideration of the cadences or clausulae, presenting the three
main ones for the Ionian and Dorian modes. They may be ob
served in the following figure;
3 3
woWhile the relations shown are not exactly equivalent
to those observed in the discussion of the closes of the keys
in the English treatises and Instruction books (see preceding
chapter), the same principle is apparent in these illustra
tions.
365
Figure 23. The Formal Clausulae for the Ionian and Dorian
Modes. (Werckmeister, N. A., p. 55.)
Ionian
3 1 ZL
± i-Lt: -t hi •£
&
1. 2. 3. or 3•
Dorian
I
.<?. 'JLi-Q <r } o
~rr
~cr
1 . 2. 3.
From these examples, it is clear that the two modes, i.e. the
major and minor, had for their preferred cadences, the follow
ing; first, the keytone; second, the fifth; and, finally, the
third. Werckmeister emphasizes that the three finals to be
taken in the cadences of the mode are always the tones of the
trlas h a r m o n i c a s . ^6 In concluding his discussion, of the scales
in this work, he refers again to the earlier distinction of the
two systems, and the importance of both; “And although accord
ing' to today's method in music, one is able to manage with two
modes, the old modes cannot be completely rejected, because our
church songs are composed according to them; . . f
In Harmonologia Musica (1702), the final treatise of
Werckmeister with which we are concerned, again his discussion
3&rhis agrees with a reference to cadence in his earli

er work, Hodegus curiosus, where he defines the "formal cadence"
in the following manner; "The formal clausulae and repercus
sions are formed out of the harmonic triads of "every mode."
(Werckmeister, H. C„ p. 122.)
^Werckmeister, Nothwendigsten Anmerckungen, p. 56.
366
of key or mode reflects support of both systems. In reference
to the modal system, there is given a diagram in which the 12-
mode system is shown in the traditional manner. The modes are
divided into the 4th and 5th species, and from this the two
classes mentioned earlier— principales and minus principales—
are derived. Concerning their use, he points out that they
no longer appear in pure form but are mixed with the enharmon
ic and chromatic, and also with the tempered scale. This
added to the fact that the musicians, especially the organists
in the church, do not any longer understand the use of the
older modes has resulted in the confusion which Werckmeister
finds prevalent during his time.
An important factor showing the change in the use of
the modes is the appearance of flats and sharps as signatures
for the diatonic modes. With an increased use of chromatic
tones, the regular modes have become "modi flctl.11 These
permit a much more extended type of transposition, for, with
their diatonic modes the older musicians never transposed any
further than out of the "duro" into "moll," or vice versa,
while today the musicians transpose to almost every tone on
the keyboard. This they are able to do because the clavier
has been tempered by means of a system which was not known
earlier.58
3%owever, that this was not equal temperament is prov

ed by Werckmeister's discussion of the problem in his treatises.
Though he apparently has worked out a mathematical formula for
this and has experimented with it on the monochord, he has not
achieved a complete solution. Serauky, speahing of his contri
bution says that Werckmeister1s "equal temperament" offered a
36?
Werckmeister and other theorists of this time realized
that the ideal solution to their problems on the keyboard in
struments lay in Equal Tempered tuning. For example, in the
present work Werckmeister considers the various ways in which
such a temperament might be worked out. He is apparently able
to derive the correct mathematical formulae for mediating the
proportions of the tones, so that the comma (i.e. 80;81) may
be divided into twelve equal parts. However apparently this
is not successful in actual practice. For, after further dis
cussion of the problems involved, he points out that the idea
is not acceptable to many theorists and musicians because they
have not examined the nature of the consonances enough. More
over, it takes time and patience to adjust the 1/12 comma
difference on the monochord or other instrument used for the
experimental procedures. Werckmeister states that he has no
exact model but has used a special procedure, of which he
comments in the following manner;
. . . [there} is however a certain test, when the

fifths move downwards so much, that is, the upper keys
toward the lower, so that the major thirds are tolera
ble; since, on the other hand, the upper would again
have to move up toward the lower. Then the temperament
is achieved, and one can therefore play flcte through
the whole Clavier. The minor thirds and sixths adjust
themselves according to these [i.e. to the major thirds]
and could bear still more in the temperament. ^9
compromise— apparently only four of the fifths in the circle

of twelve were to benefit from the division of the comma.
(Walter Serauky, "Andreas Werckmeister als Musiktheoretiker, '*
Festshrift Max Schneider zum 6 0 . (3-eburtstag, ed. Hans Joachim
Zingel (Halle, 1535), p p . ll8-1267]
^Werckmeister, Harmonologia musica, p. 18.
368
Prom the study of the tonal system according to Werck-
meister's treatises, there can he no doubt that although the
modal system Is treated in some detail, there is nevertheless
a clear recognition that two distinctly separate systems are
in existence in practice during this time. His emphasis on
the fact that the musicians, especially the organists, must
recognize this distinction and use each system correctly,
according to the music for which it is most suited, is an im
portant contribution to the clarification of the situation.
Another important advance is in his clear recognition of the
necessity for equal temperament as a solution to the problems
of tonality and his mathematical and practical experiments in
this direction. Finally, therefore, it may be said that con
sidering all these factors, Werckmeister's treatises are es
pecially valuable for the insight which they give into the
difficulties encountered by the theorists in the final stages
of the transition from the older to the newer tonal system.
Tonality in the Figured Bass Treatises of the
Early 18th Century
The first quarter of the 18th century was marked by im
portant developments in practical music. They may be defined
as the clarification of new styles in music, the rise of solo-
instrumental performance and the final solution to the problems
of temperament especially on the keyboard instruments. This
was reflected in theory not only by means of the increased
369
activity resulting in a significant number of new works during
this time, but in the actual developments evident in the trea
tises themselves. These may be observed in the stabilization
of the tonal system, and the clarification of the new harmonic
principles on which practice was based.
In the last classification of treatises we are concern
ed with those works which show the careful working out of the
principles and practice of the figured bass accompaniment on
the keyboard instruments. Among the earliest works of this
type, evidence of the theoretical development mentioned above
is immediately apparent in the resolution of the conflict be
tween the old modal system and that of the major-minor key
system. This may be observed especially in two works appear
ing in the first decade of the 18th century, in which the si
milarity of treatment makes it advantageous to consider them
together. These treatises are St, Lambert's Les princlpes du
clavecin (1702), and Charles Masson's Nouveau tralte des
regibs pour la composition de la muslque (1705),
The Tonal System in Early 1 3 th Century French Theory
The practical nature of St. Lambert's treatise is ap
parent in the directness with which he approaches the various
subjects of theory uivier consideration. In a chapter which he
calls "Tones, modes, and Transposition," though he does not
define scale or mode, he shows clearly the idea he has of these
subjects, Ke says that, "every piece of music is composed on
a certain tone, and within a certain mode. The tone of an air
370
is the note on which it ends, and this note is called the
final.1,40 As an example of this, he states that if the final
of an air is on ut, the air is said to be composed in C sol-ut.
Further, he emphasizes that the final bass note is the funda
mental of the air, and for this reason will be called the
tonic.
A further explanation of the mode and tone shows exact
ly what is meant in the above statement,- According to him,
the mode is determined by the especies of intervals found above
the tonic, and since there are two different classes or species
there are two different modes, which are called major and
minor. The mode is major when the 3rd, 6th, and 7th above the
tonic are major; but when these intervals are minor, the mode
itself is minor. He says also that today it is necessary to
realize that mode and key must be mentioned together. Thus
when one indicates a key, it is customary to say & sol-re ma
jor, or g sol-re minor.
Though St. Lambert does not discuss temperament, he
shows the division of the octave into twelve parts from which
he derives twelve tones or scales according to key. He points
out that some of these are used more than others, but neverthe
less it is possible to have twenty-one scales in the major and
minor modes. For the figured bass player, St. Lambert presents
tables of the keys, including those with signatures up to
twelve sharps and eight flats, some of which may be represented
40St, Lambert, Les principes du clavecin, p. 26.
371
enharmonically. Concerning the use of these keys, St. Lambert
states that in the major keys it is important to play major
thirds above the first, fourth, and fifth degrees in the
scale. Further, he cautions the performer that the use of
flats and sharps with the figures above the bass, or. within
the bass itself, may alter the tones and thus give chords which
are not proper to the key in which one is playing.
As w i t h his predecessor, Masson is clear and brief in
his presentation of the tonal system in his t r e a t i s e . H e
defines tone or mode in the following manner; "By the words,
mode or tone, one understands the method of beginning, carry
ing on, and closing an air on certain notes proper to each

4 .P
mode or t o n e . 11 He gives only two modes— major and minor—
and these are known by the type of third or mediant found above
the final, viz. the major third for the major tone, and the
minor for the minor tone. In addition, each of these modes has
three essential notes w h i c h are the final, mediant and the dom
inant. These help to characterize the tone and are important
for its identification. This may be observed in the fact
that the mediant is the tone which determines the mode and the
final is the tone on which the bass of an air must conclude.
In the stame manner as did St. Lambert, Masson gives ex
amples of all the major and minor scales commonly u s e d at
4lCharles Masson, Nouveau Tralte des regies pour la

composition de la muslque (Paris, l9o5). Thiemann mentions
that the fir si; edition was 1694.
4% a s son, Nouveau traite', p. 9.
372
this time,, However, since his diagrams show major scales with
signatures up to five sharps and two flats, and minors with up
to four flats, and two sharps, it is clear that he does not
Include quite so many keys in his system. Those which he
shows for both major and minor modes may be observed in the
following figure.45
Figure 24. The Keys in the Major and Minor Modes,. (Masson,
p. 9 o )
a) Major Modes
-fH------ r---- "#-4— 71-- -— r-a .
= - --#=-S
_l— fi-1
: ff. ° _h
_£-- -- & ------ «--
b) Minor Modes
.o O '’
---- b— 9r-~ 4 ---- tru—%---i---4 -- 1
— P~n— --- ----- 4— --- --------- ------- uq
Explaining briefly the use of the tones in music,
Masson gives as a rule that the first note of a composition
in major must be either a final or a dominant, or occasionally
the third. In minor, while the same rule may be followed,
there are other very important principles which must be known
in order that the bass progression may b e correctly regulated.
As in St. Lambert's treatise, Masson emphasizes that the end
ing of a composition in either mode must be the final of the
45Masson mentions the old modes but distinguishes them

as useful only in the church, but for modern music only the
two tones are given. Riemann, G-esch. d. Mt., p. 441, fn . ,
points out the Dorian minor type, - observecFin the triad d-f-a
w i t h no signature.,
373
key in the respective mode. However, though he gives melodic
examples only for the cadences, he shows two cadences for the
major which are the final and the dominant; and for the minor,
three, which are the final, mediant, and dominant.
It is clear that in these two French treatises of the
1 8 t h century, there is no evidence of vacillation between the
moual and tonal system which has been observed in some of the
earlier treatises representative of this same period. Both
St. Lambert and Masson give meager information concerning the
use of the scales or modes, and the way of identifying them
in practise. On the other hand, this is balanced by the con
cise and definitive presentation of the major-minor modes, and
the key system practicable within these modes during their time.
Furthermore, their contribution to the clarification of the
major-minor tonal system, is strengthened by the almost com
p lete absence of any reference to rnodal theory and its tradi-
^4 Three English treatises on figured-bass might be com

p a r e d to these two French works in respect to the simplicity
a n d clarity w i t h which the key system is presented. These are
the following: Locke's M e l o t h e s l a ; Rules for playing on a
thorough-bass (1673); John Blow's Rules f o r 'thorough Bass Tc.
1 6 7 5 ) •arid, Johann G. Keller, A compieat method for thoro-
b ass (c. 1700). They have not been considered inasmuch as
f h e treatment of key is so brief, and there is little change
from the later works considered in the preceding chapter on
English theory.
574
The Contributions of Helnlchen and Mattheson to the Clarifi

cation or the Major-Minor Tonal System
The chief contribution of H e l n l c h e n 1s Neu erfundene und
grilndliche Anweisung (1711) is the clear exposition of the
principle of key relation as the basis for modulation, and
the projection of all the possibilities upon the circle of
k eys.45 Heinichen implies that the knowledge of scales and
tones for the correct practice of the figured bass is not tak
en as seriously as its importance warrants. He says that it
is well-known that in music there are many tones, or scales.
Nevertheless, of these tones or keys "there is often great si
lence, not rarely even in the case of those who claim the ti
tle of virtuoso and composer.1,45 Moreover, the matters which
seem to receive the greatest neglect are those of ho w the
tones are related to one another, from where they arise, and
how one follows upon another in music.
Heinichen expresses concern about this matter, in that
such knowledge is important for the greater perfection of the
musical practice, and particularly for the figured-bass player.
The latter should seek to perfect himself in the knowledge of
all the scales so that he may go without hesitation from one
45Riemann points out the importance of this key-circle

in the following; "The circle of 5ths presented for the first
time in Anweisung . . . next to Mattheson's direct stimulus,
(Neu-eriiffn. Q r o n . . . .) may well have caused J. S. Bach to
demonstrate the usability of all the transpositions of the
major and minor scales through his 'Well-Tempered Clavier'."
(Riemann, Cresch. d. M t ., p. 418.)
4°Heinichen, A n w e i s u n g , p. 261.
375
to any other, backwards and forwards, and please the listeners
with his manner of digressions. He emphasizes, also, that if
one would learn the general-bass without the signatures he must
know especially the range and limits of all tones, so that he
recognizes changes of key easily, and can apply the correct
accidentals without any error. The remainder of Heinichen*s
treatise is devoted to the practical demonstration of ho w
these accomplishments are to be attained. This demonstration
consists in the exposition of the relationship among the
twenty-four scales given in his key circle, and the different
ways these may be connected in figured-bass practice. Since
this is more properly related to the study of modulation, it
will be considered at a later point.
The final treatises to be examined, and perhaps two of
the most Important for the clarification of the major-minor
key system are those of Johann Mattheson.4 ^ In the first of
these, Das neu-eroff'nete Orchestre (1713), Mattheson turns
immediately to the discussion of the scales or tonl as he calls
them. The first scales introduced are those designated as the
Greek n3ingarten,11 of which tbere are twelve, following the
order of Glarean's twelve church modes. For these, Mattheson
47Johann Mattheson, Das neu-eroffnete Orchestre

(Hamburg, 1713), and Das beschutzte Orchestre (Hamburg, 1719).
These were followed by a third in this series, Das forschende
Orchestre (1721). Gannon explains Mattheson*s use of the
term OrcEestre for these works as follows; "The word
'Orchestre* was chosen because of the need of a term general
enough to Include dramatic, vocal, and instrumental mus i c . 11
(Beekman Gannon, Johann Mattheson, Spectator in M u s i c , New
Haven, 1947, p. 115.
376
gives both the letter names and the old Greek names. This is
followed by a presentation of the eight "ecclesiastical
modes" or "tones" which he says are still in use at this time
"in t o d a y ’s church and choral music, although with great free
dom. "48
Having presented the older systems Mattheson turns at
once to another system of wh i c h he says; "The Italians and
today's composers use still another way to distinguish their
modul a t i o n s . "49 In this new way, the modes are known by their
"intervals" out of which is formed the trias h a r m o n i c a , which
distinguishes each mode. With Mattheson as with the preceding
theorists, the harmonic triad consists of the final of the
mode, which is at the beginning and end, of the dominant which
is the fifth degree, and of the mediant or third. If the
third above the final is major, the mode is major also; and
if minor, the mode is called minor. These are p resented in a
diagram which shows the eight most commonly used scales, and
they appear as follows;50
48Mattheson, p. 53,
49 i b l d ., p. 60. Modulations, of course, refers to the

movement of scale in song or melody,
5°These tables of keys are all found in Mattheson on

pp. 60-62. In these, irregularities in use of accidentals,
and in actual notation of the triads, i.e. in spelling, are
not corrected since they are characteristic of Mattheson's
time, and are simply the result of the fact that the acciden
tals were not represented enharmonically on the keyboards
which were still not equal-tempered.
377
First Tone .d f a or d minor.

Second Tone g bf? d or g minor.
Third Tone a c e or a minor.
Fourth Tone e g b or e minor.
Fifth Tone c e g or c major.
Sixth Tone f a c or f major.
Seventh Tone d f# a or d major.
Eighth Tone g b d or g major.
In respect to this first series of eight tones, Matthe
son emphasizes that they must not be confused with the Tonis
Eccleslasticus or Oregorlanls as they are described by Xlrcher
and used by Lassus.5-*- Further, he points out that those in
the above tables are the most comfortable and common of the
tones in use. Nevertheless he will add eight more which are
use. Thesie are the following:
9. c d£ S or c minor.
10. f Sit c or f minor.
11.- b> d f or b> major.
12. d* S bfr or e> major.
13. a c* e or a major.
14. e Sit b or e major.
15. b d n or b minor.
16. fit a c# or f# minor.
Finally, concluding his presentation of these tones, Mattheson
says that whoever wishes to know all the tones must also add
the following;
SlThe reference is to Athanasius Kircher who in the

treatise, Musurgla universalis (1650), describes only the
ecclesiastical modal system.
^ A t t e n t i o n should be called to the fifth scale in the

last group which, reading g#-c-d#, is not a minor as Mattheson
indicates, but major, and corrected enharmonically is
g#-b#-d#, or as we use it today, a>-c-e>.
378
17. b df f# or b major.
18. f# b£ c#- or ftf major.
19. g# b d# or g# minor.
20. b> ot f or b> minor.
21. g# c d=#*or g # minor.
22. c# e gfor ci- minor.
23. c+ f g#- or c # major.
24. d*{f# atf or dtf minor.
In reference to the tones presented above, Mattheson
explains that according to the division on the clavier, there
are only twelve different tones used as the semitones of the
chromatic octave. When these are arranged with their thirds
either major or minor, then there will be twenty-four differ
ent scales of which Mattheson says; "Now, although these
twenty-four prescribed tones are all out of which one can make
music, nevertheless up to this time, I have not found them
listed altogether in any single author except in Hei n i c h e n 1s
musical circle."53 Ooncerning the use of the tones Mattheson
says that it is very true that among these twenty-four modes,
there are some in which a musical piece would be composed
seldom, if ever. The reason which is given for this is that
some of the tones, especially those in the last two groups
do not fit or suit the clavier, and particularly the last
eight mentioned will be h a r d to play in tune.
In his study of the position of Mattheson in the musi
cal life of the 13th century, Beekman Cannon offers several
°Mattheson, pp. 63-64. Mattheson's neglect to mention

the twenty-four tones of YJerckmeister, with whose work he was
certainly acquainted, was probably that they were not present
ed in an organized system as were his tables, or H e i n i c h e n 1s
circle.
379
interesting comments concerning the problems of tonality.
For example, he states first that in the discussion of the
Greek modes and the ecclesiastical tones Mattheson was trying
to effect a compromise. This may be a means of preparing for
the effect of the newer system which he presents very shortly
after this. Concerning this system of the twenty-four tones,
Cannon makes the following statement: "In the first section
of the book, Mattheson also commits himself to the then modern
conception of tonality, which was dependent upon the tempering
of the scale, a difficulty which had at that time by no means
been solved.1,54
In respect to the temperament of this time, Cannon ex
plains that through the "increasingly complex use of a chroma
tically enlarged means of expression" demanded by the rapid
growth and spread in popularity of the musico-dramatic form,
the use of unusual keys and modulations was fashionable.
Moreover, in addition to this the development of thorough-bass
resulted in increasing dependence of music upon the keyboard
instruments and this required a type of permanent tuning
according to a fixed scheme. Finally, he points out that the
solution to these problems and to the stabilization of the
key-system presented by Mattheson lay in the evolution of the

55
system of equal-temperament.
S^Beekman Cannon, Johann Mattheson, Spectator in Music

(New Haven, 1947), p. 125.
55Cannon, pp. 125-126.
380
In a second work, Das beschutzte Orchestre (1719),
Mattheson feels called upon to vindicate his ideas in regard
to the tonal system presented in his earlier work. He sets
himsel f not only to support these ideas, hut even more empha
tically, to demand the final reform, of the tonal system, by
the complete abolishment of the remaining traces of modal
science found in the theoretical instruction at this time.
Thus, even in his preface, he calls the modes a mistake of
the Greeks. Through a summary review of their development,
and a comparison of their use in the earlier practice with
that of the contemporary music, he succeeds in shoxving how
they have been superseded by the major-minor system as the
tonal basis for music. Finally, he concludes this treatment
with . a reiteration of the position taken in his first treatise,
w h i c h may be seen in the following*
. . . in concerted music, the species of mode rests

only on two genera; however, species and genus are dis
tinguished; therefore the twenty-four species and the
two genera are not the same thing; and although con
cerning genus, Grete appears like Elsa, nevertheless,
in terms of species, they are two different peo p l e . 56
Little more is said in this work concerning the scales
themselves, except in a few general remarks which Mattheson
makes on modulation. However, the modes, are mentioned again
in the second part of his work where he attacks the outmoded
system of solmisatlon still in use as a tool of musical instruc
tion at this time. In this discussion, Mattheson goes to great
56Mattheson, Das beschutzte Orchestre, p. 337.
381
lengths to prove that the hexachord system, like that of the
o l d modes, has long outlived its usefulness. H e closes the
consideration of this, and also the inodes themselves, with
w hat might he called according to Riemann, "the last dirge"
of the older systems.57 This may be seen in the following
excerpt from Mattheson's discussion:
. . . then finally the long-banished ut-mi-sol, re-

fa-la, "Todte (nicht tota) Musica". . . will be brought
to the grave with the stately accompaniment of the
twelve Greek Modes as respectable relations and mourn
ers and honored with a monument to eternal remem
brance.
With these final statements we may draw our discussion
of Mattheson to a close. It is clear from the preceding that,
though Mattheson is not a theorist in the strict sense of the
word, his determined position in regard to the tonal system in

59
his time is a contribution of tremendous significance. With
S^Riemann, Gescht. d. Mt . , p. 410.
^ M a t t h e s o n , p. 336. In this quotation the expression

"Todte (nicht tota) Musica" means of course, "Dead music (not
the whole of music)" and refers to the two older systems, the
hexachord and the modes. It is explained further by Cannon'
who says that the earlier work of Mattheson, Das neu-eroffnete
Orc h e s t r e , found a bitter opponent in Johann Buttstedt, who,
between 1715 and 1719 to confute the teachings of Mattheson,
issued a work w h ich he called, "UT, MI. SOL, RE, FA, LA, TOTA
M U S I C A ET HARMONIA AETERNA Oder Neu-er8ffnetes, altes, wahres,
eintziges, und ewiges FUNDAMENTUM MUSICES, entgegen gesetzt
P ern neu-eroffneten Orchestre, . . . " (Cannon, p. 134.)
59A clear evaluation of Matt h e s o n ’s position in relation

to the musical developments of this time may be seen in the
following statement; "Johann Mattheson of Hamburg is one of
the most important musical writers of the 18th century, to be
sure, not exactly significant as a theorist, but as much on
account of his very extensive reading and experience, as on
his unequivocal defense of his own system of the twenty-four
major and minor keys, supported by references to the key-
circle of Heinichen, Mattheson succeeds' beyond question in com
pletely establishing this system in theory as the only tonal
system valid for the music of this time. Moreover the success
of his attack on the two older systems may be seen in the fact
that these systems disappear completely from the treatises and
instruction books based on the practise of figured bass.
In the preceding discussion, it is clear that the con
tinued performance of the polyphonic music based on the modes
encouraged the persistence of the traditions of modal science,
and acted as. a deterrent in the final transition to the new
tonal system in theory. Moreover, the still-unsolved problems
in the tempering of the scales on the keyboard instruments was
a further factor preventing a more rapid progress in the sta
bilization of tonality at this time. However, eventually the
recognition of the confusion caused by the use of the old
modes, in contrast to the obvious simplicity of the new system
b a s e d on only two modes, led to the final breakdown of the
older system and the traditional theory which it supported.
This was motivated by the figured bass practice wh i c h of neces
sity demanded a practical solution to the problems of tempera
ment and to the understanding and use of the new tonal system.
These demands, then, may be said to have been the cause of
bringing to a logical conclusion, the final clarification of
account of his open-mindedness and his rectitude.11 (Riemann,

G-eschichte der Musiktheorie, p.. 434, )
383
the major-minor key system and the principles of key relation
in the figured bass theory of the early 18th century.
384
CHAPTER VIII
MODULATION IN LATE 17TH AND EARLY
18TH CENTURY THEORY
A study of the subject of tonality in the treatises of
the late 17th and early 18th century has shown that confusion
existed because of the lack of a clear distinction between
the two tonal systems in use at this time* Of the factors
w h i c h engendered this confusion, certainly one of the most im
portant was the absence of a satisfactory system of tempera
ment for the keyboard instruments which were becoming increa
singly important in the development of musical practice of
this time. Though the final evolution of the equal-tempered
system of tuning is not revealed in these treatises, it is
clear that by the early 18th century, there has been attained
in practice a type of temperament which permits a reasonable
fluency in the use of the keys of the major-minor system of
tonality. Thus, the way is open for the final development in
the stabilization of the new tonal system, i.e. the clarifi
cation of the harmonic principles on which the relation of the
keys within this system is established.
The purpose of the present chapter is to trace the de
velopment of the concepts of key relation and techniques of
modulation in the treatises of the period dating from approxi
mately 1670 to 1715. It may be pointed out that up to the
present time, theoretical recognition of these ideas in prac
tice has been limited to defining the keys most closely
385
related to a given key, by means of the closes permitted to
the latter.1
In this connection, the first new development to be
observed is that of an expansion of the early relations and a
clarification of the harmonic principles on which such connec
tions are based. Prom this point, aided by the developments
in tempered-tuning, it becomes possible to have an ever-
widening circle in the connection of keys, and an experimen
ting with the many different ways in wh i c h such keys could be
connected. W i t h the eventual inclusion of all the possible
keys within this circle, and the formulation of clear harmonic
relations among these, it was then possible to establish the
circle in theory as a basis for the practice of modulation.
In a study of these developments in the theory of this
time, it is possible to divide the treatises into three sepa
rate classifications. The first class may be defined as that
in which there appear the first signs of developments of new
ideas in key relation and modulation.2 in the second classi
fication are the treatises in which there is evidence of a
widening of the concept of key relationships based clearly on
the harmonic principles of the major-minor key system, and
1 The clearest presentation of this subject up to this

time has been in the English instruction books of the late
17th century, particularly those of Sympson and Playford.
2 wil l be observed in the treatment of modulation in

A s
the treatises of Bononcini and Frezza, the only contribution

to neitf ideas is in the extension of the use of chromatic tones
for transposition and an implied relation of this to key
change.
386
observed especially at the cadences. Finally, in the third
classification of treatises, the emphasis is p l a c e d on the use
of the key circle for the purpose of practical modulations,
and on the harmonic principles derived from the circle.
The Evidence for Modulation in the Late 1 7th
Century Modal Treatises3
An important basis for the distinction of this group is
that the theorists concerned are still primarily contrapuntal
in their viewpoint in relation to practice and thus define the
modes as the tonal system in use. In spite of this fact, there
may be observed among these theorists some evidence of change
in ideas, w h i c h indicates an advance over the concepts of
mixed modes or change of mode considered in the earlier modal
treatises of the 17th century.
Two of the treatises which fall into this first classi
fication are Bononcini's II prattloo musloo (1673), and
F r e z z a 1s II canto eccleslastlco (1698). In both works there
is evidence of recognition of the modes only, as the tonal
basis for music. Since b o t h theorists are closely connected
w i t h the church practice and the polyphonic music b a s e d on the
modes, it is not surprising to find a conservative viewpoint
in relation to the developments in the musical practice of
this time. Although both theorists make a distinction between
3Since in the treatises of this first group, the presen

tation of new ideas or developments related to the subject un
der discussion is quite limited, no attempt is made to separate
these treatises by the use of sub-headings.
387
the church practice and the newer developments in connection
with the accompanied solo song and instrumental styles, nei
ther gives any detailed consideration to the matter.
Frezza recognizes the importance of the practice of
figured-bass for the organist and considers its use in connec
tion with the church music. H e points out that the figures
support the consonances above the bass and shows how they may
b e applied to every one of the modes, both in the regular and
in the transposed positions. One significant idea is found in
his discussion and illustration of the way in which the modes
are mixed w i t h each other. He states that within a composi
tion there may be a change from one mode to another by means
of making a cadence in the n e w tone. These changes of mode
will be Identified by the appearance of cadences which are ir
regular to the given mode, and further, by the appearance of
strongly characteristic identifying phrases in the new modes.
However, there is no evidence of any use of scales other than
the church modes, and thus no new developments in key relation
to the changes mentioned.
Both Frezza and Bononcini give a clear discussion of
the chromatic tones, first defining the regular use, and then
considering the extension of these in practice at this time.
For example, Bononcini demonstrates the manner in which the
accidentals may be applied to any of the diatonic octaves,
causing a change in the half-tone positions and a variation
from one mode to another. Further, he points out that these
I
388
may be varied in any number of ways, ar.d that this is practised
in the composition of his time. He summarizes the irregular
transpositions by indicating the number of flats or sharps
needed to produce these at all the different intervals at which
they are now used. He states that the transpositions are to
be recognized by the use of the accidentals in key signatures
at the beginning of the composition.
Some attention is given by both of these theorists to
the use of accidentals to alter the cadences and thus cause a
change from one mode to another. Though Bononcini gives a
more detailed discussion, there is no more evidence of any new
ideas in regard to key relation, than found in Frezza. More
over, though there is some evidence that Bononcini was aware
of the major-minor system, there is no recognition of these
irregular cadences having any connection to a new type of key
change not found in the regular use of the modes. Thus, it
may be pointed out that though Frezza and Bononcini give recog
nition to the changes in practice in the late 17th century,
they still retain the more conservative viewpoint of the earli
er modal theorists. Finally, it is apparent that each of them
gives evidence of having been influenced by the newer develop
ments in some specific phase of their theory. Nevertheless,
their only contributions to the further development of new
ideas is the recognition and explanation of the extended use
of the chromatic tones.
389
In the final work of this first classification, L i
primi albori musioali (1672),4 Penna describes the ecclesias
tical modes as the tonal basis for music and, as observed in
Frezza's treatise, applies the figured bass to these modes for
use on the organ. However, in a discussion of transposition,
there is a very clear reference to the major-minor modes. He
says that the first thing to be observed in transposing is to
notice “whether the composition is of a nature to p roceed by
the lesser third, re-fa-la, or whether in accordance with its
nature, it progresses w i t h the greater third, ut-mi-sol."5
However, P e n n a gives even more conclusive evidence than this
that he not only recognized the major-minor scale system, but
was fully aware of the characteristic features which distin
guished this in use from the modal system. This may be ob
served in the consideration of the cadences, and even more
specifically, in his description of the ruota or circle by
means of w h i c h these cadences are to b e mastered.
% e n n a , himself, makes reference to an earlier treatise,

w h i c h he says was his “p r lma o p era, printed at Milan in 1656."
However, Fetis, the only source in which I have found refer
ence to this, describes it as the first edition of Li primi
albori musio a l i , printed at Bologna in 1656, and of“ w h ich only
the first part was published. (Fetis, Blographle unlverselle
des musieiens, et Bibliographie generale de la musique, 2nd
e57, Paris, 1864, VI:4 ^ 7 )
&Penna, Li primi albori musioali, p. 140.
t:
Calling attention to Penna's treatment of these caden
ces, Arnold makes the following comment: “Penna evidently at
tached considerable importance to the acquisition of perfect
familiarity with the different cadences in all keys, for each
of the chapters . . . Just described, concludes w i t h a 'Circo-
lo, o Ruota delle Cadenze', . . . " (F. T. Arnold, The Art of
Accompaniment from a Thorough-Bass, London, 1931, p. 136.7
390
Penna discusses four "orders" or types of cadence, giv
ing a chapter to each in which he explains the application of
the figured bass to the four types. At the conclusion of each
chapter, he presents a ruota or "wheel" by means of which the
organist can circle through twelve keys and arrive back at the
starting point. The first order, i.e. Prlmo Ordlne, illus
trates the sinple dominant-tonic cadenoe and is explained
briefly by Penna, then followed by the illustration of its
formula. H e says:
Here, I wish to talk about the circle or wheel of

the cadences of this first order which, after the stu
dent has learned w i t h ease, will make h i m master of all
the cadenoes of this first order, the regular as well
as the Irregular cadences; and it follows:7
Figure 25. The Circle of Cadences of the First Order.

(Penna, p. 174.)
Ordlnarle
*? M
-4 t-f £ . i S '<
jBL ZczL XC
-JZ. ~TT
Estravaffantl■with Flats Estravagantl with Sharps-
*1 *1 1 9 >?
s x* r*}. j-t.s'*1 * s <T
_ij_;
^44- ± ± S- j t f l i g . -K-
-jm:
s XE
Tpzr
7Penna, p. 174. The regular cadences are marked in the

examples as Ordlnarle and the irregular as Estravaganltl, ex
actly as Penna gives them in his treatise. "They are to "be dis
cussed later.
391
At the conclusion of this example, the use of the term,
r u o t a , or wheel, to designate each of these four orders of
cadences is explained as follows:
It is called a circle or wheel, because it goes cir

cling through all the cadences and . . . then makes a re
turn to the first cadence as may be seen in the above-
mentioned example. The sixths in the circle are not
marked w i t h the sign of the major or the minor sixth,
thus making it possible for the student to give himself
practice by doing the said circle in two ways; one
w i t h the major, and the other with the minor sixths,
• • •
8
P r o m this it is clear that P e n n a intends the circle to apply
to both the major and minor keys, since the sixth to which he
refers is that which gives the major or minor third above the
tonic of the key.
Following the discussion and illustration of the first
order of cadences, Penna takes up each of the others in turn,
and describes and illustrates them in the same manner as the
first. He describes the second order, in which the bass falls
a fourth to the final, as a type of half-cadence to which he
evidently attaches little importance. However, from the illus
tration which is given in Figure 26 below, it is clear that
this is a cadence from the lower dominant to the tonic, and in
^ e n n a , p. 174. Although Penna says the sixths (which

refer to the thirds in the tonic J}, over the first tone of each
key) may be major or minor, he does not mention the thirds
over the finals. These are all given major, but w o u l d have to
be changed to minor if the sixths were p l a y e d minor.
392
modern terminology w o u l d b e called plagal.
Figure 26. The Circle of Cadences of the Second Order.

(Penna, pp. 177-178.)
Ordlnarle Estravasantl with Sharps

s- j*
-3 -
- 0-
dm
Jt3S~ iSt% >
m -f:; -d -*
hi
Estravagantl with Flats

s~t
jr t
3Pz= -¥0- a X t-
z$n z
.po g He
5 ±
The third order of cadences consists of those in which
the bass falls from the fourth to the second degree of the key,
and then proceeds stepwise to the final or t o n i c . P e n n a
p oint s out that these also, as with the cadences of the first
order, are to be p l ayed wit h the major and minor sixths, thus
giving practice through the circle in b o t h modes. They may be
examined in Figure 27 below.
%>enna suggests that in these cadences the third, pre

sumably that above the first tone of each key, could be played
either major or minor. It should be pointed out that this is
already minor, while the thirds above the second tones are all
major. However, b o t h may be played either minor together, or
major, or as given. Also, though this is a plagal cadence
type, attention should be called to the diminished seventh
w h i c h follows the lower dominant.
l°From the figures it may be observed that this cadence

also has strong plagal feeling, with the first chord the lower
dominant, followed by a seventh chord on the second degree,
w h i c h changes to a dominant-type as the leading tone seventh,
w i t h the resolution of the suspended seventh to the sixth.
393
Figure 27. The Circle of Cadences of the Third Order.

(Penna, pp. 179-180.)
Ordinarle
i-im- * ‘L * *
I* bift p #
-OZ ZJS.
Estravaganti With Sharps

* £ jr *■— '#»_ — $
3zzat ~5T~
-jrir fnr£
it =3PC ^ - -na
— — J JTTT
EstravaKanti with Flats

IX IX
it f,
j. /* s ”,Hr-
— -t-
-Hi-
3- g
ZL5T.
<
><? ‘If «■ 1 }?
. T£~ 'A
=| it
sr <? ifa Vtb T? t5>— —
=t
■f*- m -ih-
The fourth and final order of cadences is given in
Figure 28, from which it can he observed that the principle of
the first order is simply expanded. The cadence may be classi
fied as another dominant-tonic type with the chord tones indi
cated by the figures over the first tonic (i.e. .the second
note), suspended over the second dominant embellished with the
sixth of the s c a l e . ^ Penna suggests that these may be played
w i t h the major and minor thirds over the second bass tone, and
the major and minor sevenths over the third bass tone. This
again indicates that the student will have to practice in all
^ A g a i n , it may be pointed out that the second dominant

is really the leading tone triad with the seventh, and there
fore only a dominant-type. However since its function is em
bellishing, the cadence is heard as a dominant-tonic close.
394
the major and minor keys.
Figure 28. The Circle of Cadences of the Fourth Order.

(Penna, p. 102.)
Ordlnarle
jff ^ H ? e lk A 2- rt* ,
f ' U
Estravagantl with Sharps

>? ■
s s
l | l i s '? * T * f * S” ff
* a A a — £ - ^ £ . ** 3
f&przikr** ..llt f c 32C -M l
Estravagantl with Flats

. r J7-
S'S >7 ^ i U y-
_J_A 4r -U-i- +t?- i_X
EC -b-&-
$ = m
£
The significance of the ruota or circle idea of Penna
should not be underestimated,, since this Is the first time that
a clear procedure for connecting the major and minor keys in a

12
circle has been given In theory. N e ither in the chapters in
w h ich these cadences are explained and illustrated, nor in any
other place in his treatise, does P e nna mention key relation or
modulation. Nevertheless, it is clear that both of these ideas
are illustrated in the circles of cadences, and moreover, two
types of relation may be defined. In two of the four orders, .
the key-relation demonstrated is that of a key and its upper
dominant. In the other two orders, w h ile the relation is not
^ T h o u g h in M u s u r g l a universalis (Hall, 1650), Kircker

describes a method of progressing through a "Key" Circle b y
means of 4ths and 5ths, there is no evidence that he referred
to any scale system but that of the modes.
395
so clearly defined, it is strongly suggestive of that between
a hey and its lower dominant.
A further examination of the ruote of Penna shows that
in each of the circles there is a distinction between the re
gular (O r d l n a r l e ) and the less regular (Sstravagantl) keys.
Since this distinction is b a sed primarily on the number of ac
cidentals which appear in the signature, the implication is
that the Ordlnarle are the keys most frequently used, while
the Estravagantl are those less frequently used. Thus it may
be surmised that those keys with the greater number of chroma
tic tones are more difficult to play in tune, or to connect
easily in the circle. For this reason they are used less regu
larly than the others.13
The primary importance of the distinction b e t w e e n the
two types of cadences in the circles lies in the fact that
Penna indicates clearly an enharmonic relation between the
Estravagantl w i t h flats and those w i t h sharps. This is explain
ed in connection with the irregular cadences given in the first
order, but apply to all the others as well. Concerning these,
he points out that there are only four keys, for "those with
the double flats are as many as those with the double sharps,
and though written differently, they are the same, as can be
13The fact that the accidentals of the Estravagantl are

the more unusual may be perceived in P e n n a 1s signatures. In
these, he gives only two flats, and two sharps, which, with
the addition of g sharp, are the most regularly used chromatic
tones, on the untempered keyboards of the time.
396
seen in the examples. "14 »p0 support this statement, he gives
an exanple (Figure 29, below) which illustrates the enharmonic
relation between the flat and sharp keys as described, accord
ing to the cadences of the first order.
Figure 29. The Enharmonic Relations between the Sharp and

Flat Keys in the Cadences Estravagantl of the
First Order. (Penna, p. 175.)
if C S’
---- * ------------ ---------------- *3 * m a. tJAJJ £ 4 m
O '- P f — B ......... uv f ^ - h a1 & —
-J ---- 3 -*- —— &- ...
J C-------- *7T- ~SR2.
In summarizing the treatment of the cadences in P e n n a 1s
treatise, it is apparent that he must have recognized the re
lation between a key and its upper and lower dominants. Fur
ther, it is also clear that he utilized this relation as a
principle for his circle of keys, by means of which he was
able to modulate in regular order through all the major and
minor keys in use at this time, in the manner shown.
It may be pointed out that P e n n a 1s key connections in
the ruote show a more limited knowledge of key relation than
that found in the English treatises discussed earlier, but
really belonging to the same period, especially those of
^4Penna, p. 175. In his analysis of P e n n a 1s r u ota,

Arnold interprets the Estravagantl as remote keys, which usu-
ally implies "remoteness!i from a key center, and thus, here,
suggests a concept pf modulation not present in Penna's treat
ment. Therefore, the interpretation of the Estravagantl as
those keys difficult to us e because of the unusual chromatics
required, and thus impossible to play in tune with the tem
perament used for the keyboard instruments of this time,
seems a more logical explanation.
397
Sympson and Playford.1 ® Nevertheless, his projection of these
upon the circle, and the demonstration of the use of this for
connecting the keys, represents a unique contribution to a
further development of the concept of modulation in the theory
of this time. Finally, his understanding of the enharmonic
relation of the keys having more than four flats or sharps,
is significant for the clarification of the use of the chroma
tic tones, and of the major-minor tonal system.
In regard to the three theorists of this first classifi
cation, it may be pointed out that the indifference to specu
lation on the problems of key-relation, modulation, and tem
perament, characteristic of these treatises, undoubtedly has
its basis in the treatment given to key and mode. Thus, in
the first two works, particularly, where only the modal system
is considered as the tonai basis for music, there is no dis
cussion of key-relation, nor of modulation. P e n n a likewise
attempts no explanation of either subject and only one brief
reference shows that he recognized the basic distinction be
tween the major-minor system and that of the modes. However,
in contrast to the other theorists of this group, he neverthe
less shows a practical knowledge not only of the major-minor
system, but also of key-relation and modulation, somewhat in
lÂs pointed out on the preceding page, the key-relations

shown in P e n n a 1s circles are limited to those of the upper do
minant (as in the second and third orders), and lower dominant
(as in the first and fourth orders). In addition to these in
b oth major and minor, Sympson and Playford recognize that of
the mediant in minor, and" the second degree in major keys.
398
advance of that found in most of the other theoretical trea
tises representative of the same period. Thus, it may he said
that of the theorists of the first classification, he alone
deserves credit for a distinctive contribution to the further
understanding of modulation and the harmonic principles on
which it is based.
Modulation in the Major-Minor Key System
The treatises within the second classification are dis
tinguished, as indicated earlier, by the clear recognition of
the major-minor hey system as the tonal basis for the music,
and thus for the practice of modulation. A further distinction
may be observed in the fact that though the hey circle is men
tioned in some of these worhs, no emphasis is p l a c e d on its
use in connection with the treatment of modulation. In place
of this device, the basis for hey relation and the practice
of modulation is the same as that found in the English trea
tises mentioned Just above. This may be defined as the rela
tion of a given hey to others within its own ambitus, to which
it is permitted to close during the course of a composition.
Thus, again the conception of hey relation and modulation are
determined through the cadence progressions.
Transition or K e y Change Through the Closes in English and

French Treatises of the L ate 17th and Early l'Bth Century
The practice of modulation based on the relation of a
hey. to its perm i t t e d closes may be observed in three treatises,
399
w hich are representative of the English developments in
figured-bass toward the close of the 17th century. These
works are Melothesla: or rules for playing on a thorough bass
(1673) by Matthew Locke; Rules for thorough-bass (c. 1673) by
J o h n Blow; and Keller's A compleat method for thoro-bass
(c. 1700).16 All three works are very brief in their treatment
of modulation, and in addition, they show little development
beyond that already observed in the English treatises and
instruction books considered earlier.
The figured bass treatise of John Blow might easily be
long to the first mentioned group of English treatises, from
its viewpoint on modulation. For, like them, it contains no
mention of the practice, and thus this must be surmised only
from the discussion of the closes of the Flat and Sharp Keys.
Even in this connection, there is no evidence of any develop
ment, since the relations exhibited by the closes for the keys
are virtually the same as those,of Campion in the early 17th
century. They may be summarized as follows; For the flat or
minor key, a key to its dominant, to its mediant, and to the
sixth above the final; for the sharp or major key, the connec
tions are to only the upper and lower dominants. Both Locke
and Keller describe and illustrate the keys and closes in the
same manner as Blow. However, each makes a specific further
16These treatises actually belong to the same period as

the later Playford and Sympson editions, but are distinguished
from these as representative of the figured-bass theory, and
for this reason were not considered with the earlier group.
400
reference or gives an illustration of the practice of modula
tion. For example, Locke, In giving rules for the application
of specific intervals to the bass, points out that the ear
must be the guide for determining these, as well as for the
11. . . inclination or change of the Ayr, or Descant from one
Key to another, . . . 1,17 A second reference indicates an
"example . . . by way of Transition, or passing from one key
to a n o t h e r , o f which a short section is given below.
17Locke, p. 7.
IQihid., p. 8. The resolution of the figured bass in

this example is taken from Arnold, The Art of Acoompanlment
f r o m a Thorough-Bass, p. 160, with a substi^Sution of the tre-
b l e for the C clef after measure two.
401
Example 72. Transition, or Passing from One Key to Another.

(Locke, p. 8.)
<& <9- m
^ W rrfjtrr^
6 76 76 76 76 1 T6 * f6 * J\ 5 74 O
tr
-ef—Q
f f - ^ rp ? ■■; -^
*faj$ rfA^~f\^z^r
fc&Jdr.
p 21..._ t .f.— |
3zz:
V
J4 f 76 #
3
>
3
7 6 76 76 4Ms* 4 3
pzzszzt :
22
-i I
irJ ,)■
7 6 6*
76 ^33 76
U It, J , t { a
4 ? 4 ■*
2 Z Z
In the same manner' as Locke, Keller makes reference to
modulation in giving rules for the application of specific in
tervals given in the figured bass. These need no discussion
he r e since they have little relevance to the subject of modu
lation. However, an example to illustrate the rules concerned,
and also to show the cadences proper to a sharp key, is given
for its illustration of the practice of modulation according
to Keller*'s treatise.
402
Example 73. Illustration Showing the Natural Sixes and

Proper Cadences in a Sharp Key. (Keller, p. 4.)
As in the English treatises Just described, Masson, in
his Nouveau Traite des Regies pour Composition (1705), des
cribes the cadences permitted to the major-minor scales. They
may be summarized for comparison with those given above in
connection with Blow's treatise, and are the following: For
the minor mode, the connections indicated by the closes are
those on the final, mediant, and dominant; for the major, only
* "IQ
the upper dominant. While Masson does not mention modula
tion in connection with these closes, there is some evidence
that they are related to the practice of changing key, which
19 a comparison of these closes of Masson with those of

B l o w shows that they are the same except for the former's
omission of the lower-dominant connection in the major keys.
However, in his discussions of.the changes themselves, Masson
includes others not found in the English treatises.
403
he discusses at some length. In relation to the latter, there
are quite definite rules given for the key changes, and they
are illustrated in connection with the rules.
In the practice of modulation for the figured-bass
player, Masson stresses the necessity for preparing the caden
ces properly. For this reason, all of the examples given are
short sections showing the approach to the cadence in the new
key. Among the key connections given, the examples include
both major-minor, and minor-minor modes, and moreover, transi
tions from a key to that a whole-step above, to a major third
below, to the lower dominant, and finally, a minor third
above. A brief examination of these examples will suffice to
show Masson's understanding of the practice of modulation.
The first example illustrates the connection of the key
of C-sol-ut with D-la-re and its return. In this, which may
be observed Just below, the first sign of the new key is found
w i t h the c sharp above the A in the second bar. This chord is
followed by the new tonic (in first inversion), and then by a
cadence in the new key. The return is made simply by lowering
the third of the dominant of d minor, the first chord of the
last bar, followed by an Implied dominant-tonic cadence pro
gression closing on the fingJ. of the old key -of C major.
404
Example 74, Connection of a Key to That a Whole-Step Above.

(Masson, p, 55.)
+ 9. .
"P * A * , F ,i ----------- .(
ty.:? i f -fz f--| 4— 1— *— j— i— ± i
i' *=t±J
*
- t-
./ lA t # r: P f = r = J # ,:J 1r z t= fi= r -j-— ■
T n ~ P
The second example shows a modulation from A to F major/
for w h ich Masson gives the following explanation; "When one
leaves A mi-la [major] to make a cadence in F major, he is
obliged to make the third on the sol minor, . . . and even on
the la which goes before,"20 In the example w h ich follows,
the two necessary minor thirds are derived as follows; In
measuring one, the major third, A-C sharp is changed to minor
by lowering the C sharp; in measure two, B flat is used to
give the minor third above &.
Example 75. The Connection of a Key to That a Major Third

Below, (Masson, p. 56.)
A
/ # /?" her § ■:4-|— U
—0— — J--r~
4-
-
L -
-0 !-5--■ f---
- •-
-f-- 1T~
V -- J-'--- ---- -- 1— -- f > J
d J—
The last two examples to be observed are very brief and
since they are evidently the most common key connections,
ÔMasson, p. 56.
Masso n gives very little explanation of these. In the first
one, Example 76, the hey connection is that of a to d minor,
or a dominant-tonic relation. It is made simply by raising
the third above the original tonic which, as the A major
triad, is now the dominant of the new key of d minor.
Example 76. The Connection of a Key to Its Lower Dominant.

(Masson, p. 57.)
•. . / ...fc . . . . ^ L .
U a r-.% ...
E b
!
4 7 -K---------- L - ^ r z p , —
-•
- — J—
The last connection, which may be seen in Example 77 below, is
that of a minor to its relative major, in this case that of a
minor to C major. It is clear the change of key takes place
in the second measure, with the dominant of the new key C major
on & following the common chord d minor, and moving through a
cadence progression to an implied C major as the final chord.
Example 77. The Connection of a Key to Its Relative Major.

(Masson, p. 57.)
406
Tr a n sition from One Key to Another In the Figured Bass Trea

tise of Gasparini
In this treatise, Iârmonloo prattlco (1683), the treat
ment of key-relation or modulation is characterized by two fea
tures not-found in the preceding works of this second classifi
cation. These are the clear definition of modulation, and the
logical presentation of a technique supported by the figured-
bass practice. A second distinctive feature is the reference
given to an application of the figured-bass technique to the
key circle. For developing the understanding of the teohnique
in relation to the figured-bass, Gasparini prepares the stu
dent for the study of actual modulation b y insisting on com
plete familiarity with the characteristic cadences through
which key-changes are usually made. For example, in reference
to a transition from the key of A major to that of G major,
he explains the change as follows*
To the note A there will be a B, the other E, and

this B requires a major sixth. The E requires a major
third always, because the bass is not given the license
of passing into other tones by making other cadences,
or by showing other signs by the composed part, or giv
ing the signs of the numbers or accidentals as here.^1
From this explanation, and particularly in relation to
the example given below, it is clear that Gasparini has
•^Gasparini, p. 49, Here, the sentence reading, "the

bass is not given the license of passing into other tones," is
b o t h obscure and contradictory. However, Gasparini is stress
ing the importance of recognizing the change of key by means
of the signs in the figures above the bass. Therefore, he
emphasizes that the bass part does not have the liberty of
changing the tone, but rather, a change must be indicated in
the figures and signs above the bass.
407
reference to the leading-tone triad in the first inversion, as
a dominant-type triad. With this as the first of the two cha
racteristic progressions mentioned above, the second may be
p o i n t e d out as the regular dominant-tonic cadence progression,
here, that in the key of A major. The illustration given in
Example 78 will clarify the references to specific tones men
tioned in the quotation above.
Example 78. Transition from A to G Major, and R e t u r n to the

Original Key. (Gasparini, p. 49.)
-r—m—
m
* *
In the example above, the chords which Gasparini has
poi n t e d out specifically in the quotation appear in each mea
sure up to the point of change, with the accidentals which
they require: thus, in order, a with the raised third, which
may be found in all measures, and B w i t h the raised sixth in
the first and fourth measures. Gasparini points out that the
change from A to G is recognized by the last sixth of B
(i.e. in measure five) which requires the minor sixth (G
natural) in p l ace of the preceding major sixth with G sharp.
According to Gasparini, this prepares the way for the dominant-
tonic cadence, D major to G, in the ne w key. The sign for the
r etu r n to A occurs when the "accidental sharp returns to the
408
G , " and. thus the key of G is replaced, again by the original
key of A major. 2 2 in reference to the first example,
Gasparini concludes with the following remark;
Prom this it is clear that every tone has its own

necessary accidentals, namely that of the major third
of its cadence; and this sharp is sufficient to reveal
the tone, unless it may be that the accidental, the
sharp, is a sign that the tone is changed.23
With this as a preparation for the understanding and
use of modulation in practice, Ga sparini turns to a detailed
discussion of modulation or "variations from one tone to ano
ther. " In reference to these, he gives the following general
directions:
The observation most necessary and most difficult,

then, is that of recognizing and anticipating the modu
lation and variation of the tones. For this, a really
l ong practice is required; but it can be facilitated by
observing that in the procedure of the bass, the ear
a nd the eye should always be fixed on that accidental
of the sharp, in the notes where it is placed, as has
been said, and you must maintain it [i.e. the sharp] un
less, either the same bass with its own note or with
signs, or perhaps the part composed £above the bass]
shows other accidental sharps in other notes, from which
you will deduce that the tone has changed.24
^ M e a s u r e s six and seven of the example show by the

figures above the notes B and E (which are indicated without
sharps) that the key is G major,
23Gasparini, p. 49. The word "tone" refers to scale

in this quotation. Also, the sense of the last part beginning
w i t h "unless it may be . . ." is somewhat misleading. The
meaning, however, is that the accidental concerned, i.e. the
third of the dominant, will reveal the key unless it changes,
In which case it will reveal a new key.
24G-asparini, pp. 52-53.
409
A s an example of modulation, Gasparini now sets an ex
tended passage in which there are several "variations from
one tone to another." All of these are Indicated by the ac
cidental signs, usually sharps, as explained above.25 This
example may be observed Immediately bel o w . 2®
Example 79. "Variations from One Tone to A n o t h e r . "

(Gasparini, p. 53.)
" 1. 2.
3-* ;
* U u. L- 4 - J - r —
- r i ~ r - - * r ~ r
J: .: g - 1-- lj 1 1 I p U - T - h
4 .
7-c 4 7 # + + +
0-
* i'
p s p f s
5-
*
4r
& fet p
In connection w i t h this example, Gasparini gives a rather de
tailed analysis of the changes, and the signs indicating them.
•^Though, up to this point Gasparini has mentioned only

the sharp, i.e. indicating the leading tone, later, he consi
ders the use of the flat accidental as a sign that the tone
has changed. Obviously, a flat would occasionally be neces
sary to indicate a lowered seventh, and in this case would be
the sign of the tone changing.
Pfi
In connection w i t h this example, attention is called
to the signs, viz. 1. # etc., which Gasparini has u s e d to
indicate the points at w h i c h the modulations occur, in addition
to the figures and signs just above the bass. It may be no
ticed that these signs are placed, conveniently, above the
figures for the bass, and with the accidentals which have been
emphasized as the signs of the change of key.
410
This is quoted in full below.
From this example it may be observed that one acci

dental cancels another, because, as may be seen, the
composition begins in a-la-mi; we have then, immediately,
the accidental G sharp, then comes that of 0#, and this
continues without any other coming. This £i. e. 0#] re
turns to that of the * of G# 2., replacing that of the
first; now, comes that of D#, which is # that of the
major third of B-mi 3., replacing the first. It contin
ues with its notes, tvithout being renewed *, inasmuch
as it comes from C# 4., and this continues without being
licensed by the cadence, which turns toward the 0 natu
ral as demonstrated in the three notes d e s i g natedtt t .
In this you must observe, that if you did not antici
pate the said cadence, you could give the major sixth
to that E-la-mi, because of the preceding sharp p l aced
by the major third of A, but, if one gives it the minor
sixth, then it is necessary to anticipate the following
cadence in 0. The sign then, to return to the principal
tone is that of the very first accidental, that is the
G■ sharp, p l aced by the major third to the E 5., and this
latter follows where it can enter even to the end of the
cadence.27
Following a much more extended treatment of modulation
in the manner already observed, Gasparini concludes his discus
sion of the subject with an explanation and illustration of
what he calls "a means of circling through the k e y s . 11 This,
however, unlike the key-circles found in other treatises of
this same peri o d and later, appears as a series of scale-wise
passages constructed above each of the notes in the octave G
to g as t o n i c s . T h e exanples given as illustrations are
27(3.asparlni, p. 53. It may- be pointed out that the

variations given, as both the example and analysis clearly
show, are those made by the use'of the sharp accidental.
2®In addition to the regular diatonic tones of the

octave, G-g, there are several of the commonly use d chromatic
tones within this octave u s e d as keytones for these scale
passages.
\
411
not connected, nor is there given any suggestion of the varied
techniques for practice usually found with these circles.
Therefore, it may be surmised that the idea of this circle is
simply to acquaint the figured-bass accompanist wit h all the
keys and their cadences in regular use for this period, in
which the circle is the most convenient method for the organi
zation of this information.
In conclusion to this study of Gasparini, it may be
p ointed out that in his treatment of modulation, emphasis is
placed on making clear the use of the bass figures in relation
to changes of key. The technique for modulation is empha
sized through explanation and analysis of specific examples.
This may be defined as the correct understanding and applica
tion of those accidental signs, usually the sharps, but some
times flats, which indicate whether the key is to change or
not. These signs are those used specifically to indicate the
leading tone or raised seventh of the key and appear as the
third above the dominant, or as the sixth above the second
degree of the scale. G a s p a r i n i ^ treatment of change or vari
ation of key may be considered a significant contribution to
the further understanding of the theory and practice of modu
lation for this time, primarily because of the clarity of his
presentation through illustration and analysis. Finally, al
though Gasparini bases modulation on the principle of the ca-
dential progression as do the other theorists belonging to
this same group (i.e. the second classification,
412
see pp. 398-403), his treatment reveals a considerably ex
p anded idea of the theory and technique of the practice.
Although his circle is not clearly defined as another tech
nique, it gives further support to the above conclusion con
cerning Gasparini's position in relation to the subject of
modulation.
The Circle of Keys as a Modulatory Technique
in Figured-Bass Theory
In the third and final classification of treatises to
be considered at this time, there are two main sources which
are highly significant for evidence of the developments in the
theory and practice of modulation in the early 18th century.
The first of these is Andreas Werckmelster, in whose treatises
the greatest emphasis is placed on the relation of the prac
tice of modulation to the tempering of the keyboard instru
ments. In contrast, Heinichen, whose treatises are the second
main source, is primarily concerned with the demonstration of
practical techniques of modulation as they are applied to the
keyboard instruments. A third source, Friderlch Niedt's
Muslcalisohe Handleltung zur Variation (Hamburg, 1700), may
be mentioned only in passing as an important source from
wh i c h both Werckmeister and Heinichen drew many of their
ideas on modulation.^9
^ % i e d t ' s discussion of modulation is p resented in

Ch. XI of Muslcalisohe Handleltung (1700) under the heading,
"Wie man manierlich aus einem Thon in den andern fallen sol."
From this chapter, Arnold describes and illustrates three
413
Temperament and Modulation In Werckmeister1s Treatises ^
In W e r c k m e i s t e r 's earliest work, Hodegus curiosus,
there is relatively little Information concerning the subject
of key-relation or modulation. However, in a discussion of
the tuning of the keyboard instruments, he mentions the diffi
culties of playing some of the keys in tune under the system
of tempering in use at that time. This may be observed espe
cially in connection with transposition of the scales to other
positions. While Werckmeister admits that there has not yet
b een found a more satisfactory method of tuning the intervals
than that in use at the time, he shows that in spite of the
deficiencies, it is possible to manage very well if the instru
ment has a good tempering. This may be observed in the follow
ing statement:
If we, on the other hand, have a well-tempered Cla

vier, we are able to h a v e all the modes out of every
key and transpose them as we wish, which, to one thus
acquainted with circling on the Clavier, gives his vari
ations and falls very pleasantly on the ear.30
In a discussion of the more practical aspects of modu
lation, Werckmeister considers how this may be applied to the
methods of modulating according to Niedt, These may be sum

marized as follows: 1) By a circle of keys descending by al
ternate major and minor thirds; 2) By taking a Sixth on the
leading note (accidentally sharpened if necessary) of the new
key (cf. Gasparini, p. 406); 3) By a circle of keys ascending
by alternate major and minor thirds. (Arnold, Art of Accom-
p a n l m e n t , p. 235.)
30Werckmeister, Hodegus curlosus, p. 120. W e r c k m e i s t e r 1s

u s e of the term "well-tempered" seems to mean "tempered as
well as possible" within the limits of the system then in use.
414
Clavier of this time. He states first, that it is possible
w i t h a "well-tempered" Clavier, to go through the complete
circle of twenty-four keys of the present system, coming again
to the key on which one began. This is accomplished by utili
zing the twenty-four major and minor triads which represent
the major-minor scales mentioned above. A practical demon
stration of this is given by means of an exanple in which
the chords mentioned are used in succession, in a descending
progression of alternating major and minor thirds. The chords,
and thus the keys which they represent in this succession, may
be -summarized as follows;
C major, a minor, P major, d minor, B flat major,

g minor, E flat major, c minor, A flat major, f
minor, C sharp (or D flat) major, b flat minor,
F sharp (or 0- flat) major, e flat minor, B major,
g sharp minor, E major, c sharp minor, A major,
f sharp minor, D major, b minor— at this point
Werckmeister breaks the circle, taking B major,
following this with G- major, e minor, and thence
to C major, his starting poin t „ 3-
In his,-further discussion of the practice of circling,
Werckmeister says the modulation demonstrated above by descend
ing thirds may also be performed with ascending-thirds, or
w i t h ascending and descending fifths and fourths. In addition
^lWerckmeister, Nothwendlgsten Anmerckungen, p. 24.

O n e of the chief reasons for W e r c k m e i s t e r 1s emphasis on the
necessity for a tempered scale is to reduce the number of keys
in the octave to twelve, and thus eliminate the confusion
caused by having so many extra semitones as is customary at
this time. He gives an example which proves that without
temperament, it is impossible to circle through the keys with
ascending and descending thirds, and return to the starting
tone.
415
to these, other intervals for the chord succession, as well
as varied ways of using the technique, may he found in the
compositions of the virtuosi. Finally, Werckmeister emphasi
zes that in playing through the circle, the system must he
expressed either with flats or sharps, hut not with hoth.
Following the demonstration and discussion of the tech
nique, Werckmeister gives some attention to the way in which
modulation should he used. - In the first place, he points out
that it will he a good modulation if there is a reason for it;
for example, . . as one observes that many honest composers
make use of such digressions or modulations from one mode to
another, which gives therefore a pleasing variation."32 How
ever, even more important than this, is the necessity for
showing good logic in such digressions as mentioned here.
The meaning of this reference is explained hy Werckmeister as
follows*
'--'Werckmeister, Die Hothwendlgsten Anmerckungen, p. 51.
416
Thus, if one proceeds from C major, c-e-g, to a

minor, a-c-e, it is a g o o d change; for the mode of a
minor . . . has two formal clausulen out of c and e,
[thus in common with C major]; accordingly the two
modes are closely related. . . . However, nothing more
horrible can be imagined than when one modulates too
far and has no reason, as when one goes from a-c-e to
f-a-c; or from d-f-a into b flat-d-f w i t h closes on
e flat and f minor, and back again to the regular
c-e-g major or a-c-e minor.55
Concerning these "poor" digressions, Werckmeister says
that he has h e a r d some organists, in extemporizing on the pre
lude in the church, use such modulations as described, so
that it was quite confusing to the singers.
Though in W e r c k m e i s t e r 's treatises there is given a
much more extended treatment of modulation than considered
here, there is little of further value for the explanation and
illustration of the subject. As pointed out earlier, the em
phasis in his works is on the consideration of the difficul
ties in tuning and the proposal for various solutions to the
p r o b l e m of temperament, w h i c h will facilitate the practice of
35Werckmeister, Die Nothwendlgsten Anmerckungen, pp.

52-55. In connection w i t h these "good and poor" 'digressions,
Arnol d explains the basis for this contrast as follows; "In
the strictest sense of the term the ambitus modi denotes sim
p l y the scale represented by each Mode or &ey (e.g. in the
Ionic Mode, or C major, c.d. e. f.g.a.b.c; in the Aeolian Mode,
or a minor, a.b.c.d.e.f.g.a, etc.), and the harmony appro
priat e to it. In a wider sense, however, the term came to be
applied to the harmony of attendant Modes or Keys (Dlgres-
s l o n e s ), whose Triads were composed of notes belonging to the
m a i n key." (Arnold, Art of Accompaniment, p. 212, n. 21.)
Earlier, Arnold has indicated a similar meaning in regard to
the closes in the English works of Blow and Locke, and obvious
ly it would apply to the other English treatises as well. It
may also be p o i n t e d out that Gehrmann, in his study of
Walther's treatise, gives evidence that the latter's concept
of digressions through the irregular clausulae w o uld be inter
prete d in the same manner as explained here.
417
modulation on the keyboard instruments. Although Werckmeister
never achieved the final solution to the practical problems of
equal-tempered tuning, it is clear that he must have obtained
a fair substitute with his "well-tempered" tuning on the Cla
vier. The practicability of this for modulation is supported
by his references to the possibility of moving through the
entire circle of twenty-four keys, "if only the change is made
slowly and gradually."34 Thus it may be concluded that his
greatest contribution to the further clarification of the
theory and practice of modulation lies in his practical demon
stration of the possibilities for modulation within a "well-
tempered" system of tuning.
The Circle of Keys in Heinichen*s Figured Bass Treatises33
In his earliest w o r k on figured-bass, Neu erfundene
und Grundllche Anwelsung (Hamburg, 1711), Heinichen deals ex
tensively w i t h the practice of modulation. In contrast to
Werckmeister1s treatment of the subject, the emphasis in
H e i n i c h e n ’s discussion is on the application of practical tech
niques to composition and to general-bass accompaniment on the
keyboard instruments. This may be observed in his first refer
ence to modulation which occurs in a discussion of the
34Werckmeister, H a r m o n o l o g l a .m u s l o a , p. 32.
•^Thls discussion of modulation is based primarily on

Helnichen's first treatise, Neu Anwelsung (1711) given above.
However, particularly in relation to the key circle, some
reference has also been made to the second and much enlarged
edition of this work, which appeared as Per General-Bass in
der Composition (Hamburg, 1728).
418
unfigured basses used in the theatrical compositions of this
time.3 - Because of their frequent changes of hey and also
because they often had no signatures, these basses, especially
the recitatives, presented difficulties even to the more expe
rienced accompanist.
In giving Instructions for the resolution of the unfig
u r e d basses, Heinichen stresses the importance of a thorough
knowledge of the modes and keys for the general-bass player.
For this reason he gives a summary review of the signatures
(i.e. the accidentals of the key) and the natural ambitus of
each tone. Following this, he turns his attention to the
problem of ho w one is to recognize modulation in the unfigured
basses. .. H.e states that first of all, the player is to depend
on his ear for an indication of the changes of key which may
occur in these compositions. However, another way by which
modulations may be recognized is dependent on the p l a y e r ’s
knowledge of the keys and their accidentals, and on his under
standing of the general-bass. Heinichen states this as a
general rule to be applied in the following manner: "As often
as a new sharp, which up to this time has not appeared, occurs
in the general-bass or other voice, Just so often will the
preceding tone change into that which lies directly above the
sharp.113'?
■36These theatrical compositions Include "'Arias, Canta

tas, Operas, Instrumental Solos, Duets, &c.', in w h i c h the
bass Is not figured. 11 (Arnold, Art of Accompaniment, p 7 ~ 2 6 4 . )
37Helnichen, Neu Anwelsung, p. 204.
419
It Is clear that In this rule for determining a modula
tion, the principle Involved is simply that of recognizing the
n e w key by the appearance of its raised seventh degree, I.e.
the leading tone of the key. This seventh will appear as a
new accidental either in the bass or in some other voice, and
w i l l move directly to the note above as its tonic, thus estab
lishing the identity of the new key. Although H e i n i c h e n ’s
rule applies expressly to the unfigured bass, there is a clear
connection between this rule and the directions given by
Gasparini for determining modulation in the figured basses.
I n these, Gasparini emphasized that the change of key would
be known by the appearance of a new sign with the figures
above the bass. This was usually the sharp indicating the
raised third above the dominant, or the raised sixth above the
second scale degree, both of which represented the leading
tone of the new key.
Following the discussion of the principle for identify
ing the change of key in the unfigured basses, Heinichen turns
h is attention to the actual modulations which occur in the
compositions of this time. These are represented in two tables
w h i c h 'show the connections permitted to each of the keys in the
major and minor modes. The tables may be observed in the fig
ure which follows;
420
Figure 30. Tables of the Modulations in the Major and Minor

Keys. (Heinichen, Neu Anwe l s u n g , pp. 210-211.)
The M a j o r Keys D i g r e s s Fro::-.:
R e g u la rly Ir r e g u la r ly
c in maj • ■£ m in . A m in . D m in . F maj .
D (#) in A maj . F$ m in . B rnin . [T min.. G maj .
Eb in Bb maj . u r n in . G min . F mm. Ab raaj .
E (#) in B maj . G4 m in . C* min . FU m in . A maj .
F in n ma j . A rain . D min . •J min . Bb maj .
G in D ma j . B min . E min . A min . G maj .
A (#) in i.ir maj . Gjf min . f£ m in . B min . D maj .
3 (# ) in F t maj . D#= min . G#: min . Ctf min . lit maj .
Bp in F maj . D min . G m in . u min . Dtl-' .maj .
5 th 3r d 6th 2nd 4 th
The M i n o r Key s D i g r ess From*.
R e g u la rly Ir r e g u la r ly
G (*) in 0# maj . G m in . Bb maj . E min . Ab maj .

D U) in F maj . A m in . G maj . G m in . Bp maj .
E in G maj . B m in . D maj . A m in . G maj .
F (p) in Ah maj . C m in . D# maj . B r a in . C4 maj .
F# in A maj . Gif m i n . E maj . B m in . D m a j.
G (b) in Bb maj . D m in . maj . n m in .
F Dtf maj .
A in G maj . *£ min . 1 ^ maj . D m in . F m a j.
B in D' maj . F # m in . A maj . E ini n . G m a j.
3rd 5 th 7th 4 th 6t h
Heinichen states that for the practical use of these tables
b y the accompanist or general-bass player, the latter should
recognize the intervals of modulation permitted to the major
and minor tones. This information is summarized as follows:
All the major scales regularly modulate to the

third, fifth, or sixth degrees, exceptionally to the
second and fourth. On the other hand, all the minor
tones modulate regularly into the third and fifth,
421
exceptionally Into the seventh, fourth, and very rarely

into the s i xth.1’5®
The changes of key represented In these tables and in
the summary accompanying them are very clearly those which
have been defined earlier as the "digressions permitted with
in the ambitus m o d i ."59 In this respect there is given fur
ther evidence of the connection between H e i n i c h e n fs ideas and
those of Gasparini on the subject of modulation. It may also
be pointed out that the concept of modulation defined by these
two theorists is the same as that found in the discussions of
the keys and their closes in the English treatises and instruc
tion books. Thus, though the relations shown between the keys
in Heinichen's treatise are somewhat more extensive than those
of the earlier practice, it is clear that there is no new prin
ciple involved in the modulations given in his tables.
The second part of Heinichen's treatment of modulation
is concerned with a demonstration of the key relations which
were summarized above, by means of his "Circle of Keys." He
Introduces this by describing it as a "musical circle by means
of which the nature, relationship, digression, and change of
all the tones may be easily recognized and especially profit
ably used on the Clavier and in Composition.1:40 Heinichen
points out that to make the circle most useful, the first
38Heinichen, Keu Anwe l s u n g , p. 210.
5®See reference to these digressions as explained by

Arnold, p. 416, fn. 33.
^ H e i n i c h e n , p. 260.
422
thing necessary to bring all scales "in relation to It" and
to make an order among them. This may be done by the arrange
ment of the tones so that those related most closely will bor
der each other, and thus one will know how they may follow each
other in the modulations. Prom an examination of this circle
(see Figure 31, p. 423), it is clear that Heinichen has projec
ted the key-relations exhibited in the preceding tables into
the more conveniently u s e d circle form.
In order to observe the practical use of this key cir
cle, Heinichen explains that it is necessary to choose'a key
and to determine the nearest-related keys to this particular
key. As a demonstration of this, he takes c minor, and pro
ceeding from this as- the center, he .moves to the right where
he finds B major and g minor, etc. Moving to the left from the
same key (i.e. c minor), he finds B flat and A flat major, f
minor, G- flat major, etc. Thus, according to the circle, the
keys mentioned are the most closely related to c minor. Since
the relationship of these keys to c minor, is in direct pro
portion to their distance away from this as a key center, it
is clear that "the further one now wishes to continue away
from c minor to the left or to the right, the less are these
tones related to c minor.
4% e i n l c h e n , p. 262. Thus, e.g. g minor is closer to

c, than P major because the latter stands one degree farther
away; while G- major is very distantly related because there
are so many intermediate tones between. Since the basis for
the relationship here is in the accidentals, Heinichen ex
plains that the farther one moves from c minor to either the
flat (b flat minor) or sharp extreme (g flat major, i.e. f
sharp), the more distant the relations become from the key
center.
423
F ig u re 31. The C i r c l e o f K e y s . ( F . T. A r n o l d , ' The A r t o f

A c c o m p a n im e n t f r o m a T h o r o u g h - B a s s . p . 268 . )
C &
<3
T
A 0 / ®
5*
424
In the last part of his discussion of modulation,
Heinichen considers the relation between the tables given
earlier and his hey-circle. He points out that if one wishes
to know the basis for the modulations indicated in this table,
one has only to look at the key-circle. Prom this it will be
clear why a main Tone can modulate into those keys permitted
according to the table, and not into some other keys instead.
To clarify this further, Heinichen chooses a specific key from
each of the modes and proceeds to give a practical demonstra
tion of the matter. Of the two specific examples discussed,
it is enough to consider the major mode only, which is given
in the following paragraph;
For example, supposing one wishes to know ho w far

G major can modulate or which are the nearest related
of the neighboring tones. Look in the circle for G ma
jor; then you will find on the right hand, e minor, D
major, and b minor, which are the usual digressions,
namely the sixth, fifth, and third; on the left hand
stand a minor and G major, which are the two less usual
digressions, namely, the second and fourth. And thus
w i t h all the major tones.42
The remaining part of Heinichen's discussion of modula
tion is concerned with some explanation of the general use
w hich may be made of this circle. In this respect he points
out that it is of particular advantage to the general-bass
4%Ieinichen, Meu Anwelsung, p s 264, In the demonstra

tion for the minor with c as the specific key, Heinichen-
points out that the keys to the left, which are D sharp major
(i.e. E flat major), f minor, and A flat major, give c minor
its usual digressions of a 3rd, 4th, and 6th; the keys on the
right, b flat major and g minor give the unusual digressions
of the 7th and 5th.
425
p l a y e r for the accompanying of the recitatives, or even of an
entire work such as an opera. Further, it is of special im
portance to the beginner, or to one who has little skill in
extemporizing, who, if he chooses "beforehand a main tone out
of which he wishes to prelude, is thus certain that he can not
digress from the tone, or become confused."4 ^5
As did Werckmeister, Heinichen gives a summary of the
ways in which the variations of tones may be taken according
to the key-circle. These are as follows; Proceeding through
the circle either to the right or to the left which gives an
alternation of minor thirds with whole steps; and proceeding
through the circle in either direction by alternate degrees,
starting either with a major or a minor tone, w h ich will give
ascending and descending fifths. In a. final reference to
this point, Heinichen emphasizes that it will be found very
practical to skip through the circle in the method given.
Nevertheless, it will not be successful if one takes it in
another way, e.g. alternating every two degrees, because this
will become more unpleasant the farther one goes from the
starting point.
A review of modulation according to H e i n i c h e n 1s trea
tises will show that the key changes are based primarily on
the connections of a key to those which are found within its
own natural ambitus. It may be pointed out that early evi
dence for the use of this principle as a basis for key change
4 ^Helnichen, Neu A n w e l s u n g , p. 265.
426
W a s found In the discussion of the closes permitted to "flat"
a nd "sharp" keys in English theory of the 17th century. While
it is apparent in many of the treatises of this period that
this principle continues in use as a basis for modulation,
further development is noticeable in only a few of the works,
namely, those of Penna, Gasparini, Nledt, and Werckmeister,
By the time of Heinichen, the early relations have
b e e n somewhat extended to include particularly the keys that
h a v e either a direct connection through the dominant, or a
secondary dominant relation. In respect to the key connec
tions, an important contribution made by Heinichen is a sum
mary of the relations in his tables of modulation, and the
distinction between them as near-related and more remote keys.
Of further significance is his projection of these tables of
major and minor keys on the key-circle, and a practical demon
stration of the interdependence of the two devices. Finally,
it is necessary to mention his emphasis on the practical use
of these two techniques particularly for the inexperienced
player or composer, and even for the experienced musician who
wishes to be fluent in modulation in such difficult composi
tions as the unaccompanied recitatives.
In concluding Heinichen's treatment of modulation, it
is important to consider his relation to the other figured-
bas s theorists. In this respect, we have already mentioned
the clear connection between the ideas of Heinichen and Gas
parini, particularly in the method of modulating through the
427
taking of the raised seventh of the new key, and in their
summary of the digressions permitted to the major and minor
keys. 44 In addition to Gasparini, Heinichen acknowledges his
dependence upon other theorists by frequent references to
their works. Among these may be included Werckmeister, Niedt,
Kattheson, and the earlier theorist, Klrcher. The interdepen- •
dence among' these theorists concerning their ideas on tonality
a nd modulation is so obvious as to need no further discussion,
except in the case of Werckmeister.
Although Heinichen and Werckmeister have been placed .
together in the third classification, as representative of
modulation in the figured-bass theory, there is more basis for
contrast than for comparison between the two theorists. The
ideas they have in common may be defined as the recognition
of the same key connections, the utilization of the key circle
as a technique for modulation, and finally, an awareness of
the same difficulties in the practical use of all the keys
within the circle. In the last two-mentioned, it may be point
ed out that while Heinichen was much more clear in demonstra
ting the key circle, Werckmeister was more definite about the
difficulties in the use of the more "remote" keys. However,
the main difference between these two theorists is in the na
ture of their treatment of modulation. It may be pointed out
44Heinichen mentions having studied Gasp a r i n i 1s work

while in Italy. Though he states he is in disagreement with
the latter on many points, besides that mentioned above, evi
dence of Gasparini's influence may be observed in such details
as Heinichen's use of his harmonized scales.
428
once again, that in Werckmeister, the emphasis was on the cla
rification of the problems in key-relation and modulation
through practical experiments in the tempering of the keyboard
instruments. In contrast, in H e i n i c h e n 1s treatise, his chief
concern is in the practical application of the techniques of
modulation to composition, and most important, to keyboard
accompaniment from both the figured and unfigured basses.
It may be pointed out that the most important works of
the figured bass school have been practical in nature. In the
clarity with w h i c h H e i n i c h e n 1s ideas are presented, he may be
said to advance beyond Werckmeister and his contemporaries in
h is understanding of key-relation and modulation. While, to
some extent, this is undoubtedly dependent on the achievements
of the earlier theorists, it is also clearly the result of his
emphasis on the practical demonstration of modulatory tech
niques. Finally, it may be mentioned that in his complete in
difference to the modes and the older theoretical traditions,
Heinichen*a trea.tise is singularly free from much of the con
fusion found in the other treatises of this period. Thus, for
the reasons mentioned, and particularly for his practical
contributions to the further development and clarification of
modulation and key-relation, Heinichen*s w ork achieves its
significance as the most important of the figured-bass
treatises.
429
CHAPTER IX
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS .
The purpose of this study has been to trace the develop
ment of a concept of modulation from the early recognition of
change of mode in the 16th century treatises to the final de
finition of modulation as a harmonic technique in the figured
bass theory of the early 18th century. The source material
utilized for this study is that represented by a selected group
of theoretical treatises from the per i o d concerned and the musi
cal practice demonstrated in these works. It has been pointed
out earlier that the term modulation, as It is used today, has
come to mean the harmonic technique of change of key based on
the tonal relations found within the major-minor scale system.
Thus it is logical that a study of the development of the the
ory and technique of modulation is necessarily the study of
the evolution of the major-minor system of tonality as well.
For the purpose of this study, the earliest concept of
modulation in theory is that defined as mixed modes or change
from one mode to another by the 16th century theorists, and
observed by them in the practice of their time. It is clear
that such a concept of "modulation" in connection w i t h the
modal music of this period is inseparable from the tonal sys
tem in which it occurs. Therefore, the first part of this
study was devoted to a detailed examination of the modal sys
tem which servee as a tonal basis for the 15th and 16th century
musical practice.
430
In the treatises of Ornithoparcus, Agricola, and Aron,
as representatives of early 16th century theory, the tonal
system defined specifically is that of the medieval system of
eight modes. While these three theorists give recognition to
irregularities in the use of the eight modes, for the most part
they are concerned with describing the medieval modes in musi
cal practice, according to the traditional principles of modal
theory.
In common with the preceding theorists, Glarean also
gives an exposition of the 8-mode system in the manner of his
time. However, in contrast to the earlier theorists, he empha
sizes that to give recognition to no more than the eight modes,
as a tonal basis for music of this period, is to support the
disparity which may be observed between theory and practice.
Further, he states clearly that it is his intention to redefine
the modal system in terms of the contemporary practice. The
nature of this re-statement of the modal system is apparent in
his reference to the fact that twelve modes must be recognized
in the music of the early 16th century. In addition to this,
there is an indication that he will also consider other irre
gularities in connection w i t h the use of the modes.
In the second chapter of this study, there was detailed
analysis given to Glarean's extension of the eight-mode system
to that comprising twelve modes. Emphasis was placed on the
analysis of the structure of the modes because of the impor
tance of the structural elements for an understanding of the
431
regular use of the modes, as well as for defining the irregu
larities in practice. It should also be mentioned that in
G-larean's discussion of the twelve modes, there is a continual
attempt to justify the. addition of the four new modes on the
basis of their former place in the ancient systems.
The exposition of the 12-mode system according to G-larean.
was followed by a detailed description of Zarlino's treatment
of the extension of the modal system, While Zarlino follows
G-larean very closely in his presentation of the 12-mode system,
several changes in his ideas concerning the modes may be pointed
out. In the first place,- he finds a Justification for the ex
tension of the old system to twelve modes on the evidence of
their use in practice* In the second place, Zarlino rearran
ges the modes so that the Ionian and its plagal are first in
his system. A third point of difference is that he gives re
cognition to a more extended use of chromatic tones for trans
position of the modes. A fourth change between the ideas of
G-larean and Zarlino Is that the latter emphasizes the impor
tance of the bass voice as the foundation of the harmony, and
thus equally Important with the tenor for the identification
of the mode. A final difference between the W o theorists may
be defined as Zarlino's recognition of the division of the 5th
into major and minor thirds, and the application of this as a
principle for the distinction between two basic types of modes.
An examination of the treatises following those of
G-larean and Zarlino served to show that the extension of the
432
modes as well as some of the changes observed in Zarlino were
recognized by most of the modal theorists representing the peri
od from the late 16th to the close of the 17th century. Evi
dence of further development concerning the modes in these
treatises may be observed in the extension of the practice of
transposition, an Increased use of chromatic tones, and finally,
a relaxing of the more strict rules of modal theory in connec
tion with polyphony.
In an examination of the use of the twelve modes in both
plainsong and polyphonic composition, G-larean and Zarlino show
that they have many ideas in common. Both theorists recognize
the importance of the very frequent use of the Ionian and Aeol
ian modes in their time. The frequency of the appearance of
these two modes in music is based on the fact that they may be
observed not only in their regular positions, but in transposed
positions as well. These may be defined as follows; for the
Ionian, its use in the Indian or F octave with b flat, and in
the Mixolydian or G- octave with f sharp; for the Aeolian, its
use in the Dorian or D octave with b flat, and in the Hypoaeol-
ian and Phrygian or E octave with f sharp.
The result of the emphasis on the Ionian and Aeolian
modes is the observation by both G-larean and Zarlino, that in
practice the modes tend to fall into two or three basic types.
For G-larean there are three types which may be classified in
the following manner; Those having "ut" as their basis (i.e.
as their beginning tone) are the Ionian, Lydian and Mixolydian;
433
Those distinguished "by their beginning on "re" are the Dorian
and Aeolian. Finally, the Phrygian is distinguished as a se
parate type beginning on "mi." Zarlino gives an even more
clear distinction of two modal groups based on the harmonic and
arithmetic division of the fifth and the position of the two
thirds in relation to the fifth, mentioned earlier. However,
the real significance of this idea of grouping the modes into
such basic types will be observed later.
Further analysis of the theorists' descriptions of modal
usage revealed emphasis on the irregularities in practice and
the consequent difficulties in the identification of the modes
in composition. In the consideration of this matter, emphasis
was Placed on the description and illustration of those irregu
larities which were clearly the result of changes in the ambi
tus of the mode itself. A distinction was made between the
changes which resulted in transposition or in the combination
of the plagal and authentic modes, and those which caused a
mixture of two different modes or a change from one mode to
another. In plainsong, a mixed mode occurred when, in the
course of a melody in a given mode, there appeared species be
longing to other modes. The foreign species were recognized
in two ways; first by emphasis on melodic configurations which
were not characteristic of the given mode, but were contained
within its ambitus; second, by the presence of foreign tones
vrithln the modal ambitus.
The conclusions reached concerning these changes in the
434
modal ambitus and therefore the practice identified by the the
orists as mixed modes, or change from one mode to another, was
that they could be identified as a type of modulation for the
modal system. Though such changes were intended originally to
refer only to Plainsong practice, they were also observed by
the theorists in connection with polyphonic composition. At
first these were identified in respect to the individual voices,
since the mode Itself was identified in this manner. However,
in the treatises it is apparent that the theorists soon recog
nized that this procedure was not entirely satisfactory in re
lation to polyphonic music. This may be observed even in the
Dodecachordon in connection with G-larean's discussion of the
change of mode in the motet, De Pro fundi s, by Josquin. In his
analysis of this composition, there is some Indication that
Glarean defined the change from Dorian to Phrygian, in refer
ence to the entire polyphonic complex rather than to the indi
vidual voices. However, he never clearly refers to an over-all
mode in this, or in any other specific composition in his work
Among the theorists following Glarean, there is a clear
Indication that the observation of changes of mode in polyphony
must be observed from a different viewpoint than that used for
the plainsong melodies. Thus, both Zarlino and Cerone define
the change of mode by the appearance of Irregular cadences, and
in their works it is clear that this is to be applied to the
vertical complex of the voices in polyphonic compositions.
Moreover, in respect to the practice of change of mode, Gerone
435
emphasizes that when one voice goes out of the mode at the ca
dence, the others must follow. This is generally observed in
the treatises following those of Zarlino and Cerone, in the
discussions of change of mode. The conclusion which was reach
ed concerning this type of modal change was that it could also
be defined as a type of "modal" modulation. In this type, in
connection with polyphonic practice, the technique used for the
change from one mode to another is that of taking a cadence in
a mode different from that given at the beginning of a composi
tion.
The general conclusions to be reached concerning the de
velopments observed in modal theory in the first half of this
study may be stated very briefly. It may be pointed out first
that, in his extension of the modal system, G-larean gives the
oretical sanction to the Ionian and Aeolian modes. He also in
dicates very clearly that he recognizes the frequency of these
modes in practice. It cannot be implied that G-larean realized
the significance of the Ionian and Aeolian as the major-minor
type modes. Nevertheless, it must be admitted that he is the
first to give theoretical recognition to the major-minor type
modes as part of the prevailing tonal system.
Zarlino gives even stronger evidence of supporting the
idea of two basic scale types, through his distinction of the
"major" type defined by the harmonic division of the fifth;
and the "minor" type defined by the arithmetic division of the
fifth. Moreover, Zarlino makes a unique contribution in his
investigation of the problems of Interval measurement. Prom
this he derives a new method for tuning the intervals of the
diatonic scale which is called the diatonic syntonon. In this
scale the 3rds and 6ths are consonant, and thus it may be said
that Zarlino opens the way to a recognition of the harmonic
triad. Further contributions which may be credited to him are
the definition of the bass voice as fundamental to the voices
in polyphonic composition, and the recognition of the irregular
cadences as the means of entering a new mode, and thus causing
mixed modes in polyphonic practice. In these ideas, it may be
observed that Zarlino's treatise gives clear indication: of 'the
change from a contrapuntal to a harmonic viewpoint and the be
ginning of the development of harmonic theory, While these
ideas do not advance much further in the strict modal treati
ses of the 17th century, nevertheless, the penetration of Zar
lino's influence will be found in another group of 17th cen
tury continental treatises. These, which are distinguished
by their use of Latin, are to be considered in the second part
of this study.
The clearest formulation of the harmonic principles,
which, as mentioned, had their origin in Zarlino's treatise,
may be found in the English theory of the 17th century. It
may be recalled that in these works there was no evidence of
a concern with the modes as the tonal basis for music, and
thus no indication of the traditional principles of modal the
ory. Even in Morley's Plalne and Easye Introduction, the most
437
’’modal" of all the English works, and appearing just before the
close of the 16th century, there Is little Indication of any de
cisive influence of the modal tradition. Moreover, Morley's
composition shows strong evidence of the modern tonal basis and
a clear harmonic viewpoint.
■ In Thomas Campion's hew Waye, which appeared very early
in the 17th century, there is very clear evidence of the recog
nition of the major-minor principle in the definition of key ac
cording to the position in the fifth of the scale, of the greater
and lesser thirds. Moreover, Campion clearly defines the basic
key relations within these scales, and illustrates the principle
of modulation in his discussion of the keys and their closes.
While there is some relation between this idea and that observed
in Zarlino and Cerone, i.e. in the taking of a new mode by means
of a cadence in that mode, Campion's concept shows a distinct
advance, both in the clarity with which it is expressed, and
the key system to which it is related.
Prom the time of Campion's treatise until the close of
the 17th century, there is rapid progress in English theory, in
the clear formulation of the principles of the major-minor ton
al system, and the harmonic ideas based on this system. This
may be seen especially in the implied relationship of the keys
to a common key center, through the definition of these keys
as the closes permitted to the "flat" and "sharp" keys. The
relations observed in English theory may be summarized as fol
lows; the relation of the keys (both major and minor) to the
438
upper dominant, and that of the "sharp" to the lower dominant
as well; the relation of the "flat" or minor type to the rela
tive major, and that of the "sharp" to its second degree. In
addition to these developments, two other ways in which English
theorists contribute significantly to further progress toward
the new harmonic viewpoint may be seen in the following: first,
in their complete emancipation from the dominance of modal the
ory; and second, in their recognition of the importance of key
change as a means of obtaining variety in composition.
Returning to the continental treatises, it may be point
ed out that two lines of thought seem to run parallel in the
continental treatises of the 17tti century. The first of these
may be found in the strictly modal treatises following Zarlino
and already considered in the first half of this study. These
works emphasize the modal system as the tonal basis for compo
sition, and define practice, even that of new ideas, in terms
of traditional modal theory although in a somewhat relaxed man
ner.
In the second of the groups, distinguished above as the
theorists whose works are in Latin, a second trend of thought
may be defined as the further clarification of the most advanc
ed ideas of Zarlino. While the theorists who comprise this
group are still partially modal in their viewpoint, neverthe
less there is considerable evidence of progress toward the new
harmonic viewpoint. This may be observed in several ways; For
example, there is further emancipation from the modes as the
439
tonal system, and thus, from the dominance of the traditional
principles of modal theory. Second, even more clearly demon
strated than In Zarlino's work, there is the distinction of the
modes on the division of the fifth, and the harmonic and arith
metic arrangement of the two thirds within this fifth. In con
nection wish The latter, there is a further development in the
actual definition of the harmonic triad first stated by Lippius.
In the treatises following him, this triad becomes the basis on
which the theorists consider the two type scales. Thus these
may be either dura, i.e. major, with the major third on the
bottom; or moll, i.e. minor, because the minor third has the
lower place. A comparison between these theorists and those
of the English group shows that in respect to the ideas on the
new tonal system and modulation, the latter group are ahead of
their continental contemporaries.
In tne final group of treatises, those of the figured-
bass theorists, there is a culmination of the developments of
the ideas of both groups of the 17th century theorists just
mentioned, i.e. the English theorists, and those of the Latin
group. In several of these works, notably those of Penna,
G-asparini, and Werckmeister, there is still evidence of some
confusion between the modes and the major-minor scales as the
tonal basis for musical practice. However, particularly in
latter two mentioned, there is at the same time an indication
that the two systems are distinct, on the basis of their use
in specific types of music.
440
A second group of theorists may be distinguished from
the three mentioned above. This group includes St. Lambert,
Masson, Niedt, Heinichen, and Mattheson. In their works, in
contrast to those of the three preceding theorists, it was
observed that there was a clear formulation of the major-minor
key system and an emphasis on this as the only tonal system as
the basis for musical practice. Among these theorists, Matthe
son was especially singled out for his contribution in achiev
ing, in connection with the systems of musical instruction of
this time, the final emancipation from the modes and the hexa-
ohord system.
With the clarification of the major-minor tonal system
accomplished, the way was open for the clear formulation of
the harmonic principles on which the musical practice of the
time was based. One of the most important influences in this
direction was the systematizing of the key relationships and
through this, a definition of a concept of modulation became
possible. In the treatises of Walther (c. 1700},and-Penna
(c. 1672), there was observed again the use of the technique
of modulation by means of the cadence. Walther's treatise
showed little advance in this idea, beyond that observed in
the modal treatises, in which a change of mode was defined in
terms of the irregular cadences. In contrast, Penna's work re
vealed a new and significant development in key connection by
means of his "ruota" or method of circling through the keys.
While Penna makes no reference to the use of these for the
441
purpose of modulation, the implication in the use of the ruota
as a technique for hey change is unquestionable.
In the works of G-aspatinl and Werckmelster there was
evidence of a continuation of the use of the circle of keys for
the purpose of modulation. However, the most significant devel
opment in G-asparini was that of defining modulation through the
taking of the raised seventh in the new key. In Werckmeister1s
treatises, it was pointed out that his main contribution was In
his demonstration of the importance of temperament for achiev
ing all of the possibilities of key-connection among the twenty-
four major-minor keys in the key-circle. In Masson's treatise
there was a fruther development of the cadence as a basis for
modulation, and an expansion of the key relations utilized.
As the last of the figured bass theorists to be consi
dered, Helnichen shows a final drawing together of the ideas
of the preceding theorists, and thus a culmination of the de
velopments which we have followed through the 17th century trea
tises. These may be summarized as the clarification of the ma
jor and minor key system, the stabilization of key relation
within that system, and finally, the clear formulation of the
concept of, and the techniques for harmonic modulation. Thus
in considering Heinichen1s contributions, it is important to
show the manner in which the ideas we have been studying have
been brought to their final state of. development.
The first contribution attributed to Heinichen was his
organization of key-relation by means of tables of modulations
442
In the major and minor keys. In this, there was observed an
expansion and a re-definition of the principles found first in
the discussion of keys and their closes in the English treati
ses; second, in the ideas of the English figured-bass theorists
(i,.e, Locke, Bloxy, and Keller), in their discussion of the di
gressions within the "ambitus modi"; and finally, in the works
of G-asparlni, Werckmelster, and Nledt, in a more extended man
ner, the same principle' of key connection within the "ambitus
modi. 11 Further, it may be pointed out that a direct connec
tion between G-asparini and Heinichen was found in the technique
of modulation through the taking of the raised seventh in the
new key,
The second major contribution of Heinichen may be defined
as the clear demonstration of the use of the "Circle of Keys" as
a technique for modulation in the figured-bass practice. In
bringing this technique to a final culminating point of its de
velopment/ Heinichen acknowledges the Influence of several of
the earlier theorists. The first evidence of such a circle,
according to Heinichen was in Kircher's Muaurgla universalis
(1550), in which the latter demonstrated circling through the
"keys" in 4ths and 5ths. However, for the purpose of this
study, the first distinctive treatment of circling through the
keys was observed in Penna's demonstration of the Ruote. In
his four orders of the "Ruota" Penna demonstrated only a limit
ed number of keys; nevertheless, the idea of modulation by
this means is very evident. In G-asparini‘s treatise, the use
443
of the circle is considered but not clearly formulated as to
the technique.
The third and most significant contribution from Helni-
chen's work is his fusion of the two main ideas just considered.
These may be restated as follows* first, the concept of key
change based on the relation of a key to those within its own
ambitus, i.e. the tones of its scale to which its tonic is re
lated by varying degrees of harmonic tension; and second, the
use of the key-circle as a technique for modulation. The fu
sion was brought about by Heinichen's projection of the tables
of modulation on the key circle itself, and his demonstration
of the practical application of this for developing a technique
for modulation in figured-bass composition.
Following Heinichen, the figured bass school, with the
exception of a few later treatises, reaches no further devel
opment. By the middle of the 18th century it has been re
placed by the more scientific theoretical treatises which are
.concerned with the nature and properties of tones and other mu
sical material, and first formulated clearly by Rameau. Natur
ally, there are new discoveries with relation to the principles
of key-connectlon, and to techniques of modulation. But for
our purpose, the developments reached in the figured-bass the
ory in general, and culminating in Heinichesn's treatises in
particular, are sufficient to conclude the study of the devel
opment of a concept of key-relation and modulation in theory.
The principles important to. these developments, already well-
444
established in practice some time before this, become the ba
sis for the great formal developments in the classical period
of the 18th century.
Suggestions for Further Study
In the introduction to this study, it was pointed out
that there was a connection between the hexachord system and ,
the development of the major-minor tonal system. Further, it
was also intimated that there was a relation between the prac
tice of mutation in the use of the hexachord and in the .change
of mode or key in either the modal or tonal systems. Though
< there are two excellent studies concerning the origin of the
hexachord system and its gradttal extension in use, these are
primarily historical in nature.1 Therefore, it is suggested
that an investigation of the treatment of the hexachord in
the treatises of the 16th and 17th centuries would be of sig
nificance to a further understanding of the development of the
major-minor key system and modulation.
It is suggested also that further study of the relation
between modulation and the development of equal temperament in
the treatises
i.
should be undertaken as a means of further ciarl-
fication of the problems involved in developing key-connectlon
and modulation. In connection with such a study, it is possible
that some of the most significant sources would be the keyboard
^See Riemann, G-eschlchte der Huslktheorle, pp. 296-350,

407-410; also, G-eorg Lange, ,TZur"oTeschlchte der Solmisation, "
SIM 1:534-622, 1899.
445
theoretical treatises of the 15th and 17th century. The impor
tance of the use of chromatic tones in relation to both keyboard
and vocal music is given considerable attention in the 16th and
17th century treatises. Some investigation of this problem,
particularly in relation to practice, should be undertaken for
further contribution to an understanding of the development of
both the major-minor tonality and modulation.
Finally, it may be pointed out that, due to the neces
sity for a practical limitation to the scope of the present
study, many of the treatises of the 16th and 17th century were
given only a limited examination. These works, and others that
had to be omitted entirely, need detailed study for the further
contributions they could offer to a general clarification of
the specific problems of this study. In connection with such
a study, there is a need for a more thorough investigation of ■
musical practice, contemporary in development with the trea
tises, for.a more accurate interpretation of the theoretical
concepts than otherwise possible.
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447
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
Ant. Antlphonale Monasticum pro Dlurnis Horis, ed. by the

Benedictines of Solesnies, Tournai, T9317
BVzM Berner Veroffentllchungen zur Musikforschung, ed. by

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HD Harvard Dictionary of Music, Harvard University Press,

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J AMS Journal of the American Muslcological Society,
Liber Usualls, ed. by the Benedictines of Solesmes,

Tournai, 1934.
MQ, Musical Quarterly, 1915— — .
MT Musical Times, 1840---- .
OHM Oxford History of Music, ed. by Wooldridge, Oxford

University Press, London, 1929,
PMA Proceedings of the Musical Association, 1874---- .
PubAPTM Publlkatlon alterer praktischer und theoretlsch.gr

Musikwerke. . . . ed. by R. Eltner. 29 vols, 1873-
1905.
SIM Sammelbdnde der internatlonalen Musikgesellschaft,

Quarterly magazine of the International Musical
Society, Oct. 1899-Sept. 1914.
VfM Vierteljahrsschrift fi!lr Musikwlssenschaft, 1884-94.
ZIM Zeltsohrlft dgr internationalen Muslkgesellschaft.

Monthly magazine of the International Music Society,
Oct. 1899-Sept. 1914,
Libraries
LC Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.
NYPL New York Public Library, New York, N.Y.
olive"
Vita Sheet of Helen Rogers
Personal Data:
Date of Birth; Feb. 11, 1917.

Place of Birth: St. Louis, Missouri.
Academic Career;
Kingston High School, Kingston, Pennsylvania.

Graduated in June, 1934,
Susquehanna University, Selinsgrove, Pennsylvania.

Received B.ss.in Music degree in June, 1939.
Majors: Music Education.

Piano.
Minor: English.
Penn State, State College, Pennsylvania.

Summer Session, 12 weeks, 1940. Earned 15 credits
in Science and Political Science.
Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois.

Summers; 1942-44-45-46.
Received M.M. degree, Summer, 1946.
Major; Music Education. Minor; Piano.
Indian University, Bloomington, Indiana.’

In residence, 1947-1951; December 1954- to June, 1955.
Work on Ph.D» degree.
Major; Theory. Minors; Musicology, and German

The Development of a Concept of Modulation in Theory From the 16th to Theearly 18th Century (科研通-Ablesci.com)

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The Development of a Concept of Modulation in Theory From the 16th to Theearly 18th Century (科研通-Ablesci.com)

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THE DEVELOPMENT OP A CONCEPT OF MODULATION IN THEORY

PROM THE 16TH TO THE EARLY 18TH CENTURY

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements

Indiana University, in partial fulfillment of the require­

ments for the degree Doctor q p ^ B h llo ,

Doctoral Committee; Chairman

I wish to take this opportunity to acknowledge my ap­

preciation for the special assistance given to me by the fol­

lowing people: to Miss Josefa Claudio, for her kindness in

reading my translations from Spanish sources; to Dr. Lawrence

Wilson of Oberlin College, for checking the translations from

Zarlino’s L ‘istltuzlone; to Dr. Henry Remak for help with the

other Italian sources and translations from German critical

studies; and finally, to Dr. H. J. Meesen, for giving so gen­

erously of his time to criticism and correction of transla­

tions from the original German sources. Also, I should like

to thank Dr, Remak, Dr. Fuerst, and especially Dr. Meesen, of

the German faculty of Indiana University, for their sincere

interest and kind encouragement in the process of this stuSy,

To my major professor, Dr. Roy T. Will, of the Indiana

University School of Music, I wish to express my deepest ap­

preciation for his many acts of personal kindness, his unlimit­

ed patience and constant encouragement, and for his invaluable

criticism given in the preparation of this dissertation.

Finally, I wish to thank my mother and other members

of my family, for their practical assistance in so many ways,

as well as for their persistant faith in my efforts to bring

this project to a successful conclusion.

Introduction ............... ........................

I. THE EIGHT MODE SYSTEM IN RENAISSANCE THEORY . . . 1

II. THE TWELVE MODE SYSTEM IN RENAISSANCE THEORY . . . 58

III. THE USE OF THE TWELVE MODES IN MUSIC ACCORDING

IV. THE MIXTURE OF MODES IN PLAINSONG MELODY ACCORD­

V. THE CHANGE FROM ONE MODE TO ANOTHER IN POLYPHONIC

VI. TONALITY AND MODULATION IN ENGLISH THEORY . . . . 304

VII. THE EMERGENCE .OF THE MAJOR-MINOR TONAL SYSTEM IN

VIII. MODULATION IN THE LATE 17TH AND EARLY 18TH CEN­

IX. SUMMARY AND C O N C L U S I O N S ............................ 429

Suggestions for Further Study .............. 444.

1. The Compass of the Tones ......................... 4

2. The Repercussions of the T o n e s ................. 6

3. Species of the Modes from Aron's Trattato . . . . 9

4. The Q-Mode System in N o t a t i o n .................. 23

5. The Characteristic Intervals of the Modes . . . . 26

6. The Two-Octave System of the G r e e k s ............ 61

7. Representation of the Twenty-Four Combinations of •

8. The Seven Octave Species, Each with Its Two-Fold

9. The Twelve Mode System Represented on the Staff . 74

10. The Twelve Modes on the Great Staff: Six Harmoni­

11. The Twelve Modes Through the Combination of the

12. The Twelve Modes Through the Division of the Oc­

13. The Finals of All the M o d e s .....................93

14. Die Verblndung dei* M o d i ............. 210

15. The Division of the O c t a v e ................. 314

16. The Division of the F i f t h ...................... 315

17. Division of the F i f t h .......................... 324

18. The Usual Flat and Sharp K e y s .................. 325

19. The Diatonic S c a l e ................................... 326

20. The "Cromatic Scale” ........................ 326

21. The Common Keys of the "Major and Minor Modes"

22. Illustration of the Transposition of Scales by

23. The Formal Clausulae for the Ionian and Dorian

24. The Keys in the Major and Minor Modes . . . . . . 372

Indiana University, in partial fulfillment of the require

I wish to take this opportunity to acknowledge my ap

preciation for the special assistance given to me by the fol

studies; and finally, to Dr. H. J. Meesen, for giving so gen

erously of his time to criticism and correction of transla

University School of Music, I wish to express my deepest ap

preciation for his many acts of personal kindness, his unlimit

IV. THE MIXTURE OF MODES IN PLAINSONG MELODY ACCORD

VIII. MODULATION IN THE LATE 17TH AND EARLY 18TH CEN

10. The Twelve Modes on the Great Staff: Six Harmoni

12. The Twelve Modes Through the Division of the Oc

2. "A Beautiful Example in which is Shown the Cor

26b. The Phrygian and Hypophrygian: A second ex

31a. The Intonation of the Greater Psalm in the Aeo

33. Intonation of the Lesser p-salm in the Hypo

34. The Use of B Flat as an Accidental. (Accord

35c. The First Melody Above, Moved from Its Trans