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Etiology
See Pathophysiology section below.
Risk Factors
A large number of risk factors have been identified:
• Hyperopia
• Family history of angle closure
• Advancing age
• Female gender
• Asian or Inuit descent
• Shallow anterior chamber depth
• Shorter axial length
• Thicker lens
Pathophysiology
Primary angle closure glaucoma is caused by relative pupillary block in the majority of cases.
In pupillary block, aqueous humor encounters increased resistance as it flows from the
posterior to anterior chamber through the iris-lens channel. Some degree of relative pupillary
block is present in most phakic eyes. The risk of pupillary block is highest with a mid-dilated
pupil where there appears to be maximum contact between the iris and the lens. In eyes with
angle closure, other factors exacerbate the block, such as the front lens surface being anterior
to the plane of iris insertion into the ciliary body base. The increased pressure gradient across
the pupil causes the peripheral iris to bow forward and cover some or all of the filtering
portion of the trabecular meshwork, resulting in appositional angle closure. Peripheral
anterior synechiae form after prolonged or repeated contacts of the peripheral iris with TM.
Another mechanism thought to be important in primary angle closure is iris angle crowding,
which is caused by a thickened peripheral iris filling the space between the TM and angle
recess under dark conditions.
Eyes that experience angle closure are not only anatomically different than normals — they
have shorter axial lengths, shallower anterior chambers, thicker and relatively anteriorly
positioned lenses, and flatter corneas — but they are also physiologically different. Thicker
irides may increase the posterior to anterior pressure differential. Dynamic factors in angle
closure eyes that can contribute to increased pupillary block are the tendency to retain more
iris volume after dilation and choroidal expansion causing forward lens movement. As
imaging modalities, such as ultrasound biomicroscopy and anterior segment optical
coherence tomography improve, these dynamic factors will be better studied and understood.
A less common cause of primary angle closure is anterior non-pupillary block. This is
observed in eyes in which angle closure progresses despite a patent iridotomy, for example,
as seen in plateau iris. Plateau iris configuration is characterized by a normal central anterior
chamber depth, flat iris profile, and crowding of the angle by the iris base. There is a forward
displacement of the iris base by anteriorly located ciliary processes that can lead to
subsequent angle closure. Plateau iris syndrome occurs when an eye with plateau iris
configuration develops a closed angle. Prominent last iris roll is another mechanism of
anterior nonpupillary block in which a very thick iris with prominent peripheral
circumferential folds becomes more pronounced and contacts trabecular meshwork with
dilation.
Secondary angle closure glaucoma is caused by a myriad of other eye diseases . There are
several secondary causes of angle closure that involve relative and absolute pupillary block.
In phacomorphic glaucoma, the mass effect of a thickened or intumescent cataract pushes the
iris forward and causes pathological angle narrowing. Forward displacement of the lens in
ectopia lentis or microspherophakia can also push the iris forward and shallow the angle.
Absolute pupillary block occurs when there is no movement of aqueous through the pupil
because of 360o posterior synechiae between the iris and a crystalline lens, an intraocular
lens, capsular remnants, or the vitreous face. In secondary angle closure glaucoma without
pupillary block, angle closure is due to either a.) contraction of an inflammatory,
hemorrhagic, or vascular membrane in the angle leading to PAS, or b.) forward displacement
of the lens-iris diaphragm, often associated with ciliary body swelling and anterior rotation.
Medical therapy
Acute angle closure glaucoma
The role of medical therapy in acute angle closure attacks is to lower IOP, reduce pain, and
clear corneal edema in preparation for iridotomy. The medications below can be used,
provided the patient has no condition contraindicating them:
Topical
• Beta blockers
• Selective alpha agonists
• Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors
• Miotics (e.g., pilocarpine 2%) may help break an early angle-closure attack,
but may be ineffective if the iris is already ischemic. High-concentration miotics (e.g.,
pilocarpine 4%) should be avoided because of the potential for forward displacement iris-lens
diaphragm.
• Prostaglandin analogues – unreliable effect in acute attack because of slow
onset of action
• Hyperosmolar agent (e.g. 5% sodium chloride) – assists in clearing corneal
edema
• Prednisolone 1% - decreases inflammation
Systemic
• Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors – oral acetazolamide’s maximum IOP reduction
is reached in 2-4 hours and lasts for 6-8 hours. Intravenous acetazolamide drops the IOP
within 2 minutes with a peak effect noted by 10-15 minutes. In acute situations, a single dose
of 500 mg acetazolamide should be given orally if the patient is not vomiting. Regular
acetazolamide is preferred over the sustained-release sequel form because of quicker onset of
action. If the patient is vomiting, acetazolamide can be given intravenously.
• Osmotic agents
1. Mannitol can decrease the IOP 30 mm Hg or more within 30 minutes of
administration. The recommended intravenous dose is 0.5-1.5 g/kg body weight as a 15% or
20% solution, delivered at 3 to 5 mL/minute. Frail patients with cardiac or conditions may
develop circulatory overload, pulmonary edema, congestive heart failure, and electrolyte
imbalance. A rapid reduction in cerebral volume may result in subdural hematomas from vein
rupture between the sagittal sinus and cortical surface. Therefore, patients receiving IV
mannitol should be monitored in a hospital setting.
2. Oral osmotic agents:
• Glycerin: 1 to 1.5 g/kg body weight of a 50% solution. Onset of pressure
reduction is typically 10 to 30 minutes. Avoid in diabetics because the increased caloric load
can cause ketoacidosis.
• Isosorbide is commercially available as a 45% (45 g/100 mL) solution
(Ismotic; Alcon Surgical). The recommended dose is 1 to 1.5 g/kg body weight. Its effect is
similar to glycerin’s but is safe for use in diabetics because it is not metabolized.
• Although less common, oral agents can also cause subdural hematomas.
Headache and gastrointestinal upset are common adverse reactions.
Paracentesis Can be perfomed in an acute setting. Technically, it can be difficult to perform
on a phakic eye in pain with a shallow chamber, and there is a risk of permanent damage to
the cornea, lens, and iris. Devastating complications such as endophthalmitis and choroidal
hemorrhage from a rapid pressure drop may occur. Also the effects are typically short-term,
because, as the ciliary body begins to form aqueous again, the IOP will inevitably rise. This
procedure can be used in cases of extreme IOP elevation to “buy time” until medications take
effect or iridotomy can be performed.
Laser Iridotomy Should be performed as soon as possible in the affected eye and in the
contralteral eye to avoid an attack of acute angle closure glaucoma in the future.
Chronic angle closure glaucoma
Very few studies exist to address medical therapy in chronic angle closure glaucoma after
laser iridotomy. In cases where elevated IOP becomes an issue, aqueous suppressants are
helpful in reducing IOP.[32] Prostaglandin analogues have been shown to be effective in
lowering IOP, even in angles that are partially closed.[32] [33] Evidence is not conclusive,
however, regarding their effectiveness in cases of 360° degrees of synechial closure.[34] The
role of PI and other surgical interventions are described below.
Peripheral iridotomy
See Primary prevention section for information regarding prophylactic LPI for narrow angles.
Acute Angle Closure and Fellow Eyes
In angle closure secondary to pupillary block, an iridotomy is the definitive treatment. Laser
peripheral iridotomy (LPI) is considered an effective and safe treatment. It often breaks an
attack of acute angle closure and can prevent future attacks. An incisional iridectomy may be
necessary in cases of cloudy corneas, flat anterior chamber, poor patient cooperation at the
laser, or inability to substantially lower the IOP with medications after a failed LPI attempt.
The fellow eyes of patients that have undergone primary acute angle-closure are generally at
significant risk for an acute attack and should receive an iridotomy. An untreated fellow eye
has a 40% to 50% chance of developing an acute PAC attack over the next 5 to 10 years.
Chronic miotic therapy is not an acceptable alternative, as 50% of contralateral eyes of
individuals suffering acute PAC developed acute attaks when treated with pilocarpine alone.
This is in contrast to the 1.8% of patients treated with prophylactic incisional iridectomy who
developed an attack during this same time period.
Chronic Angle Closure and Angle Closure Glaucoma
LPI relieves the pupillary block component in chronic disease and may halt the progression
of synechial closure and progressive IOP elevation. Its ability to control IOP, however, may
not be long-lasting, especially in eyes where glaucomatous optic neuropathy has already
developed. Additional medications or surgical treatment is often necessary. In cases where
LPI does successfully lower IOP, eyes still need to be monitored routinely as IOP can
increase months or years after the procedure.
REFRENCES
American academy of ophthalmology