Université Française d'Égypte

Engineering Faculty
Forming Report

Assignment 01

Names:
Maria Sarwat

Supervisor: Dr. Mohamed Abdelaziz

Eng. Sara Soliman
Contents
 Aluminium gravity Die-Casting:....................................................................................................3
 Historical Introduction:..............................................................................................................3
 Introduction:..............................................................................................................................3
 Gravity Die Casting Process:......................................................................................................4
1. Raw materials:.......................................................................................................................4
2. Die casting mold:...................................................................................................................4
3. The process:...........................................................................................................................4
 Advantages and disadvantages:.................................................................................................5
 Manhole Cover:.............................................................................................................................7
 history........................................................................................................................................7
 manufacturing technique..........................................................................................................7
3. Machining:.............................................................................................................................7
4. Molding:.................................................................................................................................7
5. Composite materials:.............................................................................................................8
 Service conditions:.....................................................................................................................8
1. Load test:...............................................................................................................................8
2. Deflection testing:..................................................................................................................8
3. Slip resistance testing:...........................................................................................................8
4. Watertightness testing:.........................................................................................................8
5. Durability testing:..................................................................................................................9
6. Chemical resistance testing:..................................................................................................9
 Material selection:.....................................................................................................................9
 Cast iron:................................................................................................................................9
 Carbon steels:........................................................................................................................9
 Concrete:...............................................................................................................................9
 Composite structures:............................................................................................................9
 Lightweight:.........................................................................................................................10
 Corrosion Resistant:.............................................................................................................10
 Do not have scrap metal:.....................................................................................................10
 Keep Incoming Water and Storm Water In:.........................................................................10
 Keep incoming water and storm water out:........................................................................10
 Greater safety:.....................................................................................................................10
 The end of life:.........................................................................................................................10
 Arguments...............................................................................................................................10
  Aluminium gravity Die-Casting:
 Historical Introduction:

The gravity die casting process has a long and fascinating history. It can be traced back to
ancient civilizations like the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, who used molds made of stone
and clay to shape molten metal into various objects. However, it was during the Industrial
Revolution in the 18th and 19th centuries that the modern gravity die casting process began
to take shape. As metalworking technologies improved and the need for efficient mass
production methods arose, casting processes underwent significant development.
A major milestone came with the introduction of permanent molds in the late 19th century.
Advances in metallurgy and mold-making techniques allowed for the creation of more
durable and reusable molds. Instead of relying on expendable molds made of sand or clay,
permanent molds made from materials like iron, steel, and graphite became the norm.
The key breakthrough in gravity die casting came with the concept of gravity feed. This
principle eliminated the need for external pressure or centrifugal force to fill the mold cavity
with molten metal. Gravity became the driving force, leading to a more controlled and
consistent casting process.
Throughout the 20th century, gravity die casting gained popularity in industrial applications.
Its advantages, including improved dimensional accuracy, superior surface finish, and higher
production rates compared to sand casting, made it increasingly sought after in industries
such as automotive, aerospace, and consumer goods manufacturing.
Technological advancements continued to refine the gravity die casting process over the
years. Mold design, metallurgy, and process control all saw significant improvements.
Computer-aided design (CAD) and computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) systems
revolutionized the design and production stages. Additionally, the development of better
mold materials, coatings, and advanced process monitoring techniques further enhanced
the efficiency and quality of gravity die casting.
Today, gravity die casting stands as a versatile and widely employed casting method,
continually benefiting from ongoing innovations, and contributing to the efficient production
of high-quality metal components.

 Introduction:

The gravity die casting (GDC) process is a method of

permanently casting molten metal into a Mold without
the need for external pressure. The liquid metal flows
into the mold cavity due to gravity. GDC is particularly
suitable for high-volume production of non-ferrous alloy
castings, such as those made from aluminum,
magnesium, copper, and zinc alloys. It can also be used
to a limited extent for cast iron castings. The dies used in
GDC are typically made from gray cast iron and steels.
Each die can produce an economical volume of around
75,000 to 100,000 pieces.
 The GDC process offers several advantages over conventional sand castings. It is well-suited
for mass production and provides better reproduction, dimensional accuracy, and surface
finish. The minimum wall thickness that can be cast is 3.0 mm, although in some cases, 2
mm thickness can be achieved in small areas. GDC also results in castings with 20% higher
mechanical properties compared to sand castings, thanks to a faster rate of solidification
that improves grain size. However, the process is not suitable for steels and super alloys due
to their high pouring temperatures. Additionally, casting alloys with a tendency for hot
tearing, such as aluminum-copper alloys, can be challenging in GDC due to their long
freezing ranges, which can lead to cracking under rapid solidification. Despite these
limitations, GDC is increasingly used in foundries for non-ferrous casting applications due to
its economic viability. Aluminum and its alloys are the most used materials for gravity die
casting due to their relatively low melting point, good fluidity when molten, and favorable
mechanical properties as a finished product. These make it an ideal choice for a wide range
of applications. Aluminum gravity castings are found in automotive parts, consumer
electronics, and various industrial components.
 Gravity Die Casting Process:

1. Raw materials:
The die-casting process relies on aluminum ingots, typically using alloys such as ADC12,
A380, and A360. However, it is important to prioritize environmental protection by using
ingots that do not contain prohibited components. The first step involves heating the
furnace to approximately 450 degrees Celsius and introducing the aluminum ingots.
Once the ingots have melted, the surface is cleared of any slag.
2. Die casting mold:
The creation of the die-casting mold is crucial in ensuring the quality of the aluminum
products and the final surface treatment. The design, material, and manufacturing of the
mold are of high importance, considering its long-term operation under high
temperatures. Commonly used materials for the core and cavity of the mold include
8407 or 8418, which contribute to its higher cost. However, these molds have a lifespan
of 50,000 to 100,000 cycles.
3. The process:

1. Mold Preparation: The die is heated and then sprayed with a refractory coating. The
coating helps control the temperature of the die during manufacture and assists in the
removal of the casting.
2. Pouring Material Filling: The molten aluminium is poured into the Mold manually. The
Mold cavity fills with no force other than gravity.
3. Exhaust: The cavity is exhausted to remove any trapped air.
4. Cooling: The Mold and the molten aluminium inside it are cooled to allow the aluminium
to solidify.
5. Mold Opening: Once the aluminium has solidified, the Mold is opened.
6. Production: The casting is removed from the Mold. This can be done manually or with
the use of ejector pins on mechanized machines.
  Advantages and disadvantages:

Advantages Description
Suitable for high GDC is well-suited for mass production of non-ferrous alloy castings,
volume production allowing for efficient manufacturing processes.

Better reproduction GDC provides better reproduction of intricate details and complex shapes
compared to conventional sand castings.
Dimensional GDC results in castings with higher dimensional accuracy, ensuring
accuracy consistent and precise product specifications.
Improved surface GDC produces castings with a smoother and more refined surface finish,
finish reducing the need for additional finishing operations.

Achieves higher Castings produced through GDC exhibit higher mechanical properties
mechanical compared to those from sand castings, thanks to faster solidification rates
properties and improved grain size.
Minimum wall GDC allows for the casting of thin walls, with a minimum thickness of 3.0
thickness of 3.0 mm mm, enabling the production of lightweight components.

Disadvantages Description
Unsuitable for GDC is not suitable for casting steels and super alloys due to their high pouring
steels and super temperatures, which can adversely affect the process.
alloys
Challenging for Casting alloys with a tendency for hot tearing, such as aluminum-copper alloys,
alloys prone to can be challenging in GDC due to their long freezing ranges, which can lead to
hot tearing cracking under rapid solidification.

Limited material GDC is primarily used for non-ferrous alloy castings of aluminum, magnesium,
compatibility copper, and zinc base alloys. Its application to cast iron castings is limited.

Moderate While GDC is suitable for high-volume production, the typical production volume
production per die ranges from 75,000 to 100,000 pieces, which may be a limitation for
volume per die certain manufacturing requirements.

Dependency on The success of GDC relies on the quality and durability of the die materials,
die materials typically gray cast iron and steels. Maintenance and replacement of dies can add
to the overall production costs.
  Manhole Cover:
 History:
As soon as people started living in cities, the problem of what to do with human waste
became an issue. The first settlements were built along the main rivers, which were open
channels. This has never been satisfactory due to occasional conflicts resulting from a lot of
human waste interacting closely with people. Roman civil engineers solved this problem by
building underground drains. Hand quarried Roman stones and bricks collected the rubbish
of a city and dispose of it entirely on the ground. The Romans
built access to this sewage so that it could be cleaned from time to time. The stone covers of
the hole covering these approaches can still be seen in the old Roman city of Jerash in
Jordan.
It would take some time for modern civilization to reach that of the Romans. Construction of
the Chicago canal began in 1856. New York had only two hundred miles (320 kilometres) of
canals laid in 1870, today it has 6,200 miles (10,000 kilometres) approx. that the first
manhole Cover were built in the early nineteenth century, not so for sewers but for water or
city air pipes. None of these hole covers are known to have survived to this day.

 Manufacturing technique:
1. Casting:
Casting is the process of manufacturing manhole covers, especially those
made of steel or ductile iron. In this process, the molten metal is poured into
the Mold and allowed to cool and harden. The Molds are usually made of
sand, pressed around a pattern indicating the shape and size of the lids. Once
the metal has hardened, the Mold is removed, and the Mold is cleaned and
finished.
2. Construction:
Construction methods are commonly used to construct manholes made of
steel or aluminium. In this process, metal sheets are cut, bent, welded, or
nailed together to create the desired shape and configuration of the casing
Construction allows greater flexibility in design and customization compared
to casting.
3. Machining:
Machining can be used to create complex structures or add specific features
to manhole covers, especially those made of steel. CNC (Computer Numerical
Control) machines can be used to cut, drill, or engrave with precision,
allowing for customization and the addition of functional features.
4. Molding:
Molding is like casting but is often used for manufacturing manhole covers
made of materials such as polymer concrete or fiberglass reinforced plastic
(FRP). In this process, a mixture of resin and reinforcing materials is poured
into a Mold and allowed to cure and harden. The Mold gives the cover its
final shape and texture. After curing, the cover is removed from the Mold and
undergoes further processing and finishing.

5. Composite materials:
Manhole covers made from composite materials, such as Fiber-reinforced
polymers (FRPs), are manufactured using a combination of techniques. The
materials are typically formed by layering reinforcing fibbers, such as
fiberglass or
carbon fibber,
with a resin
matrix. The
composite is
then molded
 or fabricated to create the final shape of the manhole cover. Composite
materials offer advantages such as high strength-to-weight ratio, corrosion
resistance, and design flexibility.

 Service conditions:
 A manhole cover is a removable plate that forms a cover over a manhole
opening, an opening large enough for a person to pass through that is used as an
access point to an underground vault or pipe.

 Manhole covers undergo tests to ensure quality, durability and meet industry
standards. Here are some common tests for manhole covers:

1. Load test:
A load test is conducted to determine the maximum load of the manhole cover. A
progressively increasing load is applied to the casing until the maximum bearing load is
reached. This testing helps ensure that the cover can withstand expected load and traffic
conditions without warping or failure.
2. Deflection testing:
Deflection testing measures the amount of flex or bending when a load is applied to a
manhole cover. This helps to monitor the structural integrity of the envelope and ensure
that it remains within acceptable limits to prevent issues such as noise, vibration, or
environmental damage.
3. Slip resistance testing:
Slip resistance testing examines the slippage or grip of the manhole cover surface. It
evaluates its ability to provide adequate friction in wet and slippery conditions, thereby
reducing the risk of accidents or injuries from falls the quality of resistance to falls, can be
measured by various methods as the British pendulum test or Tortus test.
4. Watertightness testing:
Watertightness testing determines the ability of a manhole cover to prevent water or other
liquids from entering the manhole chamber Participate in water or pressure testing to verify
the seal of the cover and verify that it is watertight way well into it.
5. Durability testing:
Durability testing evaluates the overall life of a manhole cover and its performance under
environmental conditions. This may include exposure to variable temperatures, corrosion
resistance testing, UV resistance testing, and accelerated aging testing to simulate long-term
use.
6. Chemical resistance testing:
Chemical resistance testing evaluates the resistance of manhole coatings to various
chemicals, such as acids, oils and detergents that may come into contact during intended
use This keeps the cover intact and prevents damage or wear from such exposure.

These are just a few examples of tests on manhole covers. The specific tests performed may
vary depending on factors such as regional standards, intended use, and product
composition.
  Material selection:
 Traditionally, hole covers are made of wrought iron, concrete, or even a combination
of both. This is because both materials are inexpensive, durable, and heavy enough
to last. However, like manhole, technology has developed diverse types of manholes
covers such as composite, fiberglass, and plastic in this section we discuss cast iron
manhole cover, plastic manhole cover, composite manhole cover and many types of
manholes covers.
Cast iron:
The metal tent covers you are most accustomed to seeing are cast iron. However, there are
two differences. Gray steel coatings are produced by pouring steel into Molds containing
some carbon and silicon to give the edges the typical strength and durability.
Another option is ductile cast iron. It is more difficult because it is often used in airports or
other heavy vehicles. The design is similar, but manganese is added to the mix to force the
carbon into lumps rather than standard stripes, making the coating more durable.
Carbon steels:
This is another important material for covering a metal hole. Carbon steel, although not as
strong as steel, is much lighter making it easier to remove and still strong enough to hold
heavier loads in. If this combination sounds like it would be a good fit for you yard, be sure
to check out the circular drain covers we offer on our website.
Concrete:
Another common manhole cover material is concrete. These are mostly habituated when
trying to blend the cover with the surrounding landscape and deteriorate over time even
though they are very intense in urban or mall environments de. This degradation process is
faster than most metals, which is why many concrete hole casings are reinforced at the
edges with steel alloys.
Composite structures:
The final basic manhole cover is made from a mixture of several types of plastics, fiberglass,
and other materials. Commonly used in Europe. Their appeal comes from their small but
sturdy buildings. They can also change their colour for free. But as strong as they are, they
are by far the weakest, breaking under great friction.

 Some of the major advantages of composite manhole covers, fiberglass manhole covers,
and plastic manhole covers are:
Lightweight:
One of the biggest problems with cast iron manhole covers is their weight, which not
only makes them hard and difficult to work with but has also raised worker safety
concerns Composite manholes can up to a third lighter than their cast steel
counterparts, weighing between 100 and 200 pounds It can go anywhere. The
lightweight design of these manhole covers allows for easy manoeuvrability and
significantly reduces worker injuries and worker compensation.
Corrosion Resistant:
Another reason for the popularity of composite, fiberglass, and plastic manhole
covers is that they do not rust like cast iron models because sewer or storm water
systems are notoriously highly corrosive due to the presence of hydrogen sulphide air
 as it contains -This is key to creating solutions that will not require constant
maintenance or replacement Plastic, fiberglass and composite manholes can also be
designed to resist corrosion [6] due to salt water in coastal areas and salt production
roadworks in winter so different parts of the country
Do not have scrap metal:
With manhole theft on the rise due to the scrap metal value of traditional metal
structures, many cities are looking for alternatives, which reduce alternatives such as
composite, fiberglass and plastic manholes it has no scrap value Money is saved and
the risk of injury to pedestrians and animals is also reduced when the manhole cover
is gone.
Keep Incoming Water and Storm Water In:
While steel manhole covers are designed for loose fit, handmade manhole covers.
Keep incoming water and storm water out:
While metal manhole covers are designed for a loose fit, manhole covers made of
composite, plastic and fiberglass are more durable enough to seal this in our sewer
or storm water systems, and Runoff, oil, and other contaminants [8] do not get into
our local water supply in our area.
Greater safety:
Since manhole cover sunlight is a concern, as well as public safety, it is important that
manhole covers are safe. Fortunately, these plastic manhole covers can be equipped
with a special security system that closes to prevent damage, theft, and inadvertent
removal.

 The end of life:

The average life of manhole covers is 25 years, but it is important to inspect them
regularly.

 Arguments
 some arguments and recommendations for improving current construction methods.

Arguments Description Recommendations

Environmental Impact
Traditional methods of Look for sustainable materials - One
manufacturing hole casings, way to mitigate the environmental
such as casting or impact is to consider alternative
manufacturing from metals manhole covers. For example,
such as cast iron or steel, can sustainable composite materials
have significant environmental made from recycled materials or
impacts These processes are recycled plastics, or natural Fibers
often energy intensive and emit can be used to reduce reliance on
greenhouse gases. non-renewable resources and the
problem of a to the environment.

Metal hole covers can be heavy Look for lightweight materials used,
 as they harden, posing a safety
hazard to workers during
installation and maintenance
Weight and Safety: The weight of these covers can
increase transportation costs
and energy consumption during
delivery.
Manhole covers deteriorate
over time and need regular
maintenance and replacement.
Durability and life This not only increases overall
expectancy: costs but also contributes to
waste.
Proper disposal and recycling of
manhole covers at the end of
their life cycle is essential to
raise waste and environmental
Recycling and end-of-life impact.
management:
Improving the quality of the
processes themselves can
improve efficiency, reduce
Process efficiency: waste, and reduce energy
consumption.
such as advanced composites or
reinforced plastics, which can
provide the necessary strength and
stiffness, and reduce the overall
casing weight is increased. This will
facilitate installation and handling
and improve worker safety.
This may require the use of anti-
corrosive, chemical, and physical
stress relievers. Also, discovering
modern design elements and
reinforcements can help extend the
life of the cover.
Establish recycling programs or
initiatives to encourage the proper
collection and reuse of old manhole
covers. This includes coordinating
with recycling centres or
manufacturers to ensure that
materials are reused properly.
Apply lean manufacturing principles
to simplify manufacturing processes,
reduce waste, and maximize energy
efficiency. This may include
advanced technologies such as 3D
printing or automation to reduce
waste and increase productivity.