PSIR OPTIONAL (PEP - 2024)

PSIR Enrichment Program

Lecture - 1
(Plato and Aristotle)
 PSIR Optional | Mains 2024 | Plato and Aristotle
Q.1 Comment: "The State is Individual Writ Large." (Plato)

Answer:
Plato is regarded as the father of political philosophy and amongst his greatest works is his conception and nature
of an ideal state. His notion of "The State is Individual Writ Large," encapsulates his perspective on the
relationship between the individual and the larger political entity, the state.
According to Plato, the state is a macrocosm of the individual, reflecting its characteristics, virtues, and
flaws. If the state is in capital letters, the individual is in small letters. He means to say that, the nature of the
state will depend on the character of the individuals. Thus to him, the "State" is simply the collective embodiment
of the individual souls of its citizens. In other words, the State is the sum of its individual parts, and each
individual citizen is a small part of a larger whole.
The notion is also an extension of Plato’s theory of Souls which can be applied by categorizing people on
the basis of the qualities of soul / Spiritual Qualities. There are three qualities: men of gold, silver, and copper.
In just state Men of Gold will rule over Men of Silver and Copper. In just state, every class will perform the
function according to the spiritual qualities of the soul. Men of reason should rule/make laws. Men of Courage
should ensure security. Men of Appetite should be involved in the task of production. All should perform the
function for which they are naturally suited. In this way, they will achieve excellence. The Just State will only
be formed when all men act and perform according to the quality of their souls.
Thus, for Plato, the principles governing the life of an individual i.e. Ethics and principles governing the
state i.e. Politics cannot be different from each other. The idea of a good life and a good political life cannot be
separate from each other. However, the overemphasis of the state potentially neglects the rights, autonomy, and
agency of individual citizens. The classification of individuals is also discriminatory and restricts basic human
liberties. Also, the parameters of individual existence cannot always be the same for which a state exists. For
example, the State may pursue war for expansion of its national interests; however if individuals do so, society
would be in chaos.
In modern times, the world has seen this Platonic argument being executed again and again so much so that
“Will of the People” has become the saluting argument in support of the model of the state. Although, with the
benefit of hindsight, one can easily argue that “State is individual writ large” is not only a feature of Just State
but also found in Unjust State. For example, people in the Arab world have lived in an authoritarian regime for
so long that now they aren't able to embrace democratic Nature.

Q.2 "Plato was an enemy of the open society."(Karl Popper) Comment. 20

Answer:
Plato’s legacy in modern political systems is immeasurable, from highlighting the cause of a just society to the
nature of a ruler, his contributions remain relevant even today. However scholars have often been critical of
many other aspects of Platonic thought, which have been found to be regressive and incompatible with Modern
political thought.
Karl Popper in his work “Open Society and its enemies”, called Plato as the first fascist. He argued that
Plato's political program is far from being morally superior to fascism and is actually identical to it.
His main area of criticism has been Plato’s Philosopher King which was seen as a justification for
authoritarian rule. He promised that since Plato emphasises the irrefutable nature of such a ruler, it is
undemocratic and opines for a closed system without room for dialogue and change, he further criticised Plato
for his hatred towards democracy. Plato's ideal state espoused to be ruled by the best alone as against the direct
democracy which was prevalent in Athens. The common people have to sacrifice themselves for the ideal state.
Thus, Karl Popper calls Plato a totalitarian thinker, a proto fascist and an enemy of open society.
Similarly, Alban Winspear called Plato‘s Republic a blueprint of authoritarianism. Arnold Toynbee called
Plato a fascist. CEM Joad also compares Platonism with fascism.
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 PSIR Optional | Mains 2024 | Plato and Aristotle
However, Ronald Levinson in his work “In Defense of Plato” argued that Fascism and Platonism are
incomparable. Plato's work was a utopia. There was no desire for exploitation. His genuine desire was to give a
life of excellence and harmony.
The political theorist Rajeev Bhargava argues that Popper misreads Plato. His formulation was deployed
to defend liberal political values is "motivated by partisan ideological considerations grounded curiously in the
most abstract metaphysical premises.
Thus, it was not Plato at the fault but those who were using his ideas to justify their totalitarian regimes.
Plato’s intention was right but his idealistic methods created a potent mixture that was misused by the coming
generations.

Q.3 Compare and contrast with one another the theories of the state put forth by Plato and Aristotle and
highlight the implications of the differences for the understanding of western political thought.
(15 Marks)

Introduction
Plato and Aristotle, both belonged to the Socratic tradition. They both believed in the primacy of state to the
individual. The main difference between Plato and Aristotle philosophy is that the philosophy of Plato is more
theoretical and abstract in nature, whereas the philosophy of Aristotle is more practical and experimental in
nature.
Plato was primarily concerned with the idea of the good state. For him, a good state depended on the
character of its citizens and especially the rulers. He believed that knowledge was the basis of action and
governance, as an art needed special knowledge. It could not be done by ordinary masses hence; he was against
democracy and advocated rule of wise men led by a Philosopher King.
Aristotle has analyzed state as a unique human association, which evolved from lower associations,
beginning from a single individual, family, a village and a cluster of villages. The innate sociability of human
beings is manifested in evolution of state from a limited individual to a perfect association i.e., state. Hence for
him the state represented the pinnacle of social evolution and conditions for mutual cooperation
Plato divided his ideal state into three classes Rulers, Auxiliary and Producers, respectively the men of gold,
silver and bronze. Each of these classes had its appointed function and each of them concentrated entirely on the
discharge of that function. Plato was keen on training the former two classes with the scheme of education and
called them Guardian Class of the State. He also suggested a system of communism of wives and property that
would help the ruling classes to concentrate on the task of governing. Thus, Plato espoused an ideal state, where
the character of its dwellers mattered the most.
Aristotle refrained from resorting to radical ideas for educating and perfecting the citizens. He believed in
the utility of time-tested institutions of family and property and opposed communism of wives and property of
Plato.
Plato believed in the institution of the philosopher king. He believed the authority of the ruler over the
citizens was paternalistic. Thus, he suggested the absolute rule by the philosopher king
On the other hand, for Aristotle, state is distinct from other human associations such as family, household
and Village, and relationships therein such as husband-wife, parent- children and master-slave, which are based
on inequality and lack of consent. They indicate paternal authority. As against this, the state is based on consent
and equality. In Aristotle's best city-state, all citizens rule and are ruled in turn. It is an "association of men living
together to achieve the best possible life." Hence it stands out as a partnership.
For Plato, the best state is the one ruled by the philosopher king with his wisdom accumulated through
education and abstinence from worldly desires.
The best form of state for Aristotle is one that is based on a Constitution and the Rule of Law. This would
ensure stability, participation of citizens and a check against arbitrary rule.

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 PSIR Optional | Mains 2024 | Plato and Aristotle
For Plato, being a member of state is enough to become a citizen which is a passive concept of citizenship.
For Aristotle, participation in deliberative and judicial functions is the essential condition of citizenship, creating
a citizenry that is not docile but actively involved in state's affairs.For Plato, citizens were means to realize the
end of an ideal state. Such, thinking, how so ever noble creates the opportunity for autocracy.
For Aristotle, the state is an instrument for an individual's self-perfection. A state tames the wagery of man
and makes them just human beings. It is only within a constitutionally governed polity that each individual could
thrive and satisfy all his needs, especially the moral need of good life.

Implications on understanding the Western political thought

● Leo Strauss argued that the differences between Plato's and Aristotle's theories of the state are significant
because they reflect different approaches to the question of justice.
● John Rawls writes that the differences between Plato's and Aristotle's theories of the state are important
because they reflect different understandings of the role of the state in society
● Hannah Arendt believes that the differences between Plato's and Aristotle's theories of the state are
significant because they reflect different understandings of the nature of power.
The differences between Plato and Aristotle provides a comprehensive view of state, society and citizenship
within western political thought. They shaped the entire western political thought to the extent that Alfred North
Whitehead says “All of Western philosophy is but a footnote to Plato.”

Q.4 Explain the Aristotelian view of politics. To what extent do you think it has contributed to modern
day constitutional democracies?

Answer:
The Aristotelian view of politics revolves around the concept of best practicable which is in accordance with
his concept of “Golden Mean as Golden Rule”. Aristotle believed that politics should be based on practical
wisdom (Phronesis) and that it should be organized in a way that cultivates virtue and facilitates the well-being
of its citizens i.e. achieving Eudaimonia (happiness) through phronesis . To achieve this Aristotle prescribed to
avoid going for extreme tendencies of monarchy, oligarchy or democracy. He suggested polity or constitutional
government which was a moderate democracy in nature.

Aristotle's political theory is based on the idea that humans are social beings by nature as “man is by nature
a political animal” and that the polis is the most developed form of human association. According to Aristotle,
both democracy and oligarchy suffer from serious defects. Democracy is the rule of the majority who are poor.
This creates the situation for rule of ignorance and a feeling of jealousy from the rich. Whereas, Oligarchy is the
government controlled by a minority who are extremely rich and this leads to a rule of arrogance and a feeling
of jealousy from the poor. He believes that oligarchy is the best where the ruling class is the least rich and
democracy is the best where masses are least poor.

Aristotle thus prescribes the best form of political association as one which is controlled by middle classes
i.e. neither rich nor poor. The rich are unwilling to discipline while the poor lack spirit and enthusiasm. Therefore
the middle class constituted the mean in the social structure and act as a countervailing force to ensure stability.
This will prevent the rise of revolution which is prevalent even with signs of perceived inequality by any class.
However both the rich and the poor trust the middle classes. Thus Aristotle saw in rule by the middle-class
fulfillment of two important political ideas of “Equality” and “consensus”

Aristotle conceived how polity will be governed on the basis of procedure established by law as “law is the
outward manifestation of reason” and “law is reason without passion”. Law, which is made by the active
citizenry as a result of deliberation is based on common sense and hence it is better than the rule of philosopher
king of Plato which is based on “knowledge is virtue”

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 PSIR Optional | Mains 2024 | Plato and Aristotle
Aristotle's contributions to modern constitutional democracies have been visible in the modern democracies in
the following aspects.
● Rule of law
o Division of Powers: Aristotle advocated for separating powers to prevent tyranny and ensure
accountability in government. This principle is reflected in modern constitutional democracies' checks
and balances.
o Equality and Fairness: Aristotle emphasized treating individuals justly based on their merits and
capabilities, promoting equal treatment. Modern constitutional democracies strive for equal rights and
opportunities for all.
o Supremacy of Law and Constitutionalism: Aristotle stressed the importance of the rule of law and a
well-defined constitution. Modern constitutional democracies uphold the rule of law and adhere to
written constitutions.
o Active Participation and Engaged Citizenship: Aristotle valued active citizenship and civic
participation, laying the groundwork for participatory democracy. Modern constitutional democracies
encourage citizen engagement in political processes.
o Inequality and Social Unrest: Aristotle recognized that inequality can lead to social unrest and
revolution. Modern constitutional democracies address inequality through policies aimed at reducing
disparities and promoting social justice.
In summary, Aristotle's views on the rule of law, equality, revolution, separation of power, and active citizenry
have significantly influenced the development of modern constitutional democracies. These principles continue
to shape the structure and functioning of democratic societies today. And it is for this reason Aristotle is termed
as a political entrepreneur and the father of Political Science.

Q.5 Everywhere, inequality is a cause of revolution - Aristotle. Comment.

Answer:
Aristotle has been credited as the father of Political Science. Amongst his great theories is his theory of
equality, which he analyzes in-depth and which forms the basis for many of his political thoughts. Above
statement of Aristotle suggests that the presence of inequality in society can lead to social unrest and instability
which may ultimately result in revolution.

Aristotle's theory of equality emerged as a tool to justify his theory of justice. His conception of Justice
includes two dimensions of justice - one, general justice and the other, particular justice. Furthermore, he asserts
that the principle of equality constitutes the supreme principle of particular justice. However, he notes two kinds
of equalities as applicable to these two dimensions of particular justice.

In the sphere of these activities, all the persons are to be treated equally and the principle of reciprocity
should be applied i.e. one should treat all others in the same manner as he wants himself to be treated by others.
If there is any imbalance due to people not following this principle of reciprocity and arithmetic equality in such
matters, the state must correct/rectify the balance and should establish justice by strictly enforcing the law

Aristotle's Perspective:
Aristotle believed that inequities such as economic, social, political, religious, and cultural disparities can
become a breeding ground for resentment, frustration, and disillusionment among the disadvantaged population.
He argued that when a significant portion of the society feels deprived of their fair share of resources and
opportunities and their voices are not being heard, their rights are being denied, and they are being systematically
oppressed, they tend to mobilize and demand change.
According to Aristotle, this is a historically proven fact as many revolutions of history were sparked by
unequal distribution of resources, power, and opportunities among different segments of society.

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 PSIR Optional | Mains 2024 | Plato and Aristotle
Historical Examples:
● French Revolution, 1789: It was fuelled by stark social inequality, where privileged few held immense
power and wealth, while majority suffered from poverty and oppression.
● Russian Revolution: In 1917, the Russian Revolution erupted partly due to the vast wealth gap and the
exploitation of the working class by the ruling elite.

Scholars' Views:
● Karl Marx: Marx, a renowned philosopher and economist, built upon Aristotle's idea and developed
the concept of class struggle. He argued that economic inequality is the primary driver of societal
conflicts and revolutions.
● Thomas Piketty: Piketty, a contemporary economist, has conducted extensive research on income and
wealth inequality. His work highlights the negative consequences of extreme inequality, including social
unrest and political instability.
Contemporary Examples:
● Arab Spring: The Arab Spring uprisings that began in 2010 across several countries in the Middle East
and North Africa were driven in part by economic inequality and lack of opportunities for the younger
generation.
● Global Protests: In recent years, we witnessed numerous protests worldwide demanding greater
economic equality, such as Occupy Wall Street movement and the Yellow Vest protests in France.

Aristotle's observation that inequality is a cause of revolution is relevant even today. As long as inequality
persists in society, there will always be a risk of political and social upheaval. It is therefore important for
governments and leaders to address inequality and create a fair and just society in order to prevent the emergence
of revolutionary movements that threaten the stability of their nations.

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