CURRENT, RESISTANCE, AND ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE25.1 If there is no electric field inside a conductor, an electron moves randomly from point P, to point P, in a time Ar If an electric field F is present, the electric force F = gE imposes a small drift (greatly exaggerated here) that takes the electron to point P, a distance yy At from Pyin the direction of the force. ‘Conductor without internal E field ‘Path of electron without E field. Electron ‘moves randomly. “Path of electron with E field. The motion is mostly random, but *ine # field results ina net displacement along the wire. Anelectron has aiiegative charge 4, so the free on it dust the Bild is inthe direction opposite w EThe Direction of Current Flow 25.2 The same current is produced by (2) positive charges moving in the direction of the electric field E or (b) the same num- ber of negative charges moving at the same speed in the direction opposite to E. (a) A conventional current is treated as a flow of positive charges, regardless of whether the free charges in the conductor are positive, negative, or both25.2 The same current is produced by (2) positive charges moving in the direction Of the electric field E or (b) the same num- ber of negative charges moving at the same speed in the direction opposite to E. f In a metallic conductor, the moving charges are electrons — but the current still points in the direction positive charges would flow.l= # definition of current)Current, Drift Velocity, and Current Density dQ = q(nAvg dt) = nqvgA dtI An Mlqlea — Current density) Vector current density Daft velocity Conce moving charged particles «Charge per panicle 25.4 Part of the electric circuit that includes this light bulb passes through a beaker with a solution of sodium chloride. ‘The current in the solution is carried by both positive charges (Na” ions) and nega- tive charges (CI" ions).RESISTIVITY Resistivities at Room Temperature (20°C) Substance a(Q2+m) | Substance p(2-m) ‘Conductors Semiconductors MotakSiher Lar x 10-8 Pure carbon graphite) 3.5 x 0-8 Copper 1m x 10 Pure germanium 9.60 Gold aaa x 10 Pure silicon 2300 Aluminum 275 x 10°* | Insulators Tungsten 5.25 x 10° Amber 3x10! Steel 20 x 10° Glas 10-108 Lead 210 Lucite >10” Mercury 95 x 10% Mica 10"'-108 ‘Alloys Manganin (Cu84%, Ma I2%.Ni4%) ag 3 10 Quartz used) 75 x 108% Constantan (Cu 60%, Ni 40%) 4a x10 Sulfur 108 Nichrome 100 x 10°F Teflon >108 Wood 1010‘Magnitude of electric field E> in material “J Magnitude of current density used by electric field 25.5 The copper “wires.” or traces, on this circuit board are printed directly onto the surface of the dark-colored insulating board. Even though the traces are very close to each other (only about a millimeter apart) the board has such a high resistivity (and low conductivity) that essentially no current can flow between the traces.Resistivity and Temperature ‘Temperature dependence BIO Application Resistivity and Nerve Conduction Thisfalse-colorimage from ‘an electron microscope shows a cross section through a nervefiber about 1 xm (10° m) in diameter. A layer of an insulating fatty sub- stance called myelinis wrapped around the ‘conductive material of the axon. The resistiv ity of myelin is much greater than that of the ‘axon, so an electric signal traveling along the nerve fiber remains confined to the axon. This makes it possible fr a signal to travel much more rapidly than if the myelin were absent Temperature coefficient of resistivity temperature 7, poll + a(T — T)] ‘at reference temperature Ty25.6 Variation of resistivity with absolute temperature T for (a) a normal metal, (b) a semiconductor, and (¢) a superconductor. In (a) the linear approxi- mation to p as a function of T is shown as a green line; the approximation agrees exactly at T = To, where p = po. (a) p ‘Metal: Resistivity increases with increasing temperature. Semiconductor: Resistivity decreases w' temperature. temperatures below 7. the resistivity is.zero.Temperature Coefficients of Resistivity | TABLE 25.2) (Approximate Values Near Room Temperature) Material @[(°C)7] | Material a@((°C)“!) Aluminum 0.0039 Lead 0.0043 Brass 0.0020 Manganin 0.00000 Carbon (graphite) —0.0005 Mercury 0.00088 ‘Constantan 0.00001 Nichrome 0.0004 Copper 0.00393 Silver 0.0038 Iron 0.0050 ‘Tungsten 0.0045RESISTANCE 25.7 A conductor with uniform cross section. The current density is uniform over any cross section, and the electric field is constant along the length. Lower Current flows from potential higher to lower electric potential Higher potential V © potential difference between ends 4F°cResisivity of conductor material Fo Length of conductor AmCroxs-sectional area of conductor Voltage between ends of conductor V = IR©™Resisance of conductor “se Current in conductor25.8 A long fire hose offers substantial resistance to water flow, To make water pass through the hose rapidly, the upstream ‘end of the hose must be at much higher pressure than the end where the water ‘emerges. In an analogous way, there must bbe alarge potential difference between the ‘ends of a long wire in order to cause a sub- stantial electric current through the wire.[FABLE 25.3) Resistors Color Black Brown Red, Orange Yellow Green Blue ‘Violet Gray White Interpreting Resistance Color Codes for ‘Value as Di Value as Multiplier 1 0 1 10° 108 10° 10° 10 108 10° RUT) = Roll + aT ~ T)] i) One resistor typical mal ite At ‘Ben temperature, creo is ropotonal 1 25.10 Current-voltage relationships for two devices. Only for a resistor that obeys Ohm's law as in (a) is current J propor tional to voltage V. cr ne dition of priv erent and soalincaly wit V Inte distin of nate cen and ola, curent flowsELECTROMOTIVE FORCE AND CIRCUITS {W) Ine current causes enarge 10 Dunia up at the ends. 25.11 If anelectric field is produced inside a conductor that is not part of a complete circuit, current flows for only a very short time. ‘The charge buildup produces ati opposing field E;, thus reducing the current (a) An electric field E, produced inside an isolated conductor causes a current. (0) After a very short time B has the same magnitude as E,; then the total field is Eya, and the current stops completely. +eeeeElectromotive Force 25.13 Schematic diagram of a source of emf in an “open-circuit” situation. The electric-field force F. = gE and the nonelectrostatic force F, are shown for a positive charge q. ‘Terminal at higher ‘potential Nonelectrostatic orce tending to move charge to higher potential Vey igher p Force due to electric field PK “Terminal at lower potential When the emf source is not part of a closed circuit, F, = F, and there is no net motion of charge between the terminals.25.14 Schematic diagram of an ideal source of emf in a complete circuit. The clectric-field force F, = gE and the nonelectrostatic force F, are shown for a positive charge q. The current is in the direction from a to b in the external circuit and from to a within Vap = € €=V,, = IR the source. (ideal source of emf) (ideal source of emf) Potential across term field in circuit, ca ls creates electric ing charges to move. deal emt When a a= to ideal) emf source is connected to a circuit, Vip and thus F; fill, so and F, does work on the charges.Internal Resistance (current, source with é €-=IR o 1 Rar i ‘resi )[Taste 25.4) Symbols for Circuit Diagrams Conductor with negligible resistance Resistor Source of emf (longer vertical line always represents the positive terminal, usually the terminal with higher potential) Source of emt with internal resistance r (ran be placed on either side) ‘Voltmeter (measures potential difference between its terminals) Ammeter (measures current through i) reati ENERGY AND POWER IN ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 25.21 The power input to the circuit element between a and b is P= (Vj — Vil = Vanl- vy %, aovmVollage across “*P = Vipls,, ciscuit element * Current in circuit elementPower Input to a Pure Resistance(a) Diagrammatic circuit Power Output of a Source + The emf source converts nonelectrical ta electrical energy at arate £1 (b) A real cireuit of the type shown in (a) + Its internal resistance dissipates energy at arate Pr ‘The difference £1 ~ Pris its power output. ‘ Sr + wat Vay = € — Ir P= Val = E1— Pr ‘emf source with internal resistance r HeadlightPower Input to a Source 25.23 When two sources are connected ina simple loop circuit, the source with Vay = E+ Ir the larger emf delivers energy to the other source. P= Vyl = €1+ PrTHEORY OF METALLIC CONDUCTION 25.26 Random motions of an electron in a metallic crystal (a) with zero electric field and (b) with an electric field that causes drift, The curvatures of the paths are greatly exaggerated. p= £ J J= ngs (a) Collision with crystal Without E field: random motion (b) With F field: random motion pi ‘Net displacement25,27 ‘The motion of a ball rolling down an inclined plane and bouncing off pegs in its path is analogous to the motion of an «lectron in a metallic conductor with an electric field present. =|" = |B o 0 s + 3 ES a= By = ar = CE m ro b= Ce + nr. J = nqba =I Xoo Blecton mass Resistivity of a metal a Average time Namkerof fw eetons * EE between collisions perunit volume “Magnitude of electron chargeA SOURCE IN AN OPEN CIRCUIT Figure 25.16 shows a source (a battery) with emf £ = 12 V and internal resistance r = 2 02. (For comparison, the internal resist- ance of a commercial 12-V lead storage battery is only a few thou- sandths of an ohm) The wires to the left of a and to the right of the ammeter A are not connected to anything. Determine the respec- tive readings Vay and / of the idealized voltmeter V and the ideal- ized ammeter A. 25.16 A source of emfinan open circuit VasA SOURCE IN A COMPLETE CIRCUIT We add a 4-02 resistor to the battery in Conceptual Example 25.4, forming a complete circuit (Fig. 25.17). What are the voltmeter and ammeter readings Vap and J now? 25.17 A source of emf ina complete circuitUSING VOLTMETERS AND AMMETERS ‘We move the voltmeter and ammeter in Example 25.5 to different positions in the circuit, What are the readings of the ideal volt- meter and ammeter in the situations shown in (a) Fig, 25.18 and (b) Fig, 25.186? 25.18 Different placements of a voltmeter and an ammeter ‘complete circuit.A SOURCE WITH A SHORT CIRCUIT In the circuit of Example 25.5 we replace the 4-2 resistor with a zero-resistance conductor, What are the meter readings now? 25.19 Our sketch for this problem. Vow et ra2N.€=12V R=0POWER INPUT AND OUTPUT IN A COMPLETE CIRCUIT For the circuit that we analyzed in Example 25.5, find the rates of energy conversion (chemical to electrical) and energy dissipation in the battery, the rate of energy dissipation in the 4-82 resistor, and the battery's net power output 25.24 Our sketch for this problem. r=2ne=l2V a R=40INCREASING THE RESISTANCE Suppose we replace the external 4-0 resistor in Fi 8-1 resistor. How does this affect the electrical power dissipated in this resistor? POWER IN A SHORT CIRCUIT For the short-circuit situation of Example 257, find the rates of 25.25 Our sketch for this problem. energy conversion and energy dissipation inthe battery and the net Ya=0 power output of the battery. Tr a oj En