Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1: Introduction

Introduction
A network is a group of computers and other devices, such as
printers and modems, connected to each other. This enables the
computers to effectively share data and resources.

The concept of sharing resources over a network is called

networking. The computers in a network can share data, messages,
graphics, printers, fax machines, modems, and other hardware and
software resources.

Network elements
 Servers

Servers are the computers that provide the shared resources to

network users. There is usually only one server in a small network,
but bigger networks may have more than one server.

 Clients

Clients are the computers that can access the shared network
resources provided by a server.

 Media

The computers in a network are connected to each other by

hardware components, such as cables. These components are called
the media.

 Shared data

A server provides shared resources and data over a network. The

files that are provided by the server over the network are called
shared data. This shared data can be a document, a worksheet or a
folder.

 Resources

Files, printers or other items that can be used by network users are
known as resources. These resources can be either hardware or
software resources.
1.2: Benefits of the computer Network
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Benefits of the computer Network

In most organizations, a network offers benefits, such as data
sharing and online communication that are not provided by a stand-
alone environment (An environment in which there is several
computers that are not connected to each other is called a stand-
alone environment.). In this topic, you will identify the benefits of a
network.

 Data sharing

The data can be easily sharable in a network so other user can

access it at any time. For example, a user working in a team wants
to share some data with the other team members. In a stand-alone
environment, to share the data you can verbally exchanging
information or writing memos or putting the data on a floppy and
copying it to the machines of other members. If it network the data
can be easily made sharable in a network so that the other team
members can access.

A centralized data storage system enables multiple users to access

data in different locations.

 Resource sharing

Resource sharing is also an important benefit of a computer

network. For example, if there are four people in a family, each
having their own computer, they will require four modems (for the
Internet connection) and four printers, if they want to use the
resources at the same time. A computer network, on the other
hand, provides a cheaper alternative by the provision of resource
sharing.

In this way, all the four computers can be interconnected, using a

network, and just one modem and printer can efficiently provide the
services to all four members. The facility of shared folders can also
be availed by family members.

 Centralized Software Management

One of the greatest benefits of installing a network is the fact that

all of the software can be loaded on one computer (the file server).
This eliminates that need to spend time and energy installing
updates and tracking files on independent computers throughout
the building.

 Communication medium

A computer network can provide a powerful communication medium

among people spread widely at different physical locations. It acts
as a powerful communication medium when it comes to sharing
information and resources.

 Data Security and Management

In a business environment, a network allows the administrators to

much better manage the company's critical data. Instead of having
this data spread over dozens or even hundreds of small computers
in a haphazard fashion as their users create it, data can be
centralized on shared servers. This makes it easy for everyone to
find the data, makes it possible for the administrators to ensure
that the data is regularly backed up, and also allows for the
implementation of security measures to control who can read or
change various pieces of critical information.

 Speed

Sharing and transferring files within Networks are very fast.

Networks provide a very rapid method for sharing and transferring
files. The sharing of data with the other users in a stand-alone
environment requires physical transfer of data. This can be done by
copying the data on a floppy disk or taking a printout. This requires
more time and is inconvenient as compared to sharing the data over
a network.

1.3: Disadvantages of the computer Network

Disadvantages of the computer Network

 Expensive to Install

Although a network will generally save money over time, the

initial costs of installation can be prohibitive. Cables, network
cards, and software are expensive, and the installation may
require the services of a technician.

 Data Security
If a network is implemented properly, it is possible to greatly
improve the security of important data. In contrast, a poorly
secured network puts critical data at risk, exposing it to the
potential problems associated with hackers, unauthorized access.

 Cables May Break

One broken cable can stop the entire network.

 File Server May Fail

Although a file server is no more susceptible to failure than any

other computer, when the files server "goes down," the entire
network may come to a halt. When this happens, the entire
hospital may lose access to necessary programs and files.

 Virus Infections

If any computer system in a network gets affected by computer

virus , there is a possible threat of other systems getting affected
too. Viruses get spread on a network easily because of the
interconnectivity of workstations. Such spread can be dangerous
if the computers have important database which can get
corrupted by the virus.

To overcome Network Disadvantages

 Security issues and Virus Infections issues

The increase in businesses connecting their systems and using

the Internet has its drawbacks. When all computers are
networked, one user's problems may affect everyone. You should
consider the greater potential for data loss, security breaches
and viruses when creating a network.

It is important to ensure data security through regular backing

up the files, password routines, and system logs. It is important
to remove access from employees who leave, otherwise they
may still be able to access customer records.

As your data will be stored in one location on the server, physical

security is very important. You should improve the quality of your
system security to protect your business from potential virus
attacks and hacking. This should include anti virus software and
a firewall or software barrier.
If your staffs need to access the network while off-site, consider
a virtual private network. This creates a secure link and protects
information sent and received.

 File Server Fail down issues

For this we can have backup fail server. When the files server
"goes down," then we can use the backup fail server. Having
backup server we can overcome this problem.

Chapter 2: Kinds of network

Kinds of network
Chapter 2.1: Peer-to-Peer Networks
Chapter 2.2: Server Based Networks
2.1:Peer-to-Peer Networks
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Peer-to-Peer Networks
In a peer-to-peer network, there are no dedicated servers, and
there is no hierarchy among the computers. All the computers
are equal and therefore are known as peers. Each computer
functions as both a client and a server.
And there is no administrator responsible for the entire network.
The user at each computer determines what data on that
computer is shared on the network. Below figure shows a peer-
to-peer network in which each computer functions as both a
client and a server.

Computers in a peer-to-peer network are called peers. In a peer-

to-peer network, all computers are considered equal; they all
have the same abilities to use the resources available on the
network. Each computer can function both as a client and a
server. Computers are not dedicated to function as servers. They
use the network to share resources among the independent
peers. The computer whose applications are required by the
other networked computers functions as a server. The other
computers function as clients. Therefore, a dedicated
administrator is not assigned for network management.
A peer-to-peer network is a small group of people using a
network. Peer-to-peer networks members usually perform similar
tasks, which necessitates the sharing of resources. The peer-to-
peer networks support 10 computers. The users in a peer-to-peer
network are located in the same geographical area. Operating
systems, such as Microsoft Windows 98 or Microsoft Windows XP,
can be used to set up a peer-to-peer network. Additional
software is not required because peer-to-peer networking is built
into the systems.
Another important point of peer-to-peer networks is that the
users of each computer plan and control the security of their
resources. The users determine the resources on their
computers, which can be shared on the network. The shared
network resources, such as disk space, printers or faxes, can be
used by anyone who has access to the network. This is possible
only if the shared network resources are not password protected.
Peer-to-peer networks have weak and intrusive security because
a central server is not used to administer and secure the
network. In addition, some users may not implement security.
A peer-to-peer network does not support a central login process.
This implies that a user who logs on to one peer can access any
shared network resource, which is not controlled by a specific
password. Peer-to-peer networks are relatively simple. Because
each computer functions as a client and a server, there is no
need for a powerful central server or for the other components
required for a high-capacity network. Peer-to-peer networks can
be less expensive than server-based networks.
Peer-to-peer networks are simple and inexpensive to install and
maintain. The cost of implementing peer-to-peer networks is low
because a central server is not used to administer the network.
In addition, the components for a high-capacity network are not
required in a peer-to-peer network.
In a peer-to-peer network, the users handle administration. This
means that all the users need to be trained in how to share files,
folders, and printers. In a peer-to-peer network, suddenly
shutting down your computer can cause one of your colleagues
to be unable to print.
Peer-to-peer networks are appropriate for environments where
all the users are located in the same geographical area and the
network security is not an important factor. In addition, these
networks are useful when the network expansion is limited.
Advantages of a peer-to-peer network:

 Less initial expense - No need for a dedicated server.

 Setup - An operating system (such as Windows XP) already
in place may only need to be reconfigured for peer-to-peer
operations.

Disadvantages of a peer-to-peer network:

 Decentralized - No Centralized server.

 Security - Does not provide the security available on a
peer-to-peer network.

2.2: Server Based Networks

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Server Based Networks

A dedicated server is one that functions only as a server and is not
used as a client or workstation. Server based networks (see below
Figure) have become the standard models for networking.

In a server-based network, clients rely on the services that the

server provides, such as file storing and printing. Client computers
are generally less powerful than server computers.
A server-based network using network operating system is that the
networks are organized into domains. A domain is a collection of
networks and clients that share security information. Domain
security and logon permissions are controlled by special servers
called domain controllers. Users cannot access the resources of
servers in a domain until a domain controller has authenticated
them.

In server-based networks, a network administrator centrally

manages the resource security. The administrator defines and
manages user access to network resources.

Another beneficial of server-based networks is central file storage.

Server-based networks provide easy backup of critical data. Data
backup is another useful characteristic of server based networks.

Server based networks can support a larger number of users than

peer-to-peer networks. To support a large number of users, server-
based networks use monitoring and network management tools.
Servers must perform varied and complex tasks. (See below figure)

Security is often the primary reason for choosing a server-based

approach to networking. In a server-based environment, one
administrator who sets the policy and applies it to every user on the
network can manage security. (see below figure)
Advantages of a client/server network

 Centralized - Resources and data security are controlled

through the server.
 Security - More security then Peer-to-peer network.
 Flexibility - New technology can be easily integrated into
system.
 Interoperability - All components (client /server) work
together.
 Accessibility - Server can be accessed remotely and across
multiple platforms.

Disadvantages of a client/server network

 Expense - Requires initial investment in dedicated server.

 Maintenance - Large networks will require a staff to ensure
efficient operation.
 Dependence - When server goes down, operations will cease
across the network.

Chapter 3: Types of network

Types of network
Chapter 3.1: Local Area Network (LAN)
Chapter 3.2: Wide Area Network (WAN)
Chapter 3.3: Wireless Fidelity Wi-Fi
3.1:Local Area Network (LAN)

Local Area Network (LAN)

A LAN is a network with two or more computers connected to each
other in a single location.

Chapter 3.1.1: Wired Local Area Network

Chapter 3.1.2: Wireless Local Area Network

Wired Local Area Network (LAN)

It is the simplest type of network in which computers are connected
to each other by cables.

Each of the computers on the LAN is also called a node .

A LAN is characterized by three primary attributes:

 Topology

The topology is the pattern used to connect the computers together.

With a bus topology, a network cable connects each computer to
the next one, forming a chain. With a star topology, each of the
computers is connected to a central nexus called a hub/Switch. A
ring topology is essentially a bus network with the two ends joined
together. (You will see more about network topologies in Chapter 6)
  Medium

Four basic types of media are used in local-area networks; coaxial

cable, twisted-pair wires, fiber-optic cable, And wireless.

Each medium has its advantages and disadvantages relative to cost,

speed, and expandability. Coaxial cables provide high speed and low
error rates. Twisted-pair wires are cheaper than coaxial cables, can
sustain the speeds common to most personal computers, and are
easy to install. Fiber-optic cable is the medium of choice for high-
speed local-area networks. Wireless local-area networks have the
advantage of expandability. (You will see more about network
medium in Chapter 5.2)

 Protocols

The topology and the medium used on a particular network are

specified by the protocol. (You will see more about protocol in
Chapter 8).

LAN computer networks that usually cover a limited range, say,

within the boundary of a building. A LAN computer network is two
or more computers that communicate with each other through some
medium.

The primary usage of local-area networks (LANs) is the sharing of

hardware, software, or information, such as data files, multimedia
files, or electronic mail. Resource sharing provided by local-area
networks improves efficiency and reduces overhead.

There are a number of ways in which nodes can communicate over

a network. The simplest is to establish a dedicated link between the
transmitting and receiving stations. This technique is known as
circuit switching. A better way of communicating is to use a
technique known as packet switching, in which a dedicated path is
not reserved between the source and the destination. Data are
wrapped up in a packet and launched into the network. In this way,
a node only has exclusive access to the medium while it is sending
a packet. During its inactive period, other nodes can transmit. A
typical packet is divided into preamble, address, control, data, and
error-check fields.

The computers in a LAN are connected by using cables. This method

cannot be used to connect computers that are in different locations,
for example, in buildings across a town or city. Therefore, a LAN is
not suitable for large businesses with offices in several locations.
Wireless Local Area Network
The term wireless networking refers to technology that enables two
or more computers to communicate using standard network
protocols, but without network cabling.

Peer-to-peer wireless network consists of a number of computers

each equipped with a wireless networking interface card. Each
computer can communicate directly with all of the other wireless
enabled computers. They can share files and printers this way, but
may not be able to access wired LAN resources, unless one of the
computers acts as a bridge to the wired LAN using special software.

A wireless network can also use an access point, or base station. In

this type of network the access point acts like a hub, providing
connectivity for the wireless computers. It can connect the wireless
LAN to a wired LAN, allowing wireless computer access to LAN
resources, such as file servers or existing Internet Connectivity.

There are two types of access points:

 Hardware Access Points (HAP)

Hardware access points offer complete support of most wireless

features, but check your requirements carefully.
  Software Access Points

Software Access Points which run on a computer equipped with a

wireless network interface card as used in peer-to-peer wireless
network. The software routers that can be used as a basic Software
Access Point, and include features not commonly found in hardware
solutions.

Connected wireless LAN to wired LAN

To do this you will need some sort of bridge between the wireless
and wired network. This can be accomplished either with a
hardware access point or a software access point.

Hardware access points are available with various types of network

interfaces, such as Ethernet or Token Ring, but typically require
extra hardware to be purchased if you're networking requirements
change. If networking requirements go beyond just interconnecting
a wired network to a small wireless network, a software access
point may be the best solution.
A software access point does not limit the type or number of
network interfaces you use. It may also allow considerable flexibility
in providing access to different network types, such as different
types of Ethernet, Wireless and Token Ring networks. Such
connections are only limited by the number of slots or interfaces in
the computer used for this task. Further to this the software access
point may include significant additional features such as shared
Internet access, web caching or content filtering, providing
significant benefits to users and administrators.

Wireless networking offers a cost-effective solution to users with

difficult physical installations such as campuses, hospitals or
businesses with more than one location in immediate proximity but
separated by public thoroughfare.

This type of installation requires two access points. Each access

point acts as a bridge or router connecting its own LAN to the
wireless connection. The wireless connection allows the two access
points to communicate with each other, and therefore interconnect
the two LAN's.

Wireless Network Range

Each access point has a finite range within which a wireless

connection can be maintained between the client computer and the
access point. The actual distance varies depending upon the
environment; manufacturers typically state both indoor and outdoor
ranges to give a reasonable indication of reliable performance. Also
it should be noted that when operating at the limits of range the
performance may drop, as the quality of connection deteriorates
and the system compensates.

Typical indoor ranges are 150-300 feet, but can be shorter if the
building construction interferes with radio transmissions. Longer
ranges are possible, but performance will degrade with distance.
Outdoor ranges are quoted up to 1000 feet, but again this depends
upon the environment.

There are ways to extend the basic operating range of Wireless

communications, by using more than a single access point or using
a wireless relay /extension point. Multiple access points can be
connected to a wired LAN, or sometimes even to a second wireless
LAN if the access point supports this.

In most cases, separate access points are interconnected via a

wired LAN, providing wireless connectivity in specific areas such as
offices or rooms, but connected to a main wired LAN for access to
network resources, such as file servers.

If a single area is too large to be covered by a single access point,

then multiple access points or extension points can be used. Note
that an "extension point" is not defined in the wireless standard, but
have been developed by some manufacturers.

When using multiple access points, each access point wireless area
should overlap its neighbors. This provides a seamless area for
users to move around in using a feature called "roaming." See
Roaming for further information.
Some manufacturers produce extension points, which act as
wireless relays, extending the range of a single access point.
Multiple extension points can be strung together to provide wireless
access to far away locations from the central access point.

Roaming

A wireless computer can "roam" from one access point to another,

with the software and hardware maintaining a steady network
connection by monitoring the signal strength from in-range access
points and locking on to the one with the best quality.

Usually this is completely transparent to the user; they are not

aware that a different access point is being used from area to area.
Some access point configurations require security authentication
when swapping access points, usually in the form of a password
dialog box.

Access points are required to have overlapping wireless areas to

achieve this as can be seen in the following diagram.
A user can move from Area 1 to Area 2 transparently. The Wireless
networking hardware automatically swaps to the Access Point with
the best signal.

Sharing an internet connection in wireless network

To share an Internet connection across a LAN you need two things:

 an Internet sharing hardware device or software program

 a LAN

If your LAN is wireless. You need hardware or software access point

and a wireless LAN. Any computer equipped with a wireless network
card running suitable Internet sharing software can be used as a
software access point. A number of vendors offer hardware access
points.

A hardware access point may provide Internet Sharing capabilities

to Wired LAN computers, but does not usually provide much
flexibility beyond very simple configurations.
If an existing wired LAN already has an Internet connection, then
the hardware access points simply connect to LAN and allow
wireless computers to access the existing Internet connection in the
same way as wired LAN computers.

Wireless Network security

Wireless communications obviously provide potential security

issues, as an intruder does not need physical access to the
traditional wired network in order to gain access to data
communications. However, 802.11 wireless communications cannot
be received much less decoded by simple scanners, short wave
receivers etc. This has led to the common misconception that
wireless communications cannot be eavesdropped at all. However,
eavesdropping is possible using specialist equipment.
To protect against any potential security issues, 802.11 wireless
communications have a function called WEP (Wired Equivalent
Privacy), a form of encryption which provides privacy comparable to
that of a traditional wired network. If the wireless network has
information that should be secure then WEP should be used,
ensuring the data is protected at traditional wired network levels.

IEEE 802.11

Wireless networking hardware requires the use of underlying

technology that deals with radio frequencies as well as data
transmission. The most widely used standard is 802.11 produced by
the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE). This is a
standard defining all aspects of Radio Frequency Wireless
networking.

Also it should be noted that traditional Virtual Private Networking

(VPN) techniques will work over wireless networks in the same way
as traditional wired networks.

3.3: Wireless Fidelity Wi-Fi

Wireless Fidelity Wi-Fi

A typical Wi-Fi setup contains one or more Access Points (APs) and
one or more clients. An AP broadcasts its SSID (Service Set
Identifier, "Network name") via packets that are called beacons,
which are usually broadcast every 100 ms. The beacons are
transmitted at 1 Mbit/s, and are of relatively short duration and
therefore do not have a significant effect on performance. Since 1
Mbit/s is the lowest rate of Wi-Fi it assures that the client who
receives the beacon can communicate at least 1 Mbit/s. Based on
the settings (e.g. the SSID), the client may decide whether to
connect to an AP. If two APs of the same SSID are in range of the
client, the client firmware might use signal strength to decide which
of the two APs to make a connection to.

The Wi-Fi standard leaves connection criteria and roaming totally

open to the client. This is a strength of Wi-Fi, but also means that
one wireless adapter may perform substantially better than the
other. Since Wi-Fi transmits in the air, it has the same properties as
a non-switched ethernet network.

Wi-Fi Devices :

Wireless Access Point (WAP)

A wireless access point (AP) connects a group of wireless stations to

an adjacent wired local area network (LAN). An access point is
similar to an ethernet hub or switch, but instead of relaying LAN
data only to other LAN stations, an access point can relay wireless
data to all other compatible wireless devices as well as to a single
(usually) connected LAN device, in most cases an ethernet hub or
switch, allowing wireless devices to communicate with any other
device on the LAN.

Wireless Routers

A wireless router integrates a wireless access point with an IP

router and an ethernet switch . The integrated switch connects the
integrated access point and the integrated ethernet router
internally, and allows for external wired ethernet LAN devices to be
connected as well as a (usually) single WAN device such as cable
modem or DSL modem . A wireless router advantageously allows all
three devices (mainly the access point and router) to be configured
through one central configuration utility, usually through an
integrated web server .

Wireless Ethernet Bridge

A wireless Ethernet bridge connects a wired network to a wireless

network. This is different from an access point in the sense that an
access point connects wireless devices to a wired network at the
data-link layer . Two wireless bridges may be used to connect two
wired networks over a wireless link, useful in situations where a
wired connection may be unavailable, such as between two
separate homes.

Advantages of Wi-Fi

 Allows LANs to be deployed without cabling, typically reducing

the costs of network deployment and expansion. Spaces
where cables cannot be run, such as outdoor areas and
historical buildings, can host wireless LANs.
  Wi-Fi silicon pricing continues to come down, making Wi-Fi a
very economical networking option and driving inclusion of
Wi-Fi in an ever-widening array of devices.

 Wi-Fi products are widely available in the market. Different

brands of access points and client network interfaces are
interoperable at a basic level of service. Products designated
as Wi-Fi CERTIFIED by the Wi-Fi Alliance are interoperable
and include WPA2 security.

 Wi-Fi networks support roaming, in which a mobile client

station such as a laptop computer can move from one access
point to another as the user moves around a building or area.

 Wi-Fi networks support roaming, in which a mobile client

station such as a laptop computer can move from one access
point to another as the user moves around a building or area.

 Wi-Fi is a global set of standards. Unlike cellular carriers, the

same Wi-Fi client works in different countries around the
world.

Disadvantages of Wi-Fi

 Wi-Fi can be interrupted by other devices, notably 2.4 GHz

cordless phones and microwave ovens.

 Power consumption is fairly high compared to some other

standards, making battery life and heat a concern.

 The most common wireless encryption standard, Wired

Equivalent Privacy or WEP, has been shown to be breakable
even when correctly configured.

 Wi-Fi Access Points typically default to an open ( encryption -

free) mode. Novice users benefit from a zero configuration
device that works out of the box but might not intend to
provide open wireless access to their LAN.

 Wi-Fi networks have limited range. A typical Wi-Fi home

router using 802.11b or 802.11g with a stock antenna might
have a range of 45 m (150 ft) indoors and 90 m (300 ft)
outdoors. Range also varies with frequency band, as Wi-Fi is
no exception to the physics of radio wave propagation. Wi-Fi
in the 2.4 GHz frequency block has better range than Wi-Fi in
the 5 GHz frequency block, and less range than the oldest Wi-
Fi (and pre-Wi-Fi) 900 MHz block. Outdoor range with
 improved antennas can be several kilometres or more with
line-of-sight.

 Wi-Fi networks can be monitored and used to read and copy

data (including personal information) transmitted over the
network when no encryption such as VPN is used.

Chapter 4: Network Architecture

Network Architecture
Chapter 4.1: Ethernet

Chapter 4.2: Token Ring

Chapter 4.3: ArcNET

Chapter 4.4: LocalTalk

Chapter 4.5: FDD

4.1: Ethernet
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Ethernet
Network architecture combines standards, topologies and protocols
to produce a working network. Currently, the most popular
network architecture is Ethernet. A network that follows the
Ethernet architecture standard is known as an Ethernet network.

The first Ethernet network was introduced in 1975 by Robert

Metcalfe and David Boffs at Xerox Palo Alto Research Center . This
network was designed as a 2.94 Mbps system that could connect
over 100 computers on a one kilometer cable. Xerox, Intel and
Digital extended the original specification to 10 Mbps. This design
formed the basis for the IEEE 802.3 specification defined by the
IEEE 802 committee. The IEEE 802.3 specification defines Ethernet
standards including cabling and topology alternatives.

The term Ethernet refers to the family of local-area network (LAN)

products covered by the IEEE 802.3 standard that defines what is
commonly known as the CSMA/CD protocol. This is a system
where each computer listens to the cable before sending anything
through the network. If the network is clear, the computer will
transmit. If some other node is already transmitting on the cable,
the computer will wait and try again when the line is clear.
Sometimes, two computers attempt to transmit at the same
instant. When this happens a collision occurs. Each computer then
backs off and waits a random amount of time before attempting to
retransmit. With this access method, it is normal to have collisions.
However, the delay caused by collisions and retransmitting is very
small and does not normally affect the speed of transmission on
the network. It is one of the most widely implemented LAN
standards.

Three data rates are currently defined for operation over optical
fiber and twisted-pair cables:

 10 Mbps-10Base-T Ethernet

 100 Mbps-Fast Ethernet

 1000 Mbps-Gigabit Ethernet

10Base-T Ethernet

10Base-T provides Manchester-encoded 10-Mbps bit-serial

communication over two unshielded twisted-pair cables. Although
the standard was designed to support transmission over common
telephone cable, the more typical link configuration is to use two
pair of a four-pair Category 3 or 5 cable, terminated at each NIC
with an 8-pin RJ-45 connector (the MDI), as shown in below
Figure. Because each active pair is configured as a simplex link
where transmission is in one direction only, the 10Base-T physical
layers can support either half-duplex or full-duplex operation.
Each 10Base5 cable segment can have a maximum of 100
computers. The maximum permissible distance between a
computer and a transceiver is 50 meters (164 feet). The maximum
total length of joined segments in a 10Base5 network is 2,500
meters (8,200 feet).

Fast Ethernet

To allow for an increased speed of transmission, the Ethernet

protocol has developed a new standard that supports 100 Mbps.
This is commonly called Fast Ethernet.

Fast Ethernet requires the use of different, more expensive

network concentrators/hubs and network interface cards. In
addition, category 5 twisted pair or fiber optic cable is necessary.

Fast Ethernet uses the CSMA/CD access method. As 10BaseT, Fast

Ethernet also supports star and bus topology.

Gigabit Ethernet

The most recent development in the Ethernet standard is a

protocol that has a transmission speed of 1 Gbps. Gigabit Ethernet
is primarily used for backbones on a network at this time. In the
future, it will probably be used for workstation and server
connections also. It can be used with both fiber optic cabling and
copper.

10-Gigabit Ethernet is under development and will likely be

published as the IEEE 802.3ae supplement

Ethernet has survived as the major LAN technology (it is currently

used for approximately 85 percent of the world's LAN-connected
PCs and workstations) because its protocol has the following
characteristics:

o Is easy to understand, implement, manage, and

maintain
o Allows low-cost network implementations
o Provides extensive topological flexibility for network
installation
o Guarantees successful interconnection and operation of
standards-compliant products, regardless of
manufacturer

Ethernet LANs consist of network nodes and interconnecting

media. The network nodes fall into two major classes:

 Data terminal equipment (DTE)

o Devices that are either the source or the destination of
data frames. DTEs are typically devices such as PCs,
workstations, file servers, or print servers that, as a
group, are all often referred to as end stations.

 Data communication equipment (DCE)

o Intermediate network devices that receive and forward
frames across the network. DCEs may be either
standalone devices such as repeaters, network
switches, and routers, or communications interface
units such as interface cards and modems.

The current Ethernet media options include two general types of

copper cable: unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) and shielded twisted-
pair (STP), plus several types of optical fiber cable.

Traditionally, Ethernet uses the linear bus topology for data

transmission. Some Ethernet networks also use the star bus
topology.

Bus Topology

In a bus topology, all devices on the network connect to one main

cable (trunk cable). It is easy to install and configure, and
inexpensive. Amplification or regeneration does not require special
equipment. If a device wants to send information must first
determine if the bus is being used by any other device. If no other
device is attempting to transmit, the device sends the data. If the
trunk cable fails, all devices are affected. (You can see more about
Bus topology in Chapter 6)

Star Topology

In a star topology, each device is connected by separate cable to a

central device (hub or switch). If a cable fails it affects only the
one device connected to the failed cable unlike the bus.

Star networks are easily expanded, easier to troubleshoot and

support many types of cables. Passive or active hub or switch is
used to connect more than two devices together in a star topology.
(You can see more about Star topology in Chapter 6)

Ethernet networks can use thinnet coaxial, thicknet coaxial or

unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cables. Ethernet uses baseband
transmission to transmit encoded signals over a cable.

Ethernet is popular in the scientific and academic communities

because it supports multiple protocols. Examples of the protocols
supported by Ethernet are:

o TCP/IP
o IPX
o NetBEUI
o DLC

Ethernet breaks data down into frames. A frame is a package of

information transmitted as a single unit. The length of an Ethernet
frame can be between 64 and 1,518 bytes, but the Ethernet frame
itself uses at least 18 bytes for control information. Therefore, the
data in an Ethernet frame can be between 46 and 1,500 bytes.

Every Ethernet frame contains control information and follows the

same basic organization. For example, the Ethernet frame used for
TCP/IP contains preamble, detonation, type, CRC in addition to the
data.

o Preamble - Makes the start of the frame

o Detonation - Specify the origin and destination
addresses.
o Type - Identifies the network layer Protocol
o CRC - Is the error checking field that determines if the
frame arrived without being corrupted.

Ethernet performance can be improved by dividing a crowded

segment into two less-populated segments that are joined with a
bridge or a router. This reduces traffic on each segment. Since
there are fewer computers attempting to transmit on the segment,
access time improves.
Ethernet is the most popular network architecture in use today and
can be used with most network operating systems.

o Ethernet Features
o Topology: Bus or Star
o Signal type: Baseband
o Protocol: TCP/IP, NetBEUL, DLC
o Access method: IEEE 802.3
o Transfer speed : 10 Mbps, 100 Mbps, 1000 Mbps
o Cable type: Thicknet, Thinnet, UTP
o Data packet format: Ethernet Frames
o Operating Systems: Can be used with most Network
operating systems

4.2: Token Ring

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Token Ring

The Token Ring protocol was developed by IBM

in the mid-1980s. The related IEEE 802.5
specification is almost identical to and
completely compatible with IBM's Token Ring
network. In fact, the IEEE 802.5 specification
was modeled after IBM Token Ring, and it
continues to shadow IBM's Token Ring
development. The term Token Ring generally is
used to refer to both IBM's Token Ring network
and IEEE 802.5 networks.

Token Ring and IEEE 802.5 networks are

basically compatible, although the
specifications differ in minor ways. IBM's
Token Ring network specifies a star, with all
end stations attached to a device called a
multistation access unit (MSAU). In contrast,
IEEE 802.5 does not specify a topology,
although virtually all IEEE 802.5
implementations are based on a star. Other
differences exist, including media type (IEEE
802.5 does not specify a media type, although
IBM Token Ring networks use twisted-pair
wire) and routing information field size. Below
figure summarizes IBM Token Ring network
and IEEE 802.5 specifications.

Token Ring Operation

 The token moves between the computers inside a logical ring.

The actual physical cable ring is through the hub. Users are a
part of the ring, but they connect to the ring through the hub.
 Token Ring and IEEE 802.5 are two principal examples of token-
passing networks (FDDI is the other). Token-passing networks
move a small frame, called a token, around the network.
Possession of the token grants the right to transmit. If a node
receiving the token has no information to send, it passes the
token to the next end station. Each station can hold the token
for a maximum period of time.

 If a station possessing the token does have information to

transmit, it seizes the token, alters 1 bit of the token (which
turns the token into a start-of-frame sequence), appends the
information that it wants to transmit, and sends this information
to the next station on the ring. While the information frame is
circling the ring, no token is on the network (unless the ring
supports early token release), which means that other stations
wanting to transmit must wait. Therefore, collisions cannot occur
in Token Ring networks. If early token release is supported, a
new token can be released when frame transmission is complete.

 The information frame circulates the ring until it reaches the

intended destination station, which copies the information for
further processing. The information frame continues to circle the
ring and is finally removed when it reaches the sending station.
The sending station can check the returning frame to see
whether the frame was seen and subsequently copied by the
destination.

 Unlike CSMA/CD networks (such as Ethernet), token-passing

networks are deterministic, which means that it is possible to
calculate the maximum time that will pass before any end
station will be capable of transmitting. This feature and several
reliability features, which are discussed in the section "Fault-
Management Mechanisms," later in this chapter, make Token
Ring networks ideal for applications in which delay must be
predictable and robust network operation is important. Factory
automation environments are examples of such applications.
Token Ring standard specifies a ring topology, the IBM implementation
of token ring uses the star-wired ring topology with all the computers
on the network connected to a central hub.The Token Ring protocol
requires a star-wired ring using twisted pair or fiber optic cable. It can
operate at transmission speeds of 4 Mbps or 16 Mbps.

Token Ring networks use STP and UTP cabling, such as IBM Types 1, 2
and 3 cables, to connect the network adapter cards of the computers
to the central hub and to interconnect other hubs.

Data in a Token Ring network is transmitted in the form of frames with

start and end delimiters. The basic format of a Token Ring data frame
is showed in below figure with the descriptions of each field in the data
frame.

o Start and end end delimiters - Start and end of the frame.
o Access control - Specifies frame priority and whether it is a
token of a data frame
o Frame control - Media Access Control information or end
station information
o Destination and source address - Origin and destination
address
o Data - Data begin sect
o Frame check sequence - CRC error - checking information
o Frame status - Indicates if the frame was recognized,
copied or if the destination address was available

Token Ring is a stable architecture with the capacity to handle high-

bandwidth applications, such as desktop videoconferencing and
multimedia. The right choice of equipment is the key to high-
performance, scaleable Token Ring networks.

Hardware components of a Token Ring network

Hub or Switch

In a Token Ring network, the hub contains the actual ring in the
network. The hub of a Token Ring network is also referred to as
Multistation Access Unit (MAU), MultiStation Access Unit (MSAU) or
Smart Multistation Access Unit (SMAU).
The hub is attached to individual clients and servers by cables. The hub
of a Token Ring network is a passive hub and acts as a connection
point. The internal ring converts to an external ring at each connection
point when a computer is connected.

When all the ports on a hub have computers connected to them, the
Token Ring network can be enlarged by adding another hub. However,
each hub must be added in such a way that it becomes a part of the
logical ring.

STP or UTP cables

STP or UTP cables are required to connect the computers on a Token

Ring network to a hub. Token Rings use IBM Type 1, 2 and 3 cabling.
Most networks use the IBM Cabling System Type 3 UTP cabling. The
screen displays the cable distances relevant to a Token Ring network.

Media filters

Media filters are used in the computers that use Type 3 telephone
twisted pair cabling to convert cable connectors and reduce line noise.
Media filters connect the token ring adapter card to a standard
RJ-11/RJ-45 telephone jack.

Repeaters

Repeaters enable you to increase Token Ring cable distances. A

repeater actively regenerates and retimes the Token Ring signal to
extend the distances between the hubs on the network.

Network adapter cards

Network adapter cards enable a device to be connected to the Token

Ring network. Token Ring adapter cards are available in both 4 Mbps
and 16 Mbps models. The 16 Mbps cards accommodate an increased
frame length that requires fewer transmissions for the same amount of
data.

Token Ring cards need to be implemented carefully because a Token

Ring network runs only at one of two possible speeds, 4 Mbps or 16
Mbps. If 16 Mbps cards are used in a 4 Mbps network, they revert to
the 4 Mbps mode. However, a 16 Mbps network will not accept the 4
Mbps cards because they cannot speed up to 16 Mbps.

Fiber optic cable

Due to the mix of data streaming, high speeds and unidirectional data
traveling, Token Ring networks are well suited to fiber optic cable.
Fiber optic cables are used in Token Ring networks to increase the
range of the network up to 10 times that possible with copper cabling.
However, fiber optic cables are more expensive than copper cables.

4.3: ArcNET
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ArcNET
Attached Resource Computer Network (ArcNet) was developed by
Datapoint Corporation in 1977. It is a simple, inexpensive and
flexible network architecture designed for workgroup-sized
networks.

ArcNet technology is described by the ANSI standard 878.1 and

predates the IEEE Project 802 standards. ArcNet should not be
confused with the IEEE Token Bus standard, IEEE 802.4. However,
ArcNet does loosely comply to this token passing specification.
ArcNet technology is described by the ANSI standard 878.1 and
predates the IEEE Project 802 standards. ArcNet should not be
confused with the IEEE Token Bus standard, IEEE 802.4. However,
ArcNet does loosely comply to this token passing specification.

The token moves from one computer to another based on node

addresses instead of the physical location of computers. This
means that ArcNet passes the token to the next address
regardless of whether the address is on a workstation in the same
room or in a separate building.

Each computer in an ArcNet network is connected by a cable to a

hub, which can be an active, a passive or a smart hub.
The standard cabling used for ArcNet is 93 ohm RG-62 A/U coaxial
cable. ArcNet also supports twisted pair and fiber optic cables.

The use of star topology and cable filtering make ArcNet networks
reliable. In a distributed star design, ArcNet uses passive and
active hubs to control and route data tokens from one workstation
to the next. Since token passing is done at a fixed rate and
collisions do not occur, ArcNet is very stable.

4.4: LocalTalk
LocalTalk

LocalTalk is a network protocol that was developed by Apple

Computer, Inc. for Macintosh computers. The method used by
LocalTalk is called CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with
Collision Avoidance). It is similar to CSMA/CD except that a
computer signals its intent to transmit before it actually does so.

LocalTalk adapters and special twisted pair cable can be used to

connect a series of computers through the serial port. The
Macintosh operating system allows the establishment of a peer-
to-peer network without the need for additional software. With
the addition of the server version of AppleShare software, a
client/server network can be established.

The LocalTalk protocol allows for linear bus, star, or tree

topologies using twisted pair cable. A primary disadvantage of
LocalTalk is speed. Its speed of transmission is only 230 Kbps.

4.5: FDDI
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FDDI
The Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) specifies a 100-Mbps
token-passing, dual-ring LAN using fiber-optic cable. FDDI is
frequently used as high-speed backbone technology because of its
support for high bandwidth and greater distances than copper. It
should be noted that relatively recently, a related copper
specification, called Copper Distributed Data Interface (CDDI), has
emerged to provide 100-Mbps service over copper. CDDI is the
implementation of FDDI protocols over twisted-pair copper wire.
This chapter focuses mainly on FDDI specifications and operations,
but it also provides a high-level overview of CDDI.

FDDI uses dual-ring architecture with traffic on each ring flowing in

opposite directions (called counter-rotating). The dual rings consist
of a primary and a secondary ring. During normal operation, the
primary ring is used for data transmission, and the secondary ring
remains idle. As will be discussed in detail later in this chapter, the
primary purpose of the dual rings is to provide superior reliability
and robustness. Figure shows the counter-rotating primary and
secondary FDDI rings.

FDDI uses optical fiber as the primary transmission medium, but it

also can run over copper cabling. As mentioned earlier, FDDI over
copper is referred to as Copper-Distributed Data Interface (CDDI).
Optical fiber has several advantages over copper media. In
particular, security, reliability, and performance all are enhanced
with optical fiber media because fiber does not emit electrical
signals.
A physical medium that does emit electrical signals (copper) can
be tapped and therefore would permit unauthorized access to the
data that is transiting the medium.

In addition, fiber is immune to electrical interference from radio

frequency interference (RFI) and electromagnetic interference
(EMI). Fiber historically has supported much higher bandwidth
(throughput potential) than copper, although recent technological
advances have made copper capable of transmitting at 100 Mbps.
Finally, FDDI allows 2 km between stations using multimode fiber,
and even longer distances using a single mode

FDDI defines two types of optical fiber: single-mode and

multimode. A mode is a ray of light that enters the fiber at a
particular angle. Multimode fiber uses LED as the light-generating
device, while single-mode fiber generally uses lasers.

Below figure depicts single-mode fiber using a laser light source

and multimode fiber using a light emitting diode (LED) light
source.

FDDI specifies the physical and media-access portions of the OSI

reference model. FDDI is not actually a single specification, but it
is a collection of four separate specifications, each with a specific
function. Combined, these specifications have the capability to
provide high-speed connectivity between upper-layer protocols
such as TCP/IP and IPX, and media such as fiber-optic cabling.

The FDDI frame format is similar to the format of a Token Ring

frame. This is one of the areas in which FDDI borrows heavily from
earlier LAN technologies, such as Token Ring. FDDI frames can be
as large as 4,500 bytes. Figure shows the frame format of an FDDI
data frame and token.
 o Preamble - Gives a unique sequence that prepares each station
for an upcoming frame.
o Start delimiter - Indicates the beginning of a frame.
o Frame control - Indicates the size of the address.
o Destination address - Origin and destination address
o Source address - Identifies the single station that sent the frame.
o Frame check sequence (FCS) - CRC error - checking
o End delimiter - End of the frame.
o Frame status - Identifies whether the frame was recognized and
copied by a receiving station.

Chapter 5: Hardware Requirement for Network

Hardware Requirement for Network

Chapter 5.1: Ethernet Network Card (NIC)

Chapter 5.2: Cables

Chapter 5.3: Ethernet Switches

Chapter 5.4: Routers

Chapter 5.5: Patch panels

Chapter 5.6: Firewall

5.1: Ethernet Network Interface Card (NIC)

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Ethernet Network Interface Card (NIC)

A network card (network adapter, network interface card, NIC,

Ethernet adapter etc.) is a piece of computer hardware designed to
allow computers to communicate over a computer network. It is an
OSI model layer 2 item.

Every network card in the world has a unique 48-bit serial number
called a MAC address, which is written to ROM carried on the card.
Every computer on a network must have a card with a unique MAC
address. The IEEE is responsible for assigning MAC addresses to the
vendors of network interface cards, which means that two cards
sharing the same MAC address is impossible.

Whereas network cards used to be expansion cards to plug into a

computer bus, most new computers have a network interface built
into the motherboard, so a separate network card is not required
unless multiple interfaces are needed or some other type of network
is used.

The card implements the electronic circuitry required to

communicate using a specific physical layer and data link layer
standard such as Ethernet or token ring. This provides a base for a
full network protocol stack, allowing communication among small
groups of computers on the same LAN and large-scale network
communications through routable protocols, such as IP.

 There are four techniques used for transfer of data, the NIC may use one
or more of these techniques.

 Polling is where the microprocessor examines the status of the peripheral

under program control.

 Programmed I/O is where the microprocessor alerts the designated

peripheral by applying its address to the system's address bus.

 Interrupt-driven I/O is where the peripheral alerts the microprocessor that

its ready to transfer data.
  DMA is where the intelligent peripheral assumes control of the system bus
to access memory directly.

A network card typically has a twisted pair and BNC sockets where
the network cable is connected, and a few LEDs to inform the user
of whether the network is active, and whether or not there is data
being transmitted on it.

The Network Cards are typically available in 10/100/1000 Mbit/s.

This means they can support a transfer rate of 10 or 100 or 1000
Mbit/s.

5.2: Cables

Network Cables

Cable is the medium through which information usually moves

from one network device to another. There are several types of
cable which are commonly used with LANs. In some cases, a
network will utilize only one type of cable, other networks will
use a variety of cable types. The type of cable chosen for a
network is related to the network's topology, protocol, and size.
Understanding the characteristics of different types of cable and
how they relate to other aspects of a network is necessary for
the development of a successful network.

The following sections discuss the types of cables used in

networks.

Chapter 5.2.1: Twisted Pair

Chapter 5.2.2: Coaxial cables

Chapter 5.2.3: Fiber Optic Cable

5.2: Cables
5.2.1: Twisted Pair
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Twisted Pair
A thin-diameter wire commonly used for telephone and network
cabling. The wires are twisted around each other to minimize
interference from other twisted pairs in the cable. Twisted pairs
have less bandwidth than coaxial cable or optical fiber.

UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair) & STP (Shielded

Twisted Pair)

Twisted pair cables are available unshielded (UTP) and shielded

(STP), with UTP being the most common. STP is used in noisy and
static field interference environments (factories) where the shield
around each of the wire pairs, plus an overall shield, protects
against excessive electromagnetic interference. A variation of STP,
known as ScTP for "Screened Twisted Pair" or FTP for "Foil Twisted
Pair," uses only the overall shield and provides more protection than
UTP, but not as much as STP.

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

UTP cables are not shielded. This lack of shielding results in a high
degree of flexibility as well as rugged durability. UTP cables are
found in many ethernet networks and telephone systems.

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

STP cabling includes metal shielding over each individual pair of
copper wires. This type of shielding protects cable from external
EMI (electromagnetic interferences). e.g. the 150 ohm shielded
twisted pair cables defined by the IBM Cabling System specifications
and used with Token Ring networks.

Screened Shielded Twisted Pair (S/STP)

S/STP cabling is STP cabling with metal shielding also covering the
group of shielded copper pairs. This type of cabling offers still
improved protection from interference from external sources.

Screened Unshielded Twisted Pair (S/UTP)

S/UTP, also known as Fully shielded (or Foiled) Twisted Pair (FTP)
and Screened Fully shielded Twisted Pair (S/FTP), is a screened UTP
cable.

Twisted pair cabling is standardized into various categories by

numbers, which indicate signal integrity attributes. Category 5 cable
is commonly used for Ethernet with 10BASE-T or 100BASE-TX.
5.2: Cables

5.2.2: Coaxial cables

Coaxial cables

Coaxial cables are widely used for transmitting voice, video and
data over LANs. To select the appropriate type of coaxial cable
for our network, it is useful to learn about the benefits and
limitations of coaxial cable types.

There are two types of cable available based on the thickness of

core

I. Thinnet

II. Thiknet

Thinnet

Thinnet is a thin and flexible coaxial cable, which has a thickness

of about one-fourth of an inch. Since this type of coaxial cable is
flexible, it is easy to work with thinnet cables. They can be used
for any kind of installation. Another benefit of using thinnet
coaxial cable is the low cable cost. Thinnet cable is inexpensive
as compared to thicknet cable.

An earlier 10 Mbps Ethernet standard that used a thin coaxial

cable. Network nodes were attached to the cable via T-type BNC
connectors in the adapter cards. Also called "thin Ethernet,"
"ThinWire," "ThinNet" and "Cheapernet," Thinnet cable had a
distance limit of 607 feet. Thinnet (cheapernet or 10BASE2) is a
variant of Ethernet that uses thin coaxial cable terminated with
BNC connectors.

The (10BASE2) 10 comes from the maximum transmission speed

of 10 Mbit/s. The BASE stands for baseband signaling, and the 2
represents rounded up shorthand for the maximum segment
length of 185 meters (606.955 feet).

Thiknet
The other type of coaxial cable, the thicknet cable, is a thicker
cable. It is about half an inch in diameter. The copper core is
thicker than a thinnet core. Since the thicknet cable has a thicker
copper core, it can carry a signal out of than a thinnet cable. It
can carry a signal for 500 meters (1,640 feet).

Another benefit of the thicknet cable is that it can be used as a

backbone to connect several smaller thinnet-based networks.
This is possible because the thicknet cable is capable of
supporting data transfer over long distances.

5.2.3: Fiber Optic Cable

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Fiber Optic Cable

A thin glass strand designed for light transmission. A single hair-thin

fiber is capable of transmitting trillions of bits per second. In
addition to their huge transmission capacity, optical fibers offer
many advantages over electricity and copper wire. Light pulses are
not affected by random radiation in the environment, and their error
rate is significantly lower. Fibers allow longer distances to be
spanned before the signal has to be regenerated by expensive
"repeaters." Fibers are more secure, because taps in the line can be
detected, and lastly, fiber installation is streamlined due to their
dramatically lower weight and smaller size compared to copper
cables.

There are two primary types of fiber. For intercity cabling and
highest speed, singlemode fiber with a core diameter of less than 10
microns is used. Multimode fiber is very common for short distances
and has a core diameter from 50 to 100 microns.
The optical fiber can be used as a medium for telecommunication
and networking because it is flexible and can be bundled as cables.
Although fibers can be made out of either transparent plastic or
glass, the fibers used in long-distance telecommunications
applications are always glass, because of the lower optical
attenuation. Both multi-mode and single-mode fibers are used in
communications, with multi-mode fiber used mostly for short
distances (up to 500 m), and single-mode fiber used for longer
distance links. Because of the tighter tolerances required to couple
light into and between single-mode fibers, single-mode
transmitters, receivers, amplifiers and other components are
generally more expensive than multi-mode components.

The light used is typically infrared light, at wavelengths near to the

minimum absorption wavelength of the fiber in use. The fiber
absorption is minimal for 1550 nm light and dispersion is minimal at
1310 nm making these the optimal wavelength regions for data
transmission. A local minimum of absorption is found near 850 nm,
a wavelength for which low cost transmitters and receivers can be
designed, and this wavelength is often used for short distance
applications. Fibers are generally used in pairs, with one fiber of the
pair carrying a signal in each direction.

For modern glass optical fiber, the maximum transmission distance

is limited not by attenuation but by dispersion, or spreading of
optical pulses as they travel along the fiber. Dispersion in optical
fibers is caused by a variety of factors. Intermodal dispersion,
caused by the different axial speeds of different transverse modes,
limits the performance of multi-mode fiber. Because single-mode
fiber supports only one transverse mode, intermodal dispersion is
eliminated. For single-mode fiber performance is limited by
chromatic dispersion, which occurs because the index of the glass
varies slightly depending on the wavelength of the light, and light
from real optical transmitters has nonzero spectral width.

Polarization mode dispersion, which can limit the performance of

single-mode systems, occurs because although the single-mode
fiber can sustain only one transverse mode, it can carry this mode
with two different polarizations, and slight imperfections or
distortions in a fiber can alter the propagation velocities for the two
polarizations. Dispersion limits the bandwidth of the fiber because
the spreading optical pulse limits the rate that pulses can follow one
another on the fiber and still be distinguishable at the receiver.
Because the effect of dispersion increases with the length of the
fiber, a fiber transmission system is often characterized by its
bandwidth-distance product, often expressed in units of MHzÃ-km.
This value is a product of bandwidth and distance because there is a
tradeoff between the bandwidth of the signal and the distance it can
be carried. For example, a common multimode fiber with
bandwidth-distance product of 500 MHzÃ-km could carry a 500 MHz
signal for 1 km or a 1000 MHz signal for 0.5 km.

In single-mode fiber systems, both the fiber characteristics and the

spectral width of the transmitter contribute to determining the
bandwidth-distance product of the system. Typical single-mode
systems can sustain transmission distances of 80 to 140 km (50 to
87 miles) between regenerations of the signal. By using an
extremely narrow-spectrum laser source, data rates of up to 40
gigabits per second are achieved in real-world applications.

5.3: Ethernet Switches

Ethernet Switches

An Ethernet Switch is a LAN interconnection device which

operates at the data link layer (layer 2) of the OSI reference
model. A switch is fundamentally similar to a bridge , but usually
supports a larger number of connected LAN segments and has a
richer management capability.

A network switch is a computer networking device that connects

network segments. It uses the logic of a Network bridge but
allows a physical and logical star topology. It is often used to
replace network hubs. A switch is also often referred to as an
intelligent hub or switching hub.

As a frame comes into a switch, the switch saves the originating

MAC address and the originating port in the switch's MAC address
table. The switch then selectively transmits the frame from
specific ports based on the frame's destination MAC address and
previous entries in the MAC address table.
If the destination MAC address is unknown a broadcast address
or (for simpler switches) a multicast address the switch simply
transmits the frame out of all of the connected interfaces except
the incoming port.

If the destination MAC address is known, the frame is forwarded

only to the corresponding port in the MAC address table.

If the destination port is the same as the originating port, the

frame is filtered out and not forwarded.

5.4: Routers
Routers

A router is an Intermediate System (IS) which operates at the

network layer of the OSI reference model. Routers may be used to
connect two or more IP networks , or an IP network to an internet
connection.

A router consists of a computer with at least two network interface

cards supporting the IP protocol . The router receives packets from
each interface via a network interface and forwards the received
packets to an appropriate output network interface. Received
packets have all link layer protocol headers removed, and
transmitted packets have a new link protocol header added prior to
transmission.

The router uses the information held in the network layer header
(i.e. IP header) to decide whether to forward each received packet,
and which network interface to use to send the packet. Most
packets are forwareded based on the packet's IP destination
address , along with routing information held within the router in a
routing table. Before a packet is forwarded, the processor checks
the Maximum Transfer Unit (MTU) of the specified interface.
Packets larger than the interface's MTU must be fragmented by the
router into two or more smaller packets. If a packet is received
which has the Don't Fragment (DF) bit set in the packet header ,
the packet is not fragmented, but instead discarded. In this case, an
ICMP error message is returned to the sender (i.e. to the original
packet's IP source address) informing it of the interface's MTU size.
This forms the basis for Path MTU discovery (PMTU) .

The routing and filter tables resemble similar tables in link layer
bridges and switches. Except, that instead of specifying link
hardware addresses ( MAC addresses ), the router table sepcify
network ( IP addresses ).

The routing table lists known IP destination addresses with the

appropraite network interface to be used to reach that destiantion.
A default entry may be specified to be used for all addresses not
explicitly defined in the table. A filter table may also be used to
ensure that unwanted packets are discarded. The filter may be used
to deny access to particular protocols or to prevent unauthorised
access from remote computers by discarding packets to specified
destination addresses.

A router forwards packets from one IP network to another IP

network. Like other systems, it determines the IP network from the
logical AND of an IP address with the associated subnetwork
address mask.

One execption to this rule is when a router receives an IP packet to

a network broadcast address. In this case, the router discards the
packet. Forwarding broadcast packet can lead to severe storms of
packets, and if uncontrolled could lead to network overload.

Routers are often used to connect together networks which use

different types of links (for instance an HDLC link connecting a WAN
to a local Ethernet LAN ). The optimum (and maximum) packet
lengths (i.e. the maximum transmission unit (MTU) ) is different for
different types of network. A router may therefore uses IP to
provide segmentation of packets into a suitable size for
transmission on a network.

5.5: Patch panels

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Patch panels
A panel of network ports contained together, usually within a
telecommunications closet, which connects incoming and outgoing
lines of a LAN or other communication, electronic or electrical
system.

In a LAN , the patch panel connects the network's computers to

each other and to the outside lines that enable the LAN to connect
to the Internet or another WAN. Connections are made with patch
cords.

The patch panel allows circuits to be arranged and rearranged by

plugging and unplugging the patch cords.

Switch rack

A rack which can accommodate the Ethernet switch and patch

panel, and usually this located on the common place for all the
computers.

Wall pallets
The wall outlet will be like a plug point which connects the internal
and external wiring, and the wall outlet is mostly used for secure
the internal cables.

5.6: Firewall

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Chapter

Firewall

A firewall protects networked computers from intentional hostile

intrusion that could compromise confidentiality or result in data
corruption or denial of service. It may be a hardware device or a
software program running on a secure host computer. In either
case, it must have at least two network interfaces, one for the
network it is intended to protect, and one for the network it is
exposed to.

 Hardware Firewall : Hardware firewall providing protection

to a Local Network

 Firewall Software : Computer running firewall software to

provide protection

A firewall sits at the junction point or gateway between the two

networks, usually a private network and a public network such
as the Internet. The earliest firewalls were simply routers. The
term firewall comes from the fact that by segmenting a network
into different physical subnetworks, they limited the damage
that could spread from one subnet to another just like firedoors
or firewalls.

A firewall examines all traffic routed between the two networks

to see if it meets certain criteria. If it does, it is routed between
the networks, otherwise it is stopped.

A firewall filters both inbound and outbound traffic. It can also

manage public access to private networked resources such as
host applications. It can be used to log all attempts to enter the
private network and trigger alarms when hostile or unauthorized
entry is attempted.

Firewalls can filter packets based on their source and

destination addresses and port numbers. This is known as
address filtering. Firewalls can also filter specific types of
network traffic. This is also known as protocol filtering because
the decision to forward or reject traffic is dependant upon the
protocol used, for example HTTP, ftp or telnet. Firewalls can also
filter traffic by packet attribute or state.

A firewall cannot prevent individual users with modems from

dialling into or out of the network, bypassing the firewall
altogether. Employee misconduct or carelessness cannot be
controlled by firewalls. Policies involving the use and misuse of
passwords and user accounts must be strictly enforced. These
are management issues that should be raised during the
planning of any security policy but that cannot be solved with
firewalls alone.

Chapter 6: Network Topologies

Network Topologies
Chapter 6.1: Bus topology
Chapter 6.2: Ring topology
Chapter 6.3: Star topology
Chapter 6.4: Mesh topology
Chapter 6.5: Selecting a topology
6.1: Bus topology
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Bus topology
A bus topology network is a network architecture in which a set of
clients are connected via a shared communications line, called a
bus. The bus topology is often referred to as a "linear bus" because
the computers are connected in a straight line. This is the simplest
and most common method of networking computers.

Below figure shows a typical bus topology. It consists of a single

cable called a trunk (also called a backbone or segment) that
connects all of the computers in the network in a single line.
Computers on a bus topology network communicate by addressing
data to a particular computer and sending out that data on the
cable as electronic signals. Network data in the form of electronic
signals is sent to all the computers on the network. Only the
computer whose address matches the address encoded in the
original signal accepts the information. All other computers reject
the data. Figure shows a message being sent from 0020af151d8b to
02608c133456.

Only one computer at a time can send messages. Because only one
computer at a time can send data on a bus network, the number of
computers attached to the bus will affect network performance. The
more computers there are on a bus, the more computers will be
waiting to put data on the bus and, consequently, the slower the
network will be.

There is no standard way to measure the impact of a given number

of computers on the speed of any given network. The effect on
performance is not related solely to the number of computers.

The following is a list of factors that in addition to the number of

networked computers will affect the performance of a network:

 Hardware capabilities of computers on the network

 Total number of queued commands waiting to be executed
 Types of applications (client-server or file system sharing, for example)
being run on the network
 Types of cable used on the network
 Distances between computers on the network

Computers on a bus either transmit data to other computers on the

network or listen for data from other computers on the network.
They are not responsible for moving data from one computer to the
next. Consequently, if one computer fails, it does not affect the rest
of the network. Because the data, or electronic signal, is sent to the
entire network, it travels from one end of the cable to the other.
If the signal is allowed to continue uninterrupted, it will keep
bouncing back and forth along the cable and prevent other
computers from sending signals. Therefore, the signal must be
stopped after it has had a chance to reach the proper destination
address. To stop the signal from bouncing, a component called a
terminator is placed at each end of the cable to absorb free signals.
Absorbing the signal clears the cable so that other computers can
send data. Both ends of each cable segment on the network must
be plugged into something. For example, a cable end can be
plugged into a computer or a connector to extend the cable length.
Any open cable ends not plugged into something must be
terminated to prevent signal bounce. below Figure shows a properly
terminated bus topology network.

Advantages and Disadvantages of a Bus Network

Advantages

1. Easy to implement and extend

2. Well suited for temporary networks (quick setup)
3. Typically the cheapest topology to implement
4. Faster than a ring network.
5. If any node on the bus network fails, the bus its self is not effected.
6. Requires less cable than a Star network.

Disadvantages

1. Difficult to administer/troubleshoot
2. Limited cable length and number of stations
3. A cable break can disable the entire network
4. Maintenance costs may be higher in the long run
5. Performance degrades as additional computers are added or on heavy
traffic
6. Low security (all computers on the bus can see all data transmissions)
7. One virus in the network will affect all of them (but not as badly as a star
or ring network)
8. Proper termination is required.(loop must be in closed path)
6.2: Ring topology

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Ring topology

A ring network is a topology of computer networks where each node is

connected to two other nodes, so as to create a ring. The ring topology
connects computers on a single circle of cable. Unlike the bus topology,
there are no terminated ends. The signals travel around the loop in
one direction and pass through each computer, which can act as a
repeater to boost the signal and send it on to the next computer. Below
Figure shows a typical ring topology with one server and four
workstations. The failure of one computer can have an impact on the
entire network.

One method of transmitting data around a ring is called token passing .

(A token is a special series of bits that travels around a token-ring
network. Each network has only one token.) The token is passed from
computer to computer until it gets to a computer that has data to
send. Below figure shows a token ring topology with the token. The
sending computer modifies the token, puts an electronic address on
the data, and sends it around the ring.

The data passes by each computer until it finds the one with an
address that matches the address on the data. The receiving computer
returns a message to the sending computer indicating that the data
has been received. After verification, the sending computer creates a
new token and releases it on the network. The token circulates within
the ring until a workstation needs it to send data. It might seem that
token passing would take a long time, but the token actually travels at
roughly the speed of light. A token can circle a ring 200 meters (656
feet) in diameter about 477,376 times per second.

Ring networks tend to be inefficient when compared to Star networks

because data must travel through more points before reaching its
destination. For example, if a given ring network has eight computers
on it, to get from computer one to computer four, data must travel
from computer one, through computers two and three, and to its
destination at computer four. It could also go from computer one
through eight, seven, six, and five until reaching four, but this method
is slower because it travels through more computers.

Ring networks also carry the disadvantage that if one of the nodes in
the network breaks down then the entire network will break down with
it as it requires a full circle in order to function.

Advantages and Disadvantages of a Ring Network

Advantages

1. The transmission of data is relatively simple as packets travel in

one direction only.

Disadvantages

1. Data packets must pass through every computer between the

sender and recipient Therefore this makes it slower.
2. If any of the nodes fail then the ring is broken and data cannot
be transmitted successfully.
3. It is difficult to troubleshoot the ring.

6.4: Mesh topology

Mesh topology

A mesh topology network offers superior redundancy and reliability. In

a mesh topology, each computer is connected to every other computer
by separate cabling. This configuration provides redundant paths
throughout the network so that if one cable fails, another will take over
the traffic. While ease of troubleshooting and increased reliability is
definite pluses, these networks are expensive to install because they
use a lot of cabling. Often, a mesh topology will be used in conjunction
with other topologies to form a hybrid topology.

Mesh networks are self-healing: the network can still operate even
when a node breaks down or a connection goes bad. As a result, a
very reliable network is formed. This concept is applicable to wireless
networks, wired networks, and software interaction.

A mesh network is a networking technique which allows inexpensive

peer network nodes to supply back haul services to other nodes in the
same network. It effectively extends a network by sharing access to
higher cost network infrastructure.

Advantages and Disadvantages of a mesh network

Advantages

1. Provides redundant paths between devices.

2. The network can be expanded without disruption to current
users.

Disadvantages

1. Requires more cable than the other LAN topologies.

 2. Complicated implementation.

6.5: Selecting a Topology

Selecting a Topology
There are many factors to consider when deciding which topology best suits the
needs of an organization. Below table provides some guidelines for selecting a
topology.

Topology

Advantages

Disadvantages

Bus

Use of cable is economical.

Media is inexpensive and easy to work with.

System is simple and reliable.

Bus is easy to extend.

Network can slow down in heavy traffic.

Problems are difficult to isolate.

Cable break can affect many users.

Ring

System provides equal access for all computers.

Performance is even despite many users.

Failure of one computer can impact the rest of the network.

Problems are hard to isolate.

Network reconfiguration disrupts operation.

Star

Modifying system and adding new computers is easy.

Centralized monitoring and management are possible.

Failure of one computer does not affect the rest of the network.

If the centralized point fails, the network fails.

Mesh

System provides increased redundancy and reliability as well as ease of

troubleshooting.

System is expensive to install because it uses a lot of cabling.

Chapter 7: OSI Layer

OSI Layer
Chapter 7.1: OSI Layer
Chapter 7.2: Application layer
Chapter 7.3: Presentation layer
Chapter 7.4: Session layer
Chapter 7.5: Transport layer
Chapter 7.6: Network layer
Chapter 7.7: Data-link layer
Chapter 7.8: Physical layer
7.2: Application layer
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Layer 7: The application layer

The application layer is the seventh level of the seven-layer OSI model. It interfaces directly to and performs
common application services for the application processes; it also issues requests to the presentation layer .

The common application layer services provide semantic conversion between associated application processes. Note:
Examples of common application services of general interest include the virtual file, virtual terminal , and job
transfer and manipulation protocols.

Examples:

 FTP

 DNS
  SNMP

 SMTP gateways

 Web browser

 Network File System (NFS)

 Telnet and Remote Login (rlogin)

 X.400

 FTAM

 Database software

 Print Server Software

7.3: Presentation layer

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Layer 6: The presentation layer

The presentation layer is the sixth level of the seven layer OSI model. It
responds to service requests from the application layer and issues service
requests to the session layer .

The presentation layer concerns itself not only with the format and
representation of actual user data, but also with data structure used by
programs. Therefore, the presentation layer negotiates data transfer syntax
for the application layer.

The presentation layer is responsible for the delivery and formatting of

information to the application layer for further processing or display. It
relieves the application layer of concern regarding syntactical differences in
data representation within the end- user systems. Note: An example of a
presentation service would be the conversion of an EBCDIC -coded text file to
an ASCII -coded file.
The idea of the application layer should be able to point at the data to be
moved, and the Presentation layer will deal with the rest. Encryption is
typically done at this level too, though it can be done at the application ,
session , transport , or network layer ; each having its own advantages and
disadvantages. Another example is representing structure, which is normally
standardised at this level, often by using XML . As well as simple pieces of
data, like strings, more complicated things are standardised in this layer. Two
common examples are 'objects' in object-oriented programming , and the
exact way that streaming video is transmited.

In many widely used applications and protocols, no distinction is made

between the presentation and application layers. For example, HTTP ,
generally regarded as an application layer protocol, has presentation layer
aspects such as the ability to identify character encodings for proper
conversion, which is then done in the application layer.

Examples:

 AFP, AppleShare File Protocol

 LPP, Lightweight Presentation Protocol

 NCP, NetWare Core Protocol

 NDR, Network Data Representation

 XDR, eXternal Data Representation

 X.25 PAD, Packet Assembler/Disassembler Protocol

7.4: Session layer

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Layer 5: The session layer

The session layer is level five of the seven level OSI model. It responds
to service requests from the presentation layer and issues service
requests to the transport layer
The Session layer provides the mechanism for managing the dialogue
between end-user application processes. It provides for either full
duplex or half-duplex operation and establishes checkpointing,
adjournment, termination, and restart procedures.

The Session layer is typically completely unused, but it does have a

few places where it is useful. The idea is to allow information on
different streams, perhaps originating from different sources, to be
properly combined. In particular, it deals with synchronization issues,
and ensuring nobody ever sees inconsistent versions of data, and
similar things.

One application which is fairly intuitively clear is web conferencing .

Here, we want to make sure that the streams of audio and video
match up - or in other words, that we do not have lipsync problems.
We may also want to do "floor control" - ensuring that the person
displayed on screen and whose words are relayed is the one selected
by the speaker, or by some other criteria.

Another big application is in live TV programs, where streams of audio

and video need to be seamlessly merged from one to the other so that
we do not have half a second of blank airtime, or half a second when
we transmit two pictures simultaneously.

Examples:

 ADSP, AppleTalk Data Stream Protocol

 ASP, AppleTalk Session Protocol

 NetBIOS, Network Basic Input Output System

 PAP, Printer Access Protocol

 PPTP, Point-to-Point Tunnelling Protocol

  RPC, Remote Procedure Call Protocol

 RTP, Real-time Transport Protocol

 RTCP, Real-time Transport Control Protocol

 SMPP, Short Message Peer-to-Peer

 SCP, Secure Copy Protocol

 SSH, Secure Shell

7.5: Transport layer

Layer 4: The transport layer

In computing and telecommunications , the transport layer is layer four of the

seven layer OSI model. It responds to service requests from the session layer
and issues service requests to the network layer.

The transport layer provides transparent transfer of data between hosts. It is

usually responsible for end-to-end error recovery and flow control, and
ensuring complete data transfer. In the Internet protocol suite this function is
most commonly achieved by the connection oriented Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP). The datagram -type transport, User Datagram Protocol (UDP),
provides neither error recovery, nor flow control, leaving these to the
application .

The purpose of the Transport layer is to provide transparent transfer of data

between end users, thus relieving the upper layers from any concern with
providing reliable and cost-effective data transfer.

The transport layer usually turns the unreliable and very basic service
provided by the Network layer into a more powerful one. There is a long list
of services that can be optionally provided at this level. None of them are
compulsory, because not all applications want all the services available.

Some can be wasted overhead, or even counterproductive in some cases:

  Connection-Oriented

This is normally easier to deal with than connection-less models, so where the
Network layer only provides a connection-less service, often a connection-
oriented service is built on top of that in the Transport layer.

 Same Order Delivery

The Network layer doesn't generally guarantee that packets of data will arrive
in the same order that they were sent, but often this is a desirable feature, so
the Transport layer provides it. The simplest way of doing this is to give each
packet a number, and allow the receiver to reorder the packets.

 Reliable Data

The underlying network may well be noisy, and the data received may not
always be the same as the data sent. The Transport layer can fix this:
typically by providing a checksum of the data which detects if there has been
a glitch of some kind. Of course, error free is impossible, but it is possible to
substantially reduce the numbers of undetected errors. This layer may also
retransmit packets which have gone missing en route.

 Flow Control

The amount of memory on a computer is limited, and without flow control a

larger computer might flood a computer with so much information that it
can't hold it all before dealing with it. Nowadays, this is not a big issue, as
memory is cheap while bandwidth is comparatively expensive, but in earlier
times it was more important. Flow control allows the receiver to say "Whoa!"
before it is overwhelmed. Sometimes this is already provided by the network,
but where it is not, the Transport layer may add it on.

 Byte Orientation

Rather than dealing with things on a packet-by-packet basis, the Transport

layer may add the ability to view communication just as a stream of bytes.
This is nicer to deal with than random packet sizes, however, it rarely
matches the communication model which will normally be a sequence of
messages of user defined sizes.
  Ports

Ports are essentially ways to address multiple entities in the same location.
For example, the first line of a postal address is a kind of port, and
distinguishes between different occupants of the same house. Computer
applications will each listen for information on their own ports, which is why
you can use more than one network-based application at the same time.

On the Internet there are a variety of Transport services, but the two most
common are TCP and UDP. TCP is the more complicated, providing a
connection and byte oriented stream which is almost error free, with flow
control, multiple ports, and same order delivery. UDP is a very simple
'datagram' service, which provides limited error reduction and multiple ports.
TCP stands for Transmission Control Protocol, while UDP stands for User
Datagram Protocol. Other options are the Datagram Congestion Control
Protocol (DCCP) and Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP).

Some things, such as connection orientation can be implemented at either

Transport or Network layer. The idea is that the Network layer implements
whatever set of options is easiest: for some underlying networks it is easiest
to implement connectionless communication, while for others it is easiest to
implement connection oriented communication. The Transport layer uses this
simplest set of options to implement whatever combinations of options are
actually desired.

Examples:

 AEP, AppleTalk Echo Protocol

 ATP, AppleTalk Transaction Protocol

 DCCP, Datagram Congestion Control Protocol

 FCP, Fiber Channel Protocol

 FCIP, Fiber Channel over TCP/IP

 TCP, Transmission Control Protocol

7.6: Network layer

Layer 3: The network layer

The network layer is level three of the seven level OSI model. It responds to
service requests from the transport layer and issues service requests to the
data link layer.

The network layer addresses messages and translates logical addresses and
names into physical addresses. It also determines the route from the source
to the destination computer and manages traffic problems, such as switching
, routing , and controlling the congestion of data packets. In essence, the
network layer is responsible for end to end (source to destination) packet
delivery, whereas the data link layer is responsible for node to node (hop to
hop) packet delivery.

The network layer provides the functional and procedural means of

transferring variable length data sequences from a source to a destination via
one or more networks while maintaining the quality of service requested by
the transport layer. The Network layer performs network routing, flow control
, network segmentation /desegmentation, and error control functions.The
network layer deals with transmitting information all the way from its source
to its destination - transmitting from anywhere, to anywhere.

Here are some things that the network layer needs to address:

i. Network connection-oriented or connectionless

The OSI Network Layer protocol can be either connection-oriented, or

connectionless. The TCP/IP Internet Layer (equivalent to OSI's Network
Layer) supports only the connectionless Internet Protocol (IP).

ii. Global Addresses

Everybody in the network needs to have a unique address which determines

who they are. This address will normally be hierarchical, so you can be "Fred
Murphy" to Dubliners, or "Fred Murphy, Dublin " to people in Ireland , or
"Fred Murphy, Dublin , Ireland " to people anywhere in the world. On the
internet, these addresses are known as IP Numbers.

iii. Forward a message

This is of particular interest to mobile applications, where a user may rapidly

move from place to place, and it must be arranged that his messages follow
him. Version 4 of the Internet Protocol ( IPv4 ) doesn't really allow for this,
though it has been hacked somewhat since its inception. Fortunately, the
forthcoming IPv6 has a much better designed solution, which should make
this type of application much smoother.

Examples

 IP/IPv6, Internet Protocol

 IPSec, Internet Protocol Security

 IPX, Internetwork Packet Exchange

 X.25, Packet Level Protocol

 DDP, Datagram Delivery Protocol

7.7: Data-link layer

Layer 2: The data-link layer

The data link layer is layer two of the seven-layer OSI model. It responds to
service requests from the network layer and issues service requests to the
physical layer. This is the layer which transfers data between adjacent
network nodes in a wide area network or between nodes on the same local
area network segment . The data link layer provides the functional and
procedural means to transfer data between network entities and might
provide the means to detect and possibly correct errors that may occur in the
Physical layer.

Examples of data link protocols are Ethernet for local area networks and PPP ,
HDLC and ADCCP for point-to-point connections.
The data link is all about getting information from one place to a selection of
other places. At this layer one does not need to be able to go everywhere,
just able to go somewhere else. So in social contact, one needs to know at
least one other person, but not necessarily know Fred, Bob, or James.

The data link provides data transfer across the physical link. That transfer
might or might not be reliable; many data link protocols do not have
acknowledgments of successful frame reception and acceptance, and some
data link protocols might not even have any form of checksum to check for
transmission errors. In those cases, higher-level protocols must provide flow
control, error checking, and acknowledgments and retransmission.

In some networks, such as IEEE 802 local area networks, the data link layer
is split into MAC and LLC sublayers; this means that the IEEE 802.2 LLC
protocol can be used with all of the IEEE 802 MAC layers, such as Ethernet,
Token Ring , IEEE 802.11 , etc., as well as with some non-802 MAC layers
such as FDDI.

Other data link layer protocols, such as HDLC, are specified to include both
sublayers, although some other protocols, such as Cisco HDLC , use HDLC's
low-level framing as a MAC layer in combination with a different LLC layer.

 Logical Link Control Sublayer

The uppermost sublayer is Logical Link Control (LLC). This sublayer

multiplexes protocols running atop the data link layer, and optionally provides
flow control, acknowledgment, and error recovery.

 Media Access Control Sublayer

The sublayer below it is Media Access Control (MAC). Sometimes this refers to
the sublayer that determines who is allowed to access the media at any one
time (usually CSMA/CD ). Other times it refers to a frame structure with MAC
addresses inside, specially speaking about ethernet over switches.

Examples:

 ARCnet
  ATM

 Controller Area Network (CAN)

 Ethernet

 Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI)

 Frame Relay

 IEEE 802.2 (provides LLC functions to IEEE 802 MAC layers)

 IEEE 802.11 wireless LAN

 LocalTalk

 Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS)

 Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP)

 Token ring

 And most forms of serial communication.

7.8: Physical layer

Layer 1: The physical layer

The physical layer is level one in the seven level OSI model of computer
networking. It performs services requested by the data link layer. This level
refers to network hardware , physical cabling or a wireless electromagnetic
connection . It also deals with electrical specifications, collision control and
other low-level functions.

The physical layer is the most basic network layer, providing only the means
of transmitting raw bits. The shapes of the electrical connectors , which
frequencies to broadcast on, and similar low-level things are specified here.
An analogy of this layer in a physical mail network would be a specification for
various kinds of paper and ink.

The major functions and services performed by the physical layer are:
  Establishment and termination of a connection to a communications
medium.

 Participation in the process whereby the communication resources are

effectively shared among multiple users, e.g., contention resolution
and flow control.

 Conversion between the representation of digital data in user

equipment and the corresponding signals transmitted over a
communications channel .

Examples:

 EIA standards: RS-232, RS-422, RS-423, RS-449, RS-485

 ITU Recommendations: see ITU-T

 DSL

 ISDN

 T1 and other T-carrier links, and E1 and other E-carrier links

 10BASE-T, 10BASE2, 10BASE5, 100BASE-TX, 100BASE-FX, 100BASE-

T, 1000BASE-T, 1000BASE-SX and other varieties of Ethernet

Chapter 8: Protocols

Protocols
Chapter 8.1: TCP/IP (Part 1)

Chapter 8.2: TCP/IP Protocol (Part 2)

8.1: TCP/IP

TCP/IP

Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) is an industry

standard protocol stack that is used for communication between Windows
based computers. TCP/IP is designed for communication across large-scale
networks. The tasks involved in using TCP/IP in the communication process
are distributed between protocols that are organized into four distinct layers
of the TCP/IP stack. Each protocol in the TCP/IP stack has a distinct role in
the communication process. During the communication process, many
applications may be in communication at the same time. TCP/IP has the
ability to differentiate one application from another. TCP/IP identifies an
application on one computer and then moves the data from that application to
an application on another computer.

TCP/IP Activities

The TCP/IP communication process is initiated using an application on the

source computer that prepares the data to be transmitted in a format that an
application on the destination computer can read.

This is similar to writing a letter in a language that the recipient can

understand. Then the data is associated with the destination application and
computer, much like how you address a letter to a recipient and household.
The address of the destination computer is then added to the data, just as the
address of the recipient is specified on the letter. After these activities are
performed, the data and additional information, including a request for
confirmation of its delivery, are sent over the network to the destination.

The network medium used for transmitting the data is independent of the
above activities, just as the means of transport that transfers the letter from
one post office to another is independent of the letters content or address.

TCP/IP Protocol:

 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

 User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
 Internet Protocol (IP)
 Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
 Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP)
 Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
 TCP/IP Utilities
8.2: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is a required TCP/IP standard protocol

that provides a reliable, connection-oriented data delivery service between
only two computers. Such a communication is known as a unicast. In
connection oriented communication, the connection must be established
before data can be transmitted between the two computers.

After the connection is established, data is transmitted over this single

connection only. Connection-oriented communication is also referred to as
reliable communication because it guarantees the delivery of the data at the
destination. On the source computer, TCP organizes the data to be
transmitted into packets. On the destination computer, TCP reorganizes the
packets to recreate the original data.

User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is a transport layer protocol that identifies the
destination application in network communications. UDP provides a
connectionless packet delivery service that offers fast but unreliable, best-
effort delivery of the data.

UDP does not require an acknowledgment for the data received and does not
attempt to retransmit data that is lost or corrupted. This means that less data
is sent, but neither the arrival of packets nor the correct sequencing of
delivered packets is acknowledged or guaranteed.

UDP is used by applications that transmit data to multiple computers by using

broadcast or multicast transmissions. It is also used for transmitting small
amounts of data or data that is not of high importance. Example uses of UDP
include multicasting streaming media, such as during a live videoconference,
and broadcasting a list of computer names, which are maintained for local
communication.

To use UDP, the source application must supply its UDP port number as well
as that of the destination application. It is important to note that UDP ports
are distinct and separate from TCP ports, even though some of them use the
same numbers.

Internet Protocol (IP)

Internet Protocol (IP) helps to identify the location of the destination

computer in a network communication. IP is a connectionless, unreliable
protocol that is primarily responsible for addressing packets and routing them
between networked computers. Although IP always attempts to deliver a
packet, a packet may be lost, corrupted, delivered out of sequence,
duplicated, or delayed.

However, IP does not attempt to recover from these types of errors by

requesting retransmission of the data. Acknowledging the delivery of packets
and recovering lost packets is the responsibility of a higher-layer protocol,
such as TCP, or of the application itself.

Activities Performed by IP

You can visualize IP as the mailroom of the TCP/IP stack, where packet
sorting and delivery take place. The packets are passed down to IP by UDP or
TCP from the transport layer or passed up from the network interface layer.

The primary function of IP is to route the packets until they reach their
destination. Each packet includes the source IP address of the sender and the
destination IP address of the intended recipient. These IP addresses in a
packet remain the same throughout the packets journey across a network.

If IP identifies a destination address as an address from the same segment, it

transmits the packet directly to that computer. If the destination IP address is
not on the same segment, IP must use a router to send the information. IP is
also responsible for ensuring that a packet does not remain on the network
forever by limiting the number of networks across which the packet can
travel.

This is done by assigning a Time to Live (TTL) number to every packet. A TTL
specifies the maximum length of time that the packet can travel on the
network before being discarded.
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)

Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) provides troubleshooting facilities

and error reporting for undeliverable packets. With ICMP, computers and
routers that use IP communication can report errors and exchange limited
control and status information. For example, if IP is unable to deliver a packet
to a destination computer, ICMP sends a Destination Unreachable message to
the source computer.

Although the IP protocol is used to move data across routers, ICMP reports
errors and control messages on behalf of IP. ICMP does not attempt to make
IP a reliable protocol, because ICMP messages are unacknowledged and
therefore unreliable. It only attempts to report errors and provide feedback
on specific conditions. Although this may not seem effective, it is much more
efficient than using bandwidth to acknowledge each ICMP message.

Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP)

Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) is a protocol that manages the

membership lists for IP multicasting in a TCP/IP network. IP multicasting is a
process by which a message is transmitted to a select group of recipients,
known as a multicast group. IGMP maintains the list of members who
subscribe to each multicast group.

All of the members of a multicast group listen for IP traffic directed to a

specific multicast IP address and receive the packets sent to that IP address.
However, because multicasting involves multiple computers, the packets are
sent using the unreliable UDP protocol, which does not guarantee the delivery
of the packets to the multicast group.

When multiple computers need to access information, such as streaming

media, an IP address reserved for multicasting is used. Routers that are
configured to process multicast IP addresses pick up this information and
forward it to all subscribers of the multicast group associated with the
multicast IP address.

Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)

Located in the Internet layer of the TCP/IP suite, Address Resolution Protocol
(ARP) performs address resolution for outgoing packets. Address resolution is
the process by which IP addresses are mapped to MAC addresses. The
network adapters use the MAC address to determine if a packet is meant for
that computer. Without the MAC address, the network adapters do not know
if they are to pass the data to a higher layer for further processing. As the
outgoing packets in the IP layer are being readied for transmission on the
network, the source and destination MAC addresses must be added.

ARP Cache

ARP stores a table containing IP addresses and their corresponding MAC

addresses. The area of memory where this table is stored is referred to as the
ARP cache. The ARP cache for any computer contains the mappings for only
computers and routers that reside on the same segment.

Physical Address Resolution

ARP compares every outbound packets destination IP address with the ARP
cache to determine the MAC address to which the packet will be sent. If there
is a matching entry, the MAC address is retrieved from the cache. If not, ARP
broadcasts a request for the computer owning the IP address in question to
reply with its MAC address.

Next, the computer with the corresponding IP address adds the initial
computers MAC address to its cache and then replies with its own MAC
address. When an ARP reply is received, the ARP cache is updated with the
new information and the packet can then be sent.

If the packet is going to another segment, ARP resolves the MAC address for
the router responsible for that segment, rather than resolving the address for
the final destination computer. The router is then responsible for either
finding the MAC address of the destination or forwarding the packet to
another router.

Chapter 9: Network Cabling

Network Cabling
Chapter 9.1: Network Wiring

Chapter 9.2: COLOR-CODE STANDARDS

Chapter 9.3: Network Cabling Tools

Chapter 9.4: Crimping the twisted pair Cables

9.1: Network Wiring

Network Wiring

There are several types of wiring schemas available. So, we have to consider
more appropriate schema for our network. EIA/TIA 568A Standard and 568A
and 568B Wiring Schemes are most popular wiring standard CAT 5e wiring.

568A Standard:

The purpose of EIA/TIA 568A was to create a multiproduct, multivendor,

standard for connectivity. Prior to the adoption of this standard, many
"proprietary" cabling systems existed. This was very bad for the consumer.
Among other things, the standard set the minimum requirements for
category-5E cable and hardware. The 568 "standard" is not to be confused
with 568A or 568B wiring schemes, which are themselves, part of the "568A
standard".

568A & 568B Wiring Schemes:

When we refer to a jack or a patch panel's wiring connection, we refer to

either the 568A, or 568B wiring scheme, which dictates the pin assignments
to the pairs of cat 5E cable. It is very important to note that there is no
difference, whatsoever, between the two wiring schemes, in connectivity or
performance when connected form one modular device to another (jack to
Patch panel, RJ-45 to RJ-45, etc.), so long as they (the two devices) are
wired for the same scheme (A or B). The only time when one scheme has an
advantage over the other, is when one end of a segment is connected to a
modular device, and the other end to a punch block. In which case, the 568A
has the advantage of having a more natural progression of pairs at the punch
block side.
The Category 5 E standard is now officially part of the 568A standard.

Category 5e Cable Unshielded Twisted Pair

Category 5 (CAT5) cabling is good, solid cable for 100-Mbps LANs. The
Category 5 standard has been around since 1991, so it's well established.
You'll find existing Category 5 installations everywhere. If you still have a lot
of 10-Mbps equipment, CAT5 cabling will serve your needs. It also handles
100-Mbps Fast Ethernet transmissions very well.

Category 5e: The improved Category 5

Category 5e (CAT5e), also known as Enhanced Category 5, was ratified in

1999. It's an incremental improvement designed to enable cabling to support
full-duplex Fast Ethernet operation and Gigabit Ethernet.

The main differences between Category 5 and Category 5e can be found in

the specifications. The performance requirements have been raised slightly in
the new standard (see the Buyer's Guide below).

Like CAT5, CAT5e is a 100-MHz standard, but it has the capacity to handle
bandwidth superior to that of CAT5. With these improvements, you can
expect problem-free, full-duplex, 4-pair Ethernet transmissions over your
CAT5e UTP.

9.2: COLOR-CODE STANDARDS

COLOR-CODE STANDARDS
Here are the diagrams:
Note that the TX (transmitter) pins are connected to corresponding RX
(receiver) pins, plus to plus and minus to minus. And that you must use a
crossover cable to connect units with identical interfaces.

If you use a straight-through cable, one of the two units must, in effect,
perform the cross-over function.

Two wire color-code standards apply: EIA/TIA 568A and EIA/TIA 568B. The
codes are commonly depicted with RJ-45 jacks as follows (see below figure
from the front of the jacks):

9.3: Network Cabling Tools

Network Cabling Tools

Modular Plug Tool

We need a modular crimping tool during the cabling of the twisted pair and RJ
45 connectors. It's a tool in a shape of pliers which will securely crimp RJ-45
connectors. Even though the crimper has cutters, which we use to cut cables
and individual wires, and perhaps stripes the outer jacket.
UTP Stripping Tool

This tool works neat and produces good finishing; as well this tool is used to
cut cables and individual wires.

Diagonal Cutters

This tool is used for easier to cut the cable off at the reel and to fine tune the
cable ends during the process of assembling.

9.4: Crimping the twisted pair Cables

Crimping the twisted pair Cables

1. Pull the cable off the reel to the desired length and cut (see below figure).
2. Stripe one end of the cable with the stripper. This is about right to strip a
little over 1/2" of the cover off the cable. Turn the stripper about one turn or
so. Once scored, you should be able to twist the end of the jacket loose and
pull it off with one hand while holding the rest of the cable with the other.

3. Examine the wires for nicks. Cut off the end and start over if we see any.
We may have to adjust the blade with the screw at the front stripper. Cable
diameters and jacket thicknesses vary.

4. Spread and arrange the pairs roughly in the order of the desired cable end

5. Untwist the pairs and arrange the wires in the order of the desired cable
end. Flatten the end between thumb and forefinger. Trim the ends of the
wires so they are even with one another. It is very important that the
untwisted end be slightly less than 1/2" long.

If it is longer than 1/2" it will be out-of-spec and susceptible to crosstalk. If it

less than slightly less than 1/2" it will not be properly clinched when RJ-45
plug is crimped on. Flatten again. There should be little or no space between
the wires.
6. Hold the RJ-45 plug with the clip facing down or away from you. Push the
wire firmly into the plug. Looking through the bottom of the plug, the wire on
the far left side will have a white background. The wires should alternate light
and dark from left to right. The furthest right wire is brown. The wires should
all end evenly at the front of the plug.

7. Hold the wire near the RJ-45 plug with the clip down and firmly push it into
the left side of the front of the crimper. Hold the wire in place squeeze the
crimper handles quite firmly. The crimper pushes two plungers down on the
RJ-45 plug. One forces what amounts to a cleverly designed plastic
plug/wedge onto the cable jacket and very firmly clinches it. The other seats
the "pins," each with two teeth at its end, through the insulation and into the
conductors of their respective wires.

8. Test the crimp. If done properly an average person will not be able to pull
the plug off the cable with the bare hands.

9. Prepare the other end of the cable so it has the desired end and crimp.
10. If both ends of the cable are within reach, hold them next to each other
and with RJ-45 clips facing away. If the plugs are wired correctly, and they
are identical, it is a straight-thru cable. If they are wired correctly and they
are different, it is a crossover cable.