Networking Basics Explained

KISAN LAW COLLEGE- JAIPUR
Networking:
Networking is the practice of linking two or more computing devices together for the purpose of
sharing data. Networks are built with a mix of computer hardware and computer software.
A computer network is a group of computers or computer like devices connected together to

share the network resources like files, printers, network services etc. Computer networks are
required for network communication and network resource sharing (printers, scanners, storage
spaces etc). To build and connect computer networks, we need computers (Clients and Servers)
and special network infrastructure devices.
Characteristics of a Computer Network

The primary purpose of a computer network is to share resources:
 You can play a CD music from one computer while sitting on another computer
 You may have a computer that doesn’t have a DVD or BluRay (BD) player. In this case,
you can place a movie disc (DVD or BD) on the computer that has the player, and then
view the movie on a computer that lacks the player42 :: Computer and Office
Applications
 You may have a computer with a CD/DVD/BD writer or a backup system but the other
computer doesn’t have it. In this case, you can burn discs or make backups on a computer
that has one of these but using data from a computer that doesn’t have a disc writer or a
backup system
 You can connect a printer (or a scanner, or a fax machine) to one computer and let other
computers of
 the network print (or scan, or fax) to that printer (or scanner, or fax machine)
 You can place a disc with pictures on one computer and let other computers access those
pictures
 You can create files and store them in one computer, then access those files from the
other computer(s) connected to it.
Properties of Network
1. Facilitate communications:
Using a network, people can communicate efficiently and easily via email, instant messaging,
chat rooms, telephone, video telephone calls, and video conferencing.
2. Permit sharing of files, data, and other types of Information
In a network environment, authorized users may access data and information stored on other
computers on the network. The capability of providing access to data and information on shared
storage devices is an important feature of many networks.
3. Share network and computing resources
In a networked environment, each computer on a network may access and use resources
provided by devices on the network, such as printing a document on a shared network printer.
Distributed computing uses computing resources across a network to accomplish tasks.
BENEFITS OF NETWORK
File sharing: Network file sharing between computers gives you more flexibity than using
floppy drives or Zip drives. Not only can you share photos, music files, and documents, you can
also use a home network to save copies of all of your important data on a different computer.
Backups are one of the most critical yet overlooked tasks in home networking.
Printer / peripheral sharing: Once a home network is in place, it’s then easy to set up all of the
computers to share a single printer. No longer will you need to bounce from one system or
another just to print out an email message. Other computer peripherals can be shared similarly
such as network scanners, Web cams, and CD burners.
Internet connection sharing: Using a home network, multiple family members can access the
Internet simultaneously without having to pay an ISP for multiple accounts. You will notice the
Internet connection slows down when several people share it, but broadband Internet can handle
the extra load with little trouble.
Multi-player games: Many popular home computer games support LAN mode where friends
and family can play together, if they have their computers networked.
Internet telephone service: Voice over IP (VoIP) services allows you to make and receive
phone calls through your home network across the Internet.
Logical Classification of Computer Networks:

Computer networks can be logically classified as 1) Peer-to-Peer networks and 2) Client-Server
networks
Peer-to-Peer networks
A Peer-to-Peer network has no dedicated Servers. Here in Peer-to-Peer network, a number of

workstations (or clients) are connected together for the purpose of sharing devices, information
or data. All the workstations are considered as equal. Any one computer can act as client or
server at any instance. This network is ideal for small networks where there is no need for
dedicated servers, like home networks, small business networks, or retail shops. The Microsoft
term for Peer-to-Peer network is “Workgroup”.
There is no limitation for the number of computers in a peer-to-peer network. But Peer-to-Peer
implementations are meant for small networks. Typically a Workgroup contain less than 10
workstations.
Client-Server Networks
Peer-to-Peer computer networks are good for small business organizations. For example: A small
pharmacy outlet, An automobile service center, A small clinic etc. The main disadvantage of
Peer-to-Peer networks are listed below.
• Everything is kept distributed in different computers.
• User generated files are stored in individual computers. Data backup is extremely difficult.
• Each computer has its own user database. There is no centralized user & user privilege
management. Users need to remember their user ids and passwords in every computers.
Managing network users is extremely difficult.
As the organization's network grows, they must gradually upgrade their Peer-to-Peer network to
Client-Server based network.
The Client/Server computer network model is made-up of Client compters and Server compters.
Now we need to understand the terms Client and Server.
What is a Client? A computer which is seeking any resource from another computer is a Client
Computer. You can think a client as a computer in your network, where a network user is
performing some network activity. For Example: Downloading a file from a File Server,
Browsing Intranet/Internet etc. The network user normally uses a client computer to perform his
day to day work.
What is a Server? If a computer has a resource which is served to another computer, it is a

Server computer. The client establishes a connection to a Server and accesses the services
installed on the Server. A Server is not meant for a network user to browse in internet or do
spreadsheet work. A Server computer is installed with appropriate Operating System and related
Software to serve the network clients with one or more services, continuously without a break.
In a Client-Server network, high-end servers, installed with the Network Operating System

(Server Operating System) and the related software, serve the clients continuously on a network,
by providing them with specific services upon request.
Well known Server Operating System Products are Windows 2012 / Windows 2012 R2, Unix
(Oracle Solaris, IBM AIX, HP UX, FreeBSD, NetBSD, OpenBSD, SCO Unix etc), GNU/Linux
(RedHat Enterprise Linux, Debian Linux, SUSE Enterprise, Ubuntu Server, CentOS
Server, Mandriva, Fedora etc.
Client-Server networks require dedicated servers. Server hardware is more costlier than normal
Desktop computers. Client-Server networks cost more than peer-to-peer networks. Network
Operating System (Server Operating System) are also costlier than Desktop Operating Systems.
Different types of Servers used in networks are listed below.
File Server: File servers are used to store the user documents and files centrally. An ideal file
server should have a large amount of memory and storage space, fast hard-disks, multiple
processors, fast network adapters, redundant power supplies etc.
A File server runs FTP (File Transfer Protocol) in Windows, Linux or Unix Networks, or SMBP
(Server Message Block Protocol) in Windows Networks. Well known FTP software products
are Microsoft IIS, Apache FTP Server etc.
The main advantage of keeping network user files and electronic documents centrally in a file
server is that the network user files and documents can be managed (backup'd) easily. Think
about managing network user files and electronic documents kept distributed inside user
workstations in a network consists of thousands of computers! Nearly impossible.
Print Server: Print Server, which redirects print jobs from client computers to specific printers.
Mail Server: Mail Servers are used to transmit emails using email protocols. Most widely used
email transmission protocol is SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol). Mail Servers exchange
emails between different domains.
Most widely used Mail Server software products are Microsoft Exchange Server, SENDMAIL
(now proofpoint), qmail,Postfix etc.
Application Server: Common computer applications or programs which are required by

different network users can be run in a central server, which enables multiple network users to
access common network applications from the network. Typically Application Servers run
business logic. Which means, every business is different and the Application Server is the Server
Software which controls the business process. Some examples for Application Server Software
are SAP BASIS, WebLogic, WebSphere etc.
Database Server: Database Server allows authorized network clients to create, view, modify
and/or delete an organization's data, stored in a common database.
Centralized and Distributed Computer Network Model
Another logical classification of computer networks is Centralized and Distributed Computer

Network Model.
In Centralized computer network model, the network resources are placed and managed from a
main location. Centralized network model allows administrators to manage the resources
centrally (typically in Head Office). The network servers and other critical network resources are
located in a central location in a secure and dedicated server room.
Centralized network model provides following advantages to Network and System

Administrators.
Centralized network model provides Network and System Administrators better access to
network devices
In Centralized network model, Network Resources can be managed more easily
Centralized network model provides better Network Security.
The main disadvantage is more work load of Network and System Administrators and increased
risk of communication failure due to a catastrophe in the central location.
In Distributed network model, the network resources are placed and managed from different
geographical locations. Designated network and system administrators manage the network
resources in different locations. These days most of the Enterprise network models are
distributed.
Network Topology:
A network topology is the physical layout of computers, cables, and other components on a
network. There are a number of different network topologies, and a network may be built using
multiple topologies. The different types of network layouts are Bus topology, Star
topology, Mesh topology, Ring topology, Hybrid topology and Wireless topology. This lesson
explains what is bus topology.
Bus Topology
A bus topology consists of a main run of cable with a terminator at each end. All nodes like
workstations, printers, laptops, servers etc., are connected to the linear cable. The terminator is
used to absorb the signal when the signal reaches the end, preventing signal bounce. When using
bus topology, when a computer sends out a signal, the signal travels the cable length in both
directions from the sending computer. When the signal reaches the end of the cable length, it
bounces back and returns in the direction it came from. This is known as signal bounce. Signal
bounce will create problem in the network, because if another signal is sent on the cable length at
the same time, the two signals will collide.
Advantages of Bus Topology
• Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus.
• Requires less cable length than a star topology.

Disadvantages of Bus Topology
• Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.
• Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.
• Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down.
• Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution.
Star Topology
A star topology is designed with each node (like workstations, printers, laptops, servers etc.)
connected directly to a central device called as a network switch. Each workstation has a cable
that goes from its network card to a network switch.
Most popular and widely used LAN technology Ethernet currently operates in Star Topology.


Advantages of Star Topology
• Easy to install and wire.
• No disruptions to the network when connecting or removing devices.
• Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.
Disadvantages of Star Topology
• Requires more cable length than a linear bus topology.
• If the connecting network device (network switch) fails, nodes attached are disabled and cannot
participate in network communication.
• More expensive than linear bus topology because of the cost of the connecting devices
(network switches).
Mesh Topology
In Mesh topology, every network device is connected to other network devices. Mesh topology is
costly because of the extra cables needed and it is very complex and difficult to manage.
The main advantage of mesh topology is multiple paths to the destination computer. If one link is
down, we have another path to reach the destination.
Mesh Topology is not commonly used these days.

Ring Topology
In a ring topology, all computers are connected via a cable that loops in a ring or circle. A ring
topology is a circle that has no start and no end and terminators are not necessary in a ring
topology. Signals travel in one direction on a ring while they pass from one computer to the next,
with each computer regenerating the signal so that it may travel the distance required.
The main advantage of Ring topology is that the signal degeneration is low since each
workstation participating in the network is responsible for regenerating the weak signal. The
disadvantage of ring topology is, if one workstation fails, the entire network will fail.
Hybrid Topology
Hybrid topology is a mixture of different topologies. Example is star-bus topology.

Network Protocol
A network protocol can be viewed as a common network communication standard, which is

used to define a method of exchanging data over a computer network. Network protocols
define rules and conventions for communication between different devices, participating in a
computer network.
Almost all protocols used in the Internet are common standards defined by RFC (Request for
Comments).
Examples of standard network protocols are TCP (Transmission Control Protocol), UDP (User
Datagram Protocol), IP (Internet Protocol), ARP (Address Resolution Protocol), HTTP
(Hypertext Transfer Protocol), FTP (File Transfer Protocol), TFTP (Trivial File Transfer
Protocol), SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol), SSH (Secure Shell), Telnet etc.
Devices participating in network communication should know about the common network
protocol and communicate according to the way, defined by the network protocol. In other
words, standard network protocol software must be running on both devices participating in
network communication.
To explain it more clearly, if you are using your browser to browse web pages from a web
server (example, www.omnisecu.com), you are using a protocol called HTTP (Hypertext
Transfer Protocol). Your computer must request web pages from web server using HTTP and
the web server must response back to your computer using HTTP.
Difference Between Proprietary and Standard Protocols
Two terms are often used in networking industry, when describing network protocols.
1) Proprietary Protocol 2) Standard Protocol
Proprietary protocols are usually developed by a single company for the devices (or Operating
System) which they manufacture. AppleTalk is a proprietary protocol developed by Apple Inc.
Appletalk protocol may work well in network environments consisting only Apple devices. But
other vendors may not support Appletalk protocol. Proprietary protocols will not scale well in
network environments consisting of multi-vendor equipments.
Standard protocols are agreed and accepted by whole industry. Standard protocols are not vendor
specific. Standard protocols are often developed by collaborative effort of experts from different
organizations.
Examples of standard protocols are IP, TCP, UDP etc. RFC (Request for Comments) is
an IETF platform to develop Standard Protocols.
To understand the concept of standard protocols more clearly, take a real world example of
shaving blade. A shaving blade has a globally agreed and accepted shape, so that it can fit well in
a razor manufactured by different vendors.
Communication Protocol
Communication protocols are formal descriptions of digital message formats and rules. They are
required to exchange messages in or between computing systems and are required in
telecommunications.
Communications protocols cover authentication, error detection and correction, and signaling.
They can also describe the syntax, semantics, and synchronization of analog and digital
communications. Communications protocols are implemented in hardware and software. There
are thousands of communications protocols that are used everywhere in analog and digital
communications. Computer networks cannot exist without them.
Communications devices have to agree on many physical aspects of the data to be exchanged
before successful transmission can take place. Rules defining transmissions are called protocols.
There are many properties of a transmission that a protocol can define. Common ones include:
packet size, transmission speed, error correction types, handshaking and synchronization
techniques, address mapping, acknowledgement processes, flow control, packet sequence
controls, routing, address formatting
Popular protocols include: File Transfer Protocol (FTP), TCP/IP, User Datagram Protocol
(UDP), Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), Post Office Protocol (POP3), Internet Message
Access Protocol (IMAP), Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP).
APPLICATIONS OF INTERNET
By using Internet facility you can:

 Exchange messages using e-mail (Electronic mail)
 Transfer files as well as software (FTP)
 Browse through information on any topic on web (Internet Surfing)
 Communicate in real time with others connected to the Internet (Chatting over Internet)
 Search databases of government, individuals and organizations (Information Search).
 Set up a site with information about your company’s products and services (Internet
Hosting).
 Read news available from leading news graps.
GETTING CONNECTED TO INTERNET
To connect to the Internet you need a PC (personal computer) with requisite software including a
browser, a telephone connection or a leased line, a modem, which allows the PC tocommunicate
with other computer.
Types of Internet connections
Dial-up
This is the most common and basic type of Internet connection available from ISPs (Internet
Server Providers). In Dial-up connection, you dial a phone number (provided by the ISP) to get
connected to a server at ISP. Once connected to the ISP server, you get to access Internet. It
means you are not directly connected to Internet; you access the Internet through an ISP.
Benefits:
Ø Very economic and is widely available

Ø Easy to setup and use
Drawbacks:
Ø Very slow
Ø Once connected, the same telephone line cannot be used for phone calls
Ø It transfers data over an analog line. So before the data is sent it has to be converted from
digital to analog signal, likewise, when data is received it has to be converted from analog to
digital signal (this is what the MODEM does), this adds performance overhead which affects the
speed of the
ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network)
In the ISDN process of connecting to server to access Internet is almost same as Dial-up, but it
offers connectivity through the use of digital phone lines instead of standard line Analog. It
offers Internet connectivity at speeds of up to 128 Kbps, allows the user to receive or make calls
simultaneously on the same line. ISDN comes through a regular telephone wire from the
telephone pole on your street. The line combines two 64 Kbps channels to offer 128 Kbps
bandwidth broken into three bands: One band for the ringing signal of your phone, one band for
your telephone conversation, and one band for data.
Benefits:
Ø Single connection can support both voice and data.
Ø Eight terminals can be connected on a single line.
Ø Signal on ISDN line-voice or data is sent in digital mode,
so less prone to noise, have very high quality service.
Ø Two calls (which could be voice, data, image or combination of any two) can be established
simultaneously on a single pair of lines.
Ø High-speed data transfer from PC to PC.
Drawbacks:
Ø A special ISDN line must be installed at the customer’s location.
Ø A special ISDN modem or router is also required.
Direct Internet Access (Leased Line Connection)
Leased line is a “permanent connection” between a computer system (single CPU or LAN, and
the Internet). It is generally used by larger institutions, corporate and government agencies. It
involves establishing your own Internet gateway (connection) and paying to have a direct full
time line with the network. Your Computers, in effect, become part of the Internet. The main
advantage of this connection is that: it is on line – 24 hrs a day, seven days a week, (24x7) and
provides faster access.
Dedicated links are established through service provider who places a computer-controlled router
(message director) at the site. A router is used to connect local network to the Internet, and it
allows all the members of the network complete access to Internet.
DSL (Digital Subscriber Line or Dedicated Service Line) Broadband Connection
DSL, is an “always-on’ and widely used data connections and can provide an excellent Internet
connection. It connects your home or office to the Internet through the same telephone wire that
comes from telephone pole on the street. Like ISDN, with DSL, user can make and receive
telephone calls while connected to the Internet. The difference between DSL and dial-up / ISDN
is that a DSL Internet connection uses a high-speed dedicated circuit filtering out standard phone
calls and Internet signals.
Benefits:
Ø Connections are ‘always on’.
Ø Talk and access Internet simultaneously on single line.
Ø DSL utilizes the standard copper wiring already installed into businesses and homes, requiring
no special line installation for service.
Ø High Speed data download; data speed starts from 256 kbps to 2 mbps.
Ø Can share this connection to create own LAN Network i.e. more than one PC can be
connected.
Drawbacks:
Ø Hardware costs are very high, as you need a special DSL modem and a DSL filter to use the
service.
Ø Since a ADSL connections are ‘always on’ you need a firewall to protect your PC.
Cable (Coaxial Cable)
When Internet access made the jump from dial-up, cable was the first new medium to be used.
The cable used is the same as the cable that you may have for cable TV. One of those round
cables, with a solid copper wire core inside of a thick plastic like insulator. Around the insulator
there is usually a foil shield with a braided aluminum jacket around that. All of that is inside the
outer plastic jacket of the cable.
Of course, cable Internet access does require special modems to work. The modem has to
separate the data from the television channels and present the signal to your computer in a
fashion that it will understand.
Wireless Internet Access
The term ‘wireless’ is a big catch-all term to cover any type of Internet access that doesn’t
require a cable between you and your ISP. This makes it important for you to ask a few questions
before signing up for ‘Wireless Internet’. Each type works a little bit differently and has it’s own
pros and cons.
Wireless Broadband
When ISPs advertise wireless broadband for your home, this is usually the type that they are
talking about. The ISP will connect to the Internet through a cabled connection and then
broadcast that connection using radio waves. You, as the customer, would have some sort of
antenna and modem set up that would let you communicate with the ISP.
These systems work almost identically to cordless phones, even on the same frequencies that
cordless phones do. The ISP just broadcasts with higher power so the signal will travel further.
The one challenge is that your antenna needs to have a clear line-of-sight to their antenna. If
there are trees or buildings in the way, you will get little to no service.
Wireless broadband is almost always only considered an option when you don’t have cable or
DSL service to your home. It’s a good option for rural homes or cottages.
The service speeds with wireless broadband aren’t nearly as fast as with fiber or cables, for the
same reason that your WiFi isn’t as fast as being connected to a network cable. Signals travel
better in cables than free-air.
We do have an article that will give you a more in depth look at how wireless broadband works,
if you’re interested.
What You Can Expect: Maximum of 1.5 Mbps, more like 800 Kbps at around $40 USD to $50
USD per month.
Mobile Internet
This is how you get the Internet on your phone, USB stick, or PC cards that go in your computer.
Service providers typically refer to it as Mobile Wireless Broadband, even though the term
broadband isn’t technically being used correctly.
For a large part of the world, if you have cell phone service, you should be able to get mobile
Internet service. Being available practically everywhere, and so many people having
smartphones, there is an argument to be made that wireless Internet is the future.
Mobile Internet works with radio waves, similar to wireless broadband. Most people don’t
realize that their cellphones are actually a type of radio. Over the years, service providers have
figured out a way to transmit voice and data at the same time. There are several different ways
that data can be sent over the cell signal. You’ve heard the terms 3G, 4G, and more recently,
LTE. Each of those methods has a different way of sending data. 3G is an older, slower method
and LTE is the newer faster method. The underlying principle is still the same though.
What You Can Expect: With LTE service, up to 150 Mbps, but more like 75 Mbps. Much less
if you’re not in an LTE zone. Prices vary wildly.
Satellite Internet
As the name suggests, this is a way to get Internet access via a satellite dish. The signal gets
beamed to a satellite which turns around and beams the signal to you, and vice versa. Like
wireless broadband, it is a line-of-sight technology. Your dish needs to have a clear shot at
wherever the satellite is in the sky. That’s why it takes a professional installer to set it up.
Each transmission takes about a 45,000 mile trip between you, the satellite, and the ISP. From
what we talked about earlier, you know that a signal traveling that far will get pretty weak.
Attenuation. That’s part of why satellite Internet service isn’t usually your first choice. Another
reason is that everyone in your area using satellite Internet has to share the same bandwidth. The
area is the size of Utah or Ghana. That could be a lot of people. If you’re hogging the bandwidth,
the ISP will slow your connection down to a crawl to give everyone else a chance. If you want to
learn a bit more about how satellite Internet works, we’ve got an article on that too.
Data Transmission
Data transmission refers to the movement of data in form of bits between two or more digital
devices.
This transfer of data takes place via some form of transmission media (for example, coaxial
cable, fiber optics etc.)
Types of Data Transmission
1. Parallel transmission
Definition: Within a computing or communication device, the distances between different

subunits are too short. Thus, it is normal practice to transfer data between subunits using a
separate wire to carry each bit of data. There are multiple wires connecting each sub-unit and
data is exchanged using a parallel transfer mode. This mode of operation results in minimal
delays in transferring each word.
• In parallel transmission, all the bits of data are transmitted simultaneously on separate
communication lines.
• In order to transmit n bits, n wires or lines are used. Thus each bit has its own line.
• All n bits of one group are transmitted with each clock pulse from one device to
anotheri.e. multiple bits are sent with each clock pulse.
• Parallel transmission is used for short distance communication.
• As shown in the fig, eight separate wires are used to transmit 8 bit data from sender to receiver.

Advantage of parallel transmission
It is speedy way of transmitting data as multiple bits are transmitted simultaneously with a single
clock pulse.
Disadvantage of parallel transmission
It is costly method of data transmission as it requires n lines to transmit n bits at the same time.
2. Serial Transmission
Definition: When transferring data between two physically separate devices, especially if the
separation is more than a few kilometers, for reasons of cost, it is more economical to use a
single pair of lines. Data is transmitted as a single bit at a time using a fixed time interval for
each bit. This mode of transmission is known as bit-serial transmission.
• In serial transmission, the various bits of data are transmitted serially one after the other.
• It requires only one communication line rather than n lines to transmit data from sender to
receiver.
• Thus all the bits of data are transmitted on single line in serial fashion.
• In serial transmission, only single bit is sent with each clock pulse.
• As shown in fig., suppose an 8-bit data 11001010 is to be sent from source to destination. Then
least significant bit (LSB) i,e. 0 will be transmitted first followed by other bits. The most
significant bit (MSB) i.e. 1 will be transmitted in the end via single communication line.
• The internal circuitry of computer transmits data in parallel fashion. So in order to change this
parallel data into serial data, conversion devices are used.
• These conversion devices convert the parallel data into serial data at the sender side so that it
can be transmitted over single line.
• On receiver side, serial data received is again converted to parallel form so that the interval
circuitry of computer can accept it

• Serial transmission is used for long distance communication.
Advantage of Serial transmission
Use of single communication line reduces the transmission line cost by the factor of n as
compared to parallel transmission.

Disadvantages of Serial transmission
1. Use of conversion devices at source and destination end may lead to increase in overall
transmission cost.
2. This method is slower as compared to parallel transmission as bits are transmitted serially one
after the other.
Types of Serial Transmission
There are two types of serial transmission-synchronous and asynchronous both these
transmissions use 'Bit synchronization'
Bit Synchronization is a function that is required to determine when the beginning and end of the
data transmission occurs.
Bit synchronization helps the receiving computer to know when data begin and end during a
transmission. Therefore bit synchronization provides timing control.
Asynchronous Transmission
• Asynchronous transmission sends only one character at a time where a character is either a
letter of the alphabet or number or control character i.e. it sends one byte of data at a time.
• Bit synchronization between two devices is made possible using start bit and stop bit.
• Start bit indicates the beginning of data i.e. alerts the receiver to the arrival of new group of
bits. A start bit usually 0 is added to the beginning of each byte.
• Stop bit indicates the end of data i.e. to let the receiver know that byte is finished, one or more
additional bits are appended to the end of the byte. These bits, usually 1s are called stop bits.

• Addition of start and stop increase the number of data bits. Hence more bandwidth is consumed
in asynchronous transmission.
• There is idle time between the transmissions of different data bytes. This idle time is also
known as Gap
• The gap or idle time can be of varying intervals. This mechanism is called Asynchronous,
because at byte level sender and receiver need not to be synchronized. But within each byte,
receiver must be synchronized with the incoming bit stream.
Application of Asynchronous Transmission
1. Asynchronous transmission is well suited for keyboard type-terminals and paper tape devices.
The advantage of this method is that it does not require any local storage at the terminal or the
computer as transmission takes place character by character.

2. Asynchronous transmission is best suited to Internet traffic in which information is transmitted

in short bursts. This type of transmission is used by modems.

Advantages of Asynchronous transmission
1. This method of data transmission is cheaper in cost as compared to synchronous e.g. If lines

are short, asynchronous transmission is better, because line cost would be low and idle time will
not be expensive.
2. In this approach each individual character is complete in itself, therefore if character is

corrupted during transmission, its successor and predecessor character will not be affected.
3. It is possible to transmit signals from sources having different bit rates.
4. The transmission can start as soon as data byte to be transmitted becomes available.
5. Moreover, this mode of data transmission in easy to implement.
Disadvantages of asynchronous transmission
1. This method is less efficient and slower than synchronous transmission due to the overhead of
extra bits and insertion of gaps into bit stream.
2. Successful transmission inevitably depends on the recognition of the start bits. These bits can
be missed or corrupted.
Synchronous Transmission
• Synchronous transmission does not use start and stop bits.
• In this method bit stream is combined into longer frames that may contain multiple bytes.
• There is no gap between the various bytes in the data stream.


• In the absence of start & stop bits, bit synchronization is established between sender & receiver
by 'timing' the transmission of each bit.
• Since the various bytes are placed on the link without any gap, it is the responsibility of
receiver to separate the bit stream into bytes so as to reconstruct the original information.
• In order to receive the data error free, the receiver and sender operates at the same clock
frequency.
Application of Synchronous transmission
• Synchronous transmission is used for high speed communication between computers.
Advantage of Synchronous transmission
1. This method is faster as compared to asynchronous as there are no extra bits (start bit & stop
bit) and also there is no gap between the individual data bytes.
Disadvantages of Synchronous transmission

1. It is costly as compared to asynchronous method. It requires local buffer storage at the two
ends of line to assemble blocks and it also requires accurately synchronized clocks at both ends.
This lead to increase in the cost.
2. The sender and receiver have to operate at the same clock frequency. This requires proper
synchronization which makes the system complicated.
Comparison between Serial and Parallel transmission

Comparison between Asynchronous and Synchronous.


Advantages of Network:
Faster Communication
The foremost target of Internet has always been speedy communication and it has excelled way
beyond the expectations. New innovations are only going to make it faster and more reliable.
Now, you can communicate in a fraction of second with a person who is sitting in the other part
of the world. With the help of such services, it has become very easy to establish a kind of global
friendship where you can share your thoughts and explore other cultures.
Information Resources
Information is probably the biggest advantage that Internet offers. Internet is a virtual treasure
trove of information. Any kind of information on any topic under the sun is available on the
Internet. The search engines like Google, Yahoo are at your service on the Internet. There is a
huge amount of information available on the Internet for just about every subject known to man,
ranging from government law and services, market information, new ideas and technical support.
Today, it is almost required that students should use it for research or the purpose of gathering
resources.
Entertainment
Entertainment is another popular reason why many people prefer to surf the Internet. In fact, the
Internet has become quite successful in trapping the multifaceted entertainment industry.
Downloading games or just surfing the celebrity websites are some of the uses people have
discovered. Even celebrities are using the Internet effectively for promotional campaigns.
Social Networking
One cannot imagine an online life without Facebook or Twitter. Social networking has become
so popular amongst youth that it might one day replace physical networking. It has evolved as a
great medium to connect with millions of people with similar interests. Apart from finding long-
lost friends, you can also look for a job, business opportunities.
Online Services
The Internet has made life very convenient. With numerous online services you can now perform
all your transactions online. You can book tickets for a movie, transfer funds, pay utility bills,
taxes etc., and right from your home.
Disadvantages
Theft of Personal Information
If you use the Internet for online banking, social networking or other services, you may risk a
theft to your personal information such as name, address, credit card number etc. People can
access this information through unsecured connections or by planting software and then use your
personal details for their benefit. Needless to say, this may land you in serious trouble.
Virus Threat
Internet users are often plagued by virus attacks on their systems. Virus programs are
inconspicuous and may get activated if you click a seemingly harmless link. Computers
connected to the Internet are very prone to targeted virus attacks and may end up crashing.
Pornography
Pornography is perhaps the biggest disadvantage of the Internet. Internet allows you to access
and download millions of pornographic photos, videos and other X-rated stuff. Such unrestricted
access to porn can be detrimental for children and teenagers.
Social Disconnect
Thanks to the Internet, people now only meet on social networks. More and more people are
getting are drifting apart from their friends and family. Even children prefer to play online games
rather than going out and mingling with other kids.
With all its falls the internet has the potential to make your life simple and convenient, as well as
wreak havoc in your life. Its influence is mostly dictated by the choices you make while you are
online. With clever use, you can manage to harness its unlimited potential.
Internetworks
Before discussing about the terms internet, intranet and extranet, we need to discuss the term
Internetwork.
An internetwork can be defined as two or more computer networks (typically Local Area
Networks LAN) which are connected together, usinng Network Routers.
Each network in an Internetwork has its own Network Address, which is different from other
networks inside the Internetwork. Network Address is used to identify the networks inside an
Internetwork.
Internetwork allows different users at different geographical locations of an organization to share

data, resources and to communicate. Modern businesses cannot even function without
Internetwork. Internet, Intranet and Extranet are different types of internetwork.
Internet, Intranet and Extranet
Internet: Internet is a worldwide, publicly accessible computer network of interconnected

computer networks (internetwork) that transmit data using the standard Internet Protocol (IP).
Internet is the world's largest Internetwork .
The terms World Wide Web (WWW) and Internet are not the same. The Internet is a collection
of interconnected computer networks, linked by copper wires, fiber-optic cables, wireless
connections, etc. World Wide Web (WWW) is a collection of interconnected documents and
other resources, linked by hyperlinks and URLs. The World Wide Web is one of the services
accessible via the Internet, along with various others including email, file sharing, remote
administration, video streaming, online gaming etc.
Intranet: An intranet is a private network that is contained within an enterprise. It may consist
of many interlinked local area networks and use any Wide Area Network (WAN) technologies
for network connectivity. The main purpose of an intranet is to share company information and
computing resources among employees. Intranet is a private Internetwork, which is usually
created and maintained by a private organization. The content available inside Intranet are
intended only for the members of that organization (usually employees of a company).
Extranet: An extranet can be viewed as part of a company's intranet that is extended to users
outside the company like suppliers, vendors, partners, customers, or other business associates.
Extranet is required for normal day-to-day business activities. For example, Placing order to
registered vendors, Billing & Invoices, Payments, Joint Ventures, Product Brochures for
Partners, Discounted price lists for partners etc.
An information system is software that helps you organize and analyze data. This makes it
possible to answer questions and solve problems relevant to the mission of an organization.
Introduction
Many organizations work with large amounts of data. Data are basic values or facts and are
organized in a database. Many people think of data as synonymous with information; however,
information actually consists of data that has been organized to help answers questions and to
solve problems. An information system is defined as the software that helps organize and
analyze data. So, the purpose of an information system is to turn raw data into useful information
that can be used for decision making in an organization.
General Purpose vs. Specialized Information Systems
There are some general types of information systems. For example, a database management
system (DBMS) is a combination of software and data that makes it possible to organize and
analyze data. DBMS software is typically not designed to work with a specific organization or a
specific type of analysis. Rather, it is a general-purpose information system. Another example is
an electronic spreadsheet. This is a tool for basic data analysis based on formulas that define
relationships among the data. For example, you can use a spreadsheet to calculate averages for a
set of values or to plot the trend of a value over time.
In contrast, there are a number of specialized information systems that have been specifically
designed to support a particular process within an organization or to carry out very specific
analysis tasks. For example, enterprise resource planning (ERP) is an information system used
to integrate the management of all internal and external information across an entire
organization. Another example is a geographic information system (GIS), which is used to
manage and analyze all types of geographical data. Expert systems are another example of
information systems. An experts system is designed to solve complex problems by following the
reasoning of an expert.
Typical Components of Information Systems
While information systems may differ in how they are used within an organization, they
typically contain the following components:
1. Hardware. Computer-based information systems use computer hardware, such as processors,
monitors, keyboard, and printers.
2. Software. These are the programs used to organize, process and analyze data.
3. Databases. Information systems work with data, organized into tables and files.
4. Network. Different elements need to be connected to each other, especially if many different
people in an organization use the same information system.
5. Procedures. These describe how specific data are processed and analyzed in order to get the
answers for which the information system is designed.
The first four components are part of the general information technology (IT) of an

organization. The procedures are very specific to the information needed to answer a specific
question.
Different Types
The many different types of information system can be divided into categories based on the
where they are used in the hierarchy of an organization. This is illustrated in the figure below.
Pyramid model of different types of information systems
Transaction Processing Systems
Transaction Processing System are operational-level systems at the bottom of the pyramid. They
are usually operated directly by shop floor workers or front line staff, which provide the key data
required to support the management of operations. This data is usually obtained through the
automated or semi-automated tracking of low-level activities and basic transactions.
Functions of a TPS
TPS are ultimately little more than simple data processing systems.
Functions of a TPS in terms of data processing requirements
Functions of a TPS in terms of data processing requirements

Inputs Processing Outputs
Validation
Sorting Lists
Transactions Listing Detail reports
Events Merging Action reports
Updating Summary reports?
Calculation
Some examples of TPS
 Payroll systems
 Order processing systems
 Reservation systems
 Stock control systems
 Systems for payments and funds transfers
The role of TPS
 Produce information for other systems
 Cross boundaries (internal and external)
 Used by operational personnel + supervisory levels

 Efficiency oriented
Management Information Systems
For historical reasons, many of the different types of Information Systems found in commercial
organizations are referred to as "Management Information Systems". However, within our
pyramid model, Management Information Systems are management-level systems that are used
by middle managers to help ensure the smooth running of the organization in the short to
medium term. The highly structured information provided by these systems allows managers to
evaluate an organization's performance by comparing current with previous outputs.
Functions of a MIS
Functions of a MIS in terms of data processing requirements

Internal Transactions Sorting Summary reports
Internal Files Merging Action reports
Structured data Summarizing Detailed reports
Some examples of MIS
 Sales management systems
 Inventory control systems
 Budgeting systems
 Management Reporting Systems (MRS)

 Personnel (HRM) systems
The role of MIS
 Based on internal information flows
 Support relatively structured decisions
 Inflexible and have little analytical capacity
 Used by lower and middle managerial levels
 Deals with the past and present rather than the future
 Efficiency oriented?
Decision Support Systems
A Decision Support System can be seen as a knowledge based system, used by senior managers,
which facilitates the creation of knowledge and allow its integration into the organization. These
systems are often used to analyze existing structured information and allow managers to project
the potential effects of their decisions into the future. Such systems are usually interactive and
are used to solve ill structured problems. They offer access to databases, analytical tools, allow
"what if" simulations, and may support the exchange of information within the organization.
Functions of a DSS
DSS manipulate and build upon the information from a MIS and/or TPS to generate insights and
new information.
Functions of a DSS in terms of data processing requirements
Modelling
Internal Transactions Summary reports
Simulation
Internal Files Forecasts
Analysis
External Information? Graphs / Plots
Summarizing
Some examples of DSS
 Group Decision Support Systems (GDSS)
 Computer Supported Co-operative work (CSCW)
 Logistics systems
 Financial Planning systems
 Spreadsheet Models?
The role of DSS
 Support ill- structured or semi-structured decisions
 Have analytical and/or modelling capacity
 Used by more senior managerial levels
 Are concerned with predicting the future
 Are effectiveness oriented?

Executive Information Systems
Executive Information Systems are strategic-level information systems that are found at the top
of the Pyramid. They help executives and senior managers analyze the environment in which the
organization operates, to identify long-term trends, and to plan appropriate courses of action. The
information in such systems is often weakly structured and comes from both internal and
external sources. Executive Information System are designed to be operated directly by
executives without the need for intermediaries and easily tailored to the preferences of the
individual using them.
Functions of an EIS
EIS organizes and presents data and information from both external data sources and internal
MIS or TPS in order to support and extend the inherent capabilities of senior executives.
Functions of a EIS in terms of data processing requirements

External Data Summarizing Summary reports
Internal Files Simulation Forecasts
Pre-defined models "Drilling Down" Graphs / Plots
Some examples of EIS
Executive Information Systems tend to be highly individualized and are often custom made for a
particular client group; however, a number of off-the-shelf EIS packages do exist and many
enterprise level systems offer a customizable EIS module.
The role of EIS

 Are concerned with ease of use
 Are concerned with predicting the future
 Are effectiveness oriented
 Are highly flexible
 Support unstructured decisions
 Use internal and external data sources
 Used only at the most senior management levels
Benefits of Information System
An understanding of information systems can also help a company. An effective information

system can have a major impact on corporate strategy and organizational success. This impact
can benefit the organization, users of the information system, and any individual or group who
will interact with the information system. Some of the benefits organizations seek to achieve
through information systems include:
*Added value to products (goods and services)

*Better safety
*Better service
*Competitive advantages
*Fewer errors
*Greater accuracy
*Higher-quality products
*Improved communications
*Increased efficiency
*Increased productivity
*More efficient administration
*More opportunities
*Reduced labor requirements
*Reduced costs
*Superior financial decision making
*Superior control over operations
*Superior managerial decision making

Networking Basics Explained

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Networking Basics Explained

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KISAN LAW COLLEGE- JAIPUR

A computer network is a group of computers or computer like devices connected together to

Characteristics of a Computer Network

Logical Classification of Computer Networks:

A Peer-to-Peer network has no dedicated Servers. Here in Peer-to-Peer network, a number of

• Everything is kept distributed in different computers.

What is a Server? If a computer has a resource which is served to another computer, it is a

In a Client-Server network, high-end servers, installed with the Network Operating System

Different types of Servers used in networks are listed below.

Application Server: Common computer applications or programs which are required by

Another logical classification of computer networks is Centralized and Distributed Computer

Centralized network model provides following advantages to Network and System

In Centralized network model, Network Resources can be managed more easily

Centralized network model provides better Network Security.

Advantages of Bus Topology

• Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus.

• Requires less cable length than a star topology.

• Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.

• Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.

• Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down.

• Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution.

Most popular and widely used LAN technology Ethernet currently operates in Star Topology.

Advantages of Star Topology

• Easy to install and wire.

• No disruptions to the network when connecting or removing devices.

• Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.

Disadvantages of Star Topology

• Requires more cable length than a linear bus topology.

Mesh Topology is not commonly used these days.

Hybrid topology is a mixture of different topologies. Example is star-bus topology.

A network protocol can be viewed as a common network communication standard, which is

Difference Between Proprietary and Standard Protocols

1) Proprietary Protocol 2) Standard Protocol

By using Internet facility you can:

 Transfer files as well as software (FTP)

 Browse through information on any topic on web (Internet Surfing)

 Search databases of government, individuals and organizations (Information Search).

 Read news available from leading news graps.

GETTING CONNECTED TO INTERNET

Types of Internet connections

Ø Very economic and is widely available

ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network)

Ø Single connection can support both voice and data.

Ø Eight terminals can be connected on a single line.

Ø Signal on ISDN line-voice or data is sent in digital mode,

so less prone to noise, have very high quality service.

Ø A special ISDN line must be installed at the customer’s location.

Ø A special ISDN modem or router is also required.

Direct Internet Access (Leased Line Connection)

DSL (Digital Subscriber Line or Dedicated Service Line) Broadband Connection

Ø Talk and access Internet simultaneously on single line.

Cable (Coaxial Cable)

Wireless Internet Access

Definition: Within a computing or communication device, the distances between different

• Parallel transmission is used for short distance communication.

Advantage of parallel transmission

Disadvantage of parallel transmission

It is costly method of data transmission as it requires n lines to transmit n bits at the same time.

• Serial transmission is used for long distance communication.

Advantage of Serial transmission

Disadvantages of Serial transmission

Types of Serial Transmission

Application of Asynchronous Transmission