Meat Science 85 (2010) 620–624

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Meat Science
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Performance of cold-set binding agents in re-formed beef steaks

A.M. Lennon, K. McDonald, S.S. Moon, P. Ward, T.A. Kenny *
Teagasc, Ashtown Food Research Centre, Ashtown, Dublin 15, Ireland

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Four cold-setting gel-forming binding agents were compared in preparation of re-formed steaks from
Received 19 May 2009 strips of each of two muscles, M. triceps brachii-caput longum (TB) from the shoulder, and M. pectoralis
Received in revised form 18 November 2009 profundus (PP) from the brisket, of steer forequarter. The binding agents, which were commercial prep-
Accepted 11 March 2010
arations, were Activa, containing transglutaminase enzyme as active ingredient, Fibrimex, containing
the blood plasma fractions fibrinogen and thrombin, Textor, containing a modified starch, and alginate,
containing sodium alginate and Ca++. Binding of the cooked steaks and of slices therefrom, was satisfac-
Keywords:
tory for the first three of the above but relatively weak for the alginate agent. Colour of steaks was
Beef
Re-formed
affected by binder, in that Activa and Textor treatments gave lighter, redder and yellower (higher L *,
Binders a*, b* values) steaks than did the other two. Overall acceptability ratings by taste panels corresponded
Cold-set with those for flavour in the case of TB steaks, with Activa and Fibrimex samples scoring highest
(P < 0.05). For the less tender PP steaks, the highest acceptability score was for the Textor samples, reflect-
ing their scoring best for tenderness. Warner–Bratzler shear force values corresponded with tenderness
ratings in that Textor samples had lowest shear values for both muscles, but the differences were not sig-
nificant. The overall conclusion, considering cohesion, appearance, cooking yield and sensory quality of
the products, was that the Activa binder performed best and would facilitate the production of good-
quality chilled re-formed beef steaks from various low-value beef muscles, and without addition of
sodium chloride if so desired.
Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction ing survives through distribution, cooking and subsequent hot

Re-formed beef joints are those that are assembled from pieces
of whole muscle, to form a product which has intact fibres and,
therefore, characteristics of a natural whole-muscle joint. They
differ from re-structured products which are formed from commi-
nuted meat.
Many muscles of the beef forequarter are under – utilised (John-
son et al., 1988; Von Seggern, Calkins, Johnson, Brickler, & Gwart-
ney, 2005). Re-forming of muscles into joints and steaks
(Breidenstein, 1982), rather than including them in braising joints
or consigning them to dicing or grinding, can provide convenience
and more profitable utilisation of the forequarter.
Bonding of muscles in re-formed joints can be achieved by (a)
thermally-induced gelation (as in cooking) of myofibrillar proteins
extracted with salt and phosphate, giving adhesion between meat
pieces, or (b) cold-set binding through chemically-induced gelation
of a bonding agent or (c) a combination of protein extraction and
cold-set binding (Boles & Shand, 1998). The second method (b),
has the advantage that it permits marketing of chilled raw rather
than frozen or pre-cooked re-formed product, provided the bond-
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +353 1 8059500; fax: +353 1 8059550.
E-mail addresses: tony.kenny@teagasc.ie, tkenny14@gmail.com (T.A. Kenny).
and cold slicing (Desmond, Troy, Kenny, McDonagh, & Ward,
2001; Esguerra, 1994). A further advantage accrues if the cold-set
binding agent can function without the addition of salt and phos-
phate which are meeting continued consumer resistance on health
grounds.
Several reports have issued on the application of cold-set bind-
ing agents such as polysaccharides (Ensor, Sofos, & Schmidt, 1990;
Means & Schmidt, 1986; Means & Schmidt, 1987; Johnson, Muller,
Romans, Costello, & Jones, 1990), blood plasma fractions (Boles &
Shand, 1998; Boles & Shand, 1999; Wijngaards & Paardekooper,
1988), microbial transglutaminase enzyme preparation (Kuraishi
et al., 1997; Pietrasik & Li-Chan, 2002) and unique protein com-
pounds (Payne, 2000). The first three types were employed in this
study, while the fourth, unique protein compounds, was
unavailable.
The polysaccharide most used in meat bonding is sodium algi-
nate (Means & Schmidt, 1986), an anionic polysaccharide com-
posed of mannuronic and guluronic acid monomer units. It is
used in combination with a source of divalent cations, e.g. calcium
carbonate supplying Ca++, and a weak acidifier, e.g. glucono-delta-
lactone, to accelerate the release of calcium. Cross-linking to form a
gel occurs between Ca++ ions and the guluronic acid moieties of
alginate. The mechanism whereby this achieves adhesion of meat
pieces is not fully understood, but it has been suggested that a

0309-1740/$ - see front matter Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.meatsci.2010.03.014
 A.M. Lennon et al. / Meat Science 85 (2010) 620–624
polysaccharide-meat protein composite gel is formed and that it
involves electrostatic and hydrogen (rather than covalent) chemi-
cal bonding (Ustunol, Xiong, Means, & Decker, 1992). The electro-
static bonding is indicated also by the fact that the presence of
salt (NaCl) is found to inhibit or, at 2.0–3.0% level, completely pre-
vent the alginate-meat protein gelation. Salt, because of its ionic
nature, could modify the electrostatic interactions between algi-
nate and meat proteins (Ustunol et al., 1992). That gelation pro-
ceeds in the absence of salt and, therefore, without solubilisation
of myofibrillar proteins, must mean that non-myofibrillar meat
proteins, such as myoglobin and sarcoplasmic proteins, can con-
tribute sufficiently to the composite gel.
In the case of the second polysaccharide cold-set bonding agent
tested in this study, i.e. ‘‘Textor” product, information on its com-
position was limited to the indication that the active ingredient
was a modified starch. Accordingly, it can be expected that co-
polymerisation with meat protein is involved in its functioning
as a cold-set binding agent. In such a multi-component system,
protein–polysaccharide, polysaccharide–polysaccharide, protein–
lipid and polysaccharide–lipid interactions may all govern gel net-
work formation and structure (Xu, Stanley, Goff, Davidson, & Le
Maguer, 1992).
A third cold-set binding system tested in the present study was
‘‘Fibrimex” blood plasma – derived product. It comprises extracted
plasma thrombin and fibrinogen (Wijngaards, 1988) and utilises
the blood clotting mechanism. When the two components are
mixed, and applied to the surfaces of meat pieces, the thrombin en-
zyme converts fibrinogen into fibrin. Fibrin molecules become
cross-linked by the action of transglutaminase enzyme (present
in the partially-purified fibrinogen) which also cross-links fibrin
to collagen in the meat. A reported advantage with this binder is
that it functions satisfactorily even where there is a relatively high
level of collagen, which is encountered in several muscles of the
beef forequarter.
The fourth binder examined in the present study was ‘‘Activa
EB” product which contains microbial transglutaminase (MTGase)
enzyme and sodium caseinate, the latter as an additional substrate
to increase cross-linking in the meat and binder matrix (Kuraishi et
al., 1997). The MTGase catalyses the acyl transfer reaction to form
covalent cross-links in proteins and peptides, mainly between glu-
tamine and lysine residues, thus enabling protein aggregation and
gelation to occur. It is active over a wide pH (5–8) and temperature
(2–60 °C) range (Payne, 2000). Its efficiency is affected by the fre-
quency and accessability of glutamine and lysine residues in the
substrate proteins. Myosin is a compatible substrate, but even in
meats where no salt is added and, therefore, no solubilisation
and extraction of myosin from myofibrils occurs, successful bond-
ing is achieved by means of the added caseinate. The latter is a very
good substrate for MTGase because of its flexible and open tertiary
structure. It polymerises during the enzymatic reaction and be-
comes viscous so as to act like an adhesive and bind meat pieces
together (Rastall, 2007).
The objective in this study was to compare the efficiency of
available cold-set binding agents in preparation of re-formed
steaks from each of two muscles, as part of a project on the devel-
opment of added-value products from forequarter beef.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Preparation of steaks
Five forequarters of grade R4L (E.C. Beef Carcass Classification,
1994) from Continental-cross steers under 30 months of age were
obtained at a commercial meat plant. The muscles M. triceps bra-
chii-caput longum (TB), from the commercial ‘‘LMC” (‘‘Leg of Mut-
621
ton”) cut from the shoulder, and the M. pectoralis profundus (PP),
from the brisket, were seamed out from the forequarters. They
were trimmed PAD (prêt-a-decoupé, ready-to-slice)-style, i.e. all
visible external fat and connective tissue were removed, using a
membrane-skinning machine in the meat plant. The muscles were
vacuum packed and aged for 14 days at 0 ± 1 °C. The aged muscles
were cut into flat strips c. 70 mm wide and 20 mm thick, parallel to
the muscle grain, so that when the pieces were laid flat in a rectan-
gular-shaped mould for re-forming the re-formed joint would
resemble a whole muscle, with the grain of the meat pieces aligned
in parallel, so as to allow steaks to be cut across the grain, i.e. to
have the grain (meat fibre direction) perpendicular to the cut steak
surface. The strips of each muscle were allocated randomly in lots
of c. 1400 g to four binder treatments which were applied as fol-
lows, taking suppliers’ instructions into account:
Textor™ MB2AB (Scobie & Junor Ltd.) – The powder, at 4%, and
water, at 15% of weight of meat were blended at high speed for
2 min in a Robot Coupe blender (R301 Ultra), and mixed with the
meat strips for 1 min using a food mixer (Kitchen Aid, Michigan,
USA, Model KPM5). The coated meat pieces were then placed, with
fibres aligned as described above, into moulds (Polimoon Dyno-
pack Ltd., UK) containing polythene lining film. The filled moulds
were vacuum packed in Cryovac bags and stored at 0 ± 1 °C for
24 h to allow bonding to proceed. The formed blocks were then re-
moved from the moulds and sliced into steaks of 25 mm thickness
which were vacuum-packed and stored at 2 °C pending testing and
analysis.
Fibrimex™ (Harimex B.V., The Netherlands) – The components
fibrinogen and thrombin were mixed at a ratio of 10:1 and imme-
diately added to meat strips, at 4% by weight of meat. The meat and
binder were mixed for 30 s in a food mixer, immediately placed in
moulds and taken forward to steak cutting as described above for
the Textor binder.
Alginate – Sodium alginate (Protanal RF 6650, Camida Ltd., Tip-
perary, Ireland) at 0.80% of meat weight, glucono-delta-lactone
(GDL, ADM Cork, Ireland), at 0.40% and calcium carbonate (BDH
Chemicals, Dorset, England) at 0.30% were added dry through a
flour sieve to the meat in a mixer, to achieve uniform distribution,
in the order of GDL, sodium alginate and calcium carbonate. The
total mixing time was 2 min. The meat was immediately packed
into moulds and converted into steaks as described above.
Transglutminase enzyme preparation, Activa EB™ (Ajinomoto Eur-
ope, Hamburg, Germany) – The Activa powder at 1% of meat weight
(50 ppm of enzyme) and water at 5%, were blended in the Robot
Coupe blender at low speed for 1 min and mixed with the meat
pieces for 1 min. The coated meat was re-formed in moulds and
cut into steaks as described above.
2.2. Binding
An objective measurement of bind strength was not possible at
the time of the study. Therefore, binding/cohesion was assessed
subjectively on the raw re-formed steaks, the cooked steaks and
3 mm-thick slices from the cooked steaks by two of the authors.
2.3. Cooking loss
Re-formed steaks were cooked in polypropylene bags in water
to core temperature of 70 °C stored for 12 h at 2 °C, removed from
cooking bags, blotted dry with paper towels and weighed to deter-
mine cooking loss.
2.4. Chemical analysis
From each treatment replicate, two steaks were homogenised in
a Robot Coupe blender and analysed in triplicate. Moisture and fat
622 A.M. Lennon et al. / Meat Science 85 (2010) 620–624

content were determined for each sample using the CEM analysis
system (Bostian, Fish, Webb, & Arey, 1985). Protein content was
determined by the LECO Nitrogen Determinator (Sweeny & Rex-
ford, 1987). Collagen content was calculated from the hydroxypro-
line content which was determined by an established colorimetric
method (Kolar, 1990).
2.5. Sensory quality
2.8. Statistical analysis
The experiment was designed as a 4 (binder treatments)  2
(muscles) factorial, with five replicates (re-formed joints). Data
were analysed using Genstat 5 Release 3.2 (Rothamstead experi-
mental station) analysis of variance. Least significant differences
(P < 0.05) were used to identify differences among treatment
means.

An 8-member panel evaluated cooked steaks. The panel was

chosen from a pool of 14 members of staff experienced in sensory
3. Results and discussion
analysis of beef products. Steaks were grill-cooked to an internal
temperature of 70° and sub-sample strips, 20 mm wide, were pre-
3.1. Chemical composition
sented hot to the panellists. Two preliminary sessions were con-
ducted in order to advise panellists on the characteristics to be
The main feature of the protein content (Table 1) is that it was
evaluated. For the testing proper, four samples, i.e. one from each
lowest (P < 0.001) in Textor-bound samples for both muscles,
of the binder treatments, were presented in each session. Samples
which reflected the greater proportion of water added in this treat-
were rated on descriptive attribute six-point numerical scales
ment. Moisture was highest in the Textor samples, although the
(AMSA, 1995) where 1 = worst and 6 = best. The attributes rated
differences were not all significant. Fat content was relatively
were tenderness, chewiness, residual connective tissue, juiciness,
low in all samples but showed no significant trend.
overall flavour (like or dislike) and overall acceptability. The sam-
The collagen figures (Table 1) show the expected higher level in
ples from each experimental replicate were presented twice, mak-
the, tougher, PP muscle samples, but not any consistent correlation
ing a total of 16 sessions.
with the sensory scores shown in Table 2 for chewiness and con-
nective tissue.
2.6. Warner–Bratzler shear force (WBSF)

Steaks were cooked to 70 °C in plastic bags in a water-bath and

tempered at 4 °C overnight for ease of cutting. Five 12 mm-diame-
ter cores were cut from each steak parallel to the muscle fibre ori-
entation and sheared once across the middle in a Warner–Bratzler
cell which was attached to an Instron Universal Testing Machine
(Model 5543, Instron Corporation) fitted with a 500 N load cell
and operated at a crosshead speed of 50 mm/min.
2.7. Colour
Using a HunterLab Ultrascan XE spectrophotometer, CIE L*
(lightness), a* (redness) and b* (yellowness) were measured on
the cut surface of PVC film-covered 25 mm-thick steaks 1 h after
the steaks were cut from the re-formed joints. Ten measurements
were taken, and the mean calculated, on each of three steaks per
treatment.
3.2. Binding
Binding (cohesion) of the re-formed steaks was satisfactory for
three of the binding agents, but was relatively weak for alginate as
shown by steaks, both raw and cooked, tending to fall apart on
handling. This differs from the finding of Boles and Shand (1999)
that steakettes re-formed with alginate had better (P < 0.05) bind
than Fibrimex steakettes in the raw state, but that the opposite
was the case after cooking. In that study, Fibrimex was added at
10% of meat weight and using a 20:1 ratio of fibrinogen to throm-
bin, giving a similar concentration of thrombin (the critical compo-
nent determining bind strength) in meat to that in our study.
While the binding of cooked Textor steaks was strong, despite
the diluted protein content noted earlier, their texture was also
rubbery, unlike the other samples.

Table 1
Effect of binding agent on composition of re-formed beef steaks.

Treatment M. pectoralis profundus M. triceps brachii

AC AL FI TX AC AL FI TX
% Protein 20.81a 20.98a 22.40b 18.25c 21.78a 21.69a 21.03a 18.95b
Fat 2.63a,b 2.85a 1.78b,c 1.61c 1.06 1.52 1.86 1.27
Moisture 74.53a 73.80a 75.89b 76.91c 75.95a,b 75.31a 76.3a,b 76.9b
Collagen 0.86 0.87 0.88 0.92 0.72a 0.63a,b 0.60b 0.67a,b
a–c
For each muscle, means in a row with uncommon superscripts differ (P < 0.05).

Table 2
Effect of binding agent on cook loss and colour in steaks re-formed from forequarter beef muscles.

Treatmente M. pectoralis profundus M. triceps brachii

AC AL FI TX AC AL FI TX
a a,b a,b b a b b
Cook loss (%) 30.5 27.6 28.8 25.14 31.9 27.5 23.8 24.4b
Colour
L* 42.9a 41.3a,b 39.9b 42.82a 43.6a 41.2b 40.0b 44.3a
a* 17.8a 17.0a 17.9a 17.14 18.3a 15.4b 16.1b 15.7b
b* 13.9a 12.8a 13.3a 13.30 14.7a 11.7b 12.1b 12.9a,b
a–b
For each muscle, means in a row with uncommon superscripts differ (P < 0.05).
e
AC = Activa; AL = alginate; FI = Fibrimex; TX = Textor.
 A.M. Lennon et al. / Meat Science 85 (2010) 620–624 623

Table 3
Effect of binding agent on taste panel ratinge and shear force value for re-formed beef steaks.

Treatment M. pectoralis profundus M. triceps brachii

AC AL FI TX AC AL FI TX
Flavour 3.7a 3.4a 3.5a 3.5a 4.7a 3.19b 4.0c 3.6b
Juiciness 5.1a 3.7b 4.2c 4.9a 4.4a 4.12a 4.8a 4.2a
Tenderness 3.4a 3.3a 3.1a 4.8b 4.3a 4.6a 4.3a 4.8a
Chewiness 2.4a 3.4b 2.9ab 3.4b 3.9ab 3.7a 3.7a 4.5b
RCTf 2.9a 3.2ab 3.3ab 3.6b 4.1a 4.3a 4.3a 4.7a
Overall acceptability 3.2ab 3.0a 3.1ab 3.5b 4.6a 3.7b 4.2ab 3.6b
W–B shear value (N) 46.8a 47.7a 47.0a 38.6a 36.7a 30.1a 32.7a 27.1a
a–c
For each muscle, means in a row with uncommon superscripts differ (P < 0.05).
e
Rating on descriptive attributes six-point scales, where 1 = worst and 6 = best.
f
RCT = Residual connective tissue.

3.3. Cooking loss
Cooking loss was highest for the Activa-bound steaks from both
muscles, higher (P < 0.05) than the three other binders for TB mus-
cle samples and than Textor (P < 0.05) for PP samples (Table 2).
This could be an indication of stronger binding in the Activa steaks,
which would squeeze out more of the water held between (cut)
myofibrils (Offer & Trinick, 1983). In turn, evaporation of this water
in cooking would be facilitated by the physical structure of the
steaks having the meat fibres perpendicular to the steak cut sur-
face (Farouk, Zhang, & Cummings, 2005). Boles and Shand (1999)
found that alginate-bound steakettes had significantly lower cook
loss than Fibrimex steakettes (P < 0.05); in this study no difference
was found between them (Table 2). An expected greater water
binding and, therefore, lower cook loss with the Textor treatment,
due to its modified starch content, was not found.
3.4. Colour
The main features were that Activa and Textor treatments gave
lighter, redder and yellower steaks than did alginate and Fibrimex,
significantly (P < 0.01) so in the case of TB muscle (Table 2). There
was no difference between the alginate and Fibrimex samples.
Boles and Shand (1999) found that Fibrimex steakettes were light-
er, redder and yellower than those made with alginate (P < 0.05).
3.5. Sensory testing
Ratings for overall flavour by the taste panels showed differ-
ences between treatments for TB but not for PP muscle (Table 3).
For the former, the Activa-bound samples were rated best in fla-
vour (P < 0.05) and the alginate samples worst.
Juiciness was affected by treatment in the case of PP muscle but
not TB. For the former, the Activa- and Textor-bound samples
scored higher (P < 0.05) than both alginate and Fibrimex samples
(Table 3). This could be expected because of the added water re-
quired in preparation of the Activa and Textor binders. The alginate
samples were rated least juicy, significantly so in the case of the PP
muscle, which could also be expected because the alginate ingredi-
ents were added in dry form.
Tenderness score was highest (best) for the Textor treatment,
which involves most added water, but the difference was signifi-
cant only for the less tender of the two muscles, i.e. PP. A corre-
sponding trend is evident in the scores for chewiness and
residual connective tissue (for which a higher score denotes a les-
ser degree of chewiness or content of connective tissue).
Overall acceptability ratings reflected those for flavour for TB
steaks, with Activa samples scoring highest. Within the less tender
PP steaks, the highest acceptability score was for the Textor sam-
ples, corresponding to their scoring best for tenderness and resid-
ual connective tissue. However, there were some adverse
comments by panellists on Textor samples (such as ‘‘slightly sour
flavour” and ‘‘texture jelly-like”) and alginate samples (e.g. ‘‘bland”
and ‘‘lacking uniformity in texture”). There were no unfavourable
comments on Activa or Fibrimex samples.
3.6. Objective measurement of tenderness
The Warner–Bratzler shear force values (Table 3) confirmed the
trend in tenderness ratings by the taste panels, in that the PP mus-
cle steaks had higher shear values than TB samples, and that, with-
in muscles, the Textor samples were lowest in shear value
(indicating greatest tenderness). However, the latter differences
were not statistically significant. The W–B shear values also possi-
bly bench-mark the steaks against established values for whole-
muscle beef steaks, for which results in the literature indicate that
values below 50 N, as found for the PP samples, denote acceptable
tenderness, and values in the range 27–37 N, as found for the TB
samples, denote very tender steaks. However, such comparison be-
tween values for re-formed steaks and those published for whole
muscles may not be valid in view of the large variability in shear
force measurement from different protocols (AMSA, 1995).
4. Conclusions
The study showed that three out of four cold-set binders tested
gave satisfactory binding in re-formed steaks prepared from beef
forequarter muscles from the shoulder and brisket. While the bind-
ers gave differences in colour, texture and cook yield of the prod-
ucts, taste panels rated them all as having overall acceptability.
Taking combined results for binding, appearance, cooking yield
and sensory quality into account, it was concluded that the Activa
binder performed best and the alginate worst. Moreover, the algi-
nate system is restricted to salt-free products as discussed in the
Introduction, while the Activa MTGase binder can function effec-
tively without added salt, as in this study, or in enhanced re-
formed products where brine is added, as reported in a separate
study by these authors (Lennon, Moon, Ward, O’Neill, & Kenny,
2006).
It should be noted that the muscles used would normally be
subjected to mechanical tenderisation if intended for re-forming
into steaks. This was not done because the main purpose at that
stage was to select one binding agent for use in further product
development trials. For that reason also, it was not appropriate
to include a control, e.g. striploin (M. l. dorsi) steak, in the compar-
ison of samples by the taste panels.
Acknowledgements
The study was funded by the Irish National Development Plan
under the Food Institutional Research Measure. Author Moon’s
624 A.M. Lennon et al. / Meat Science 85 (2010) 620–624
participation was supported by the Post-doctoral Fellowship Pro-
gram of Korea Science and Engineering Foundation (KOSEF).
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