UDC 624.072.2.012.4:620.19l.
33
Crack initiation in plain concrete
P. F. Walsh, BE, PhD, MIEAust
C O M M O N W E A L T HS C I E N T I F I CA N DI N D U S T R I A LR E S E A R C HO R G A N I Z A T I O N
SYNOPSIS
A t the t@ of a sharp crack or re-entrant notch, the
stresses calculated by a simple elastic analysis become
infinite. Consequently,maximum-stress or -strain failure
criteria and stress-concentration factors cannot be used
to predict failure at such points. The linear elastic frac-
ture mechanics theory can, however, be applied. In the
paper, a brief treatment of the application of this theory
to sharp cracks in concrete beams is presented and the
effect of beam size is particularly examined. The same
basic technique is applied to re-entrant notches. Experi-
mental evidence of the validity of the approach is given.
Theoretical results are included which allow these test
data to be extended to a wide range of notch conjigura-
tions. It is expected thatthis work will have considerable
importance for the problem of crack initiation at corners
of openings in walls etc.
Introduction
Inplainconcretestructures,crackinitiation and
propagationare obvious design considerations. In
reinforced concrete, aesthetics and functional require-
ments may also promote crack avoidance to a major
design problem. Since the initial cracking of a rein-
forced concrete structureis only marginally affected by
thereinforcement,thecrackinitiationbehaviour of
plain concrete becomes important.
A maximum-tensile-stress approach may be used to
calculatethestrength of simple elements. Thisap-
proach cannot be applied to sharp cracks or notches
such asthose showninFigure 1 . Atre-entrant
notches, for example at corners of openings in walls,
or at the tip of an existing crack, the calculated stresses
become infinite and simple methods break down. For
sharp zero-angle cracks, the theory of linear fracture
mechanics has been applied to concrete by Kaplan(l),
Welch and Haisman(*), Brown(3) and others. In this
: DIVISION O F B U I L D I N GR E S E A R C H
paper,adual ductile-brittle failurecriterion is sug-
gested for sharpcracks and it is demonstrated thatthis
correlates well with theexperimental results. More
significantly, it is shown that the same approach can
be applied to crack initiation at re-entrant notches.
This hypothesisis confirmed by experimental evidence.
Calculated results are presented which make it pos-
sible to apply the theory to a wide range of problems.
Itshould be emphasized that this paper deals with
macro- or structural cracks and notches in concrete
and not microcracks in the concrete matrix.
Failure criteria
The theory of linear fracture mechanics has been
extensively treated in the literature,and so only a brief
discussion of some of the aspects relevant to this study
is given here. In alinearelastic analysis of a two-
dimensional symmetrical specimen, the stresses in the
region of the tipof a zero-angle crack can be expressed
by equations such as
CS = K,r-*f(O).............. .(I)
where r and 0 are polarco-ordinates with respect to an
origin at the crack tip, as shown in Figure 1.
An important aspect of this equation is that the
function, f(O), is independent of the specimen or load-
ing geometry. Consequently, it is reasonable to form-
ulate the failure criterion for propagationof an existing
crack in terms of the load- and geometry-dependent
term K,, the stress-intensity factor.Thisfailure cri-
terion may be written simply as
Kl = . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(2)
KIc..
where KIc, the critical stress-intensity factor, is a ma-
terial property much the same as modulus of rupture
or crushing strength are material properties, and must
be determined from experimental studies.
31
Magazine of Concrete Research : Vol. 28, No. 94 :March 1976
+ +
.+ + formed cracks and the otheron beams with right-angle
(a) Sharp (b) Re-entrant
Figure I : Types of crack or notch.
To apply this equation, it is also necessary to know
the relationship between K I and the loads. This is a
stress analysis problemand standardsolutions, as well
as numericalprocedures for solving new configura-
tions, are available (see Paris and Sih(4) and W a l ~ h ' ~ ) ) . for the particular specimen geometry was found to be
For isotropic material properties, the stresses near
the root of a right-angled notch can be expressed (see
Leicester(6)) as
B = K A *-@45 f*(O). . . . . . . . . . . . .
.( 3 ) imation to thecritical
As this equation is essentially the same as equation 1,
the concepts of linear elastic fracture mechanics can
be extended to the initiation of cracks at right-angled
notches. The resultingfailureconditionmaybe
pressedinterms of K,, theprimary stress-intensity
factor, by
K , = KAc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..(4)
Again, the problemsof determining KAc, the critical
stress-intensity factor, from tests and K A from stress
analysis remain. In this case, very limited information
on thedetermination of K A is currentlyavailable,
except that given in a previous paper(5).
The validity of the failure criterion in equations 2
and 4 depends upon theextent of microcracking, slow
crackgrowthorother inelasticbehaviournear
crack tip. If the specimen is large enough, the zone of
stress disturbance can be considered to be surrounded
by an area in which the stresses are substantially in
accordance with the ideal stress distribution. Under
these conditions, linear fracture mechanics will apply.
In otherwords, the crackingloadcanbe based on
simplelinearfracture mechanics if the specimen is
sufficiently large.
On the other hand, if the specimen is small in rela-
tion to the zone of microcracking or 'yielding', equa-
tion l does not hold at failure and the failure becomes
38
almost insensitive to the stress concentration at the
notch. As a limiting case, the strength could be calcu-
lated from a plastic stress distribution on the net sec-
tionandthe yield strength. For concrete, this is
equivalent to using ,.q the stress calculated from a
linear distribution, and c,-, the modulus of rupture.
The failure criterion is then:
ON = 0, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .( 5 )
Experimental studies
The experimental programmeconsisted of two series
of tests:one on beams with sharp, zero-angle, pre-
re-entrant notches. Full details of the sharp cracked
beams have been reported previously('), and only cer-
tain aspects of the results will be discussed here. The
geometry of the specimens is given in Figure 2. The
principal experimental variables were mix proportions
and specimen size. All mixes were chosen to represent
fairly conventional concrete and the maximum aggre-
gate size was 20 mm. Tests were conducted at 28 days
after casting.
From a finite-element stress analy~is'~), the relation-
ship between the stress-intensity factor and the load
KI = 0.80,at.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(6)
where oN = 3P/ba with the notation in Figure 2.
From an analysis of the test data, a good approx-
stress-intensity factor was
deduced as
K,, = 5 m N mm-l". . . . . . . . . . . .(7)
ex- where F,' is the cylinder compressive strength.
The brittle failure criterion, as given by equations 6
and 7, and the ductilefailurecriterion, specified in
equation 4, are comparedwiththe individual test
results in Figure 3. The ordinates in this Figureare the
ratio of oN, thenominalfailure stress, to G, the
modulus of rupture or unnotched strength. The ab-
scissae are the sizes of the specimen non-dimension-
alized by division by a,, the size for which the theoret-
ical notched and unnotched strengths are equal.(From
equations 6 and 7, a, = 39F,'/oc2.)The Figure shows
that the dual failure conditions very accurately reflect
the the actual behaviour of the tests. In particular,the
effect of specimen sizeis clearly in accord with the
theoretical effect; the nominal stress at failure, cN, is
inversely proportional to the square root of the size.
Further discussion of this aspect was given by
Leicester(6).
If tests are being carried out to determine the frac-
ture toughness, the size of the specimen is clearly im-
portant. For properfracturetoughness testing, the
beam must be of sufficient depth so that the crack
length is substantially greater than, say twice, the transi-
tional value, a,. The transitional crack length for the

P ?.P
4
Figure 2 : Proportions of experimental beam with a zero-angle
crack.
a -0
N- C re-entrant notches.
O 0 -7 n
1 4
a/o, (log scale)
Figure 3: Relationship between test results and theory for the
beams with zero-angle crack.
specimen reported in Figure 2 ranged from 36 to 45
mm. This suggests that, for valid toughness testing,
the depth of a notched beam should be not less than
230 mm. This casts serious doubts on the validity of
the work of Kaplan and Welch, who tested beams of
75 and 100 mm depth, and in part explains their incon-
sistent results. It may also be expected that slow crack
growth would be insignificant with the larger speci-
mens;the effects of slow crackgrowth were not
included in the analyses of the tests reported here.
The initiation of cracking at a re-entrant notch in a
concretemember was also the subject of asimilar
experimentalinvestigation.Threegroups of tests at
different concrete strength levels were conducted on
specimens geometrically similar in elevation. Batches
of commercial transit-mixed concrete with a maximum
aggregate size of 20mm were used. The notched beam
specimens, oftheproportionsshowninFigure 4,
ranged in over-all length from 0.45 to 5.4 m and were
loaded in three-point bending. The thickness of the
specimens was constant at 40 mm except for thelargest
Crack initiation in plain concrete
a 0
0 20 0
Figure 4 : Proportions of experimental beam with right-angle
0
1 10
o/a. (log scale)
Figure 5 : Relationship between test results and theoryfor the
beams with right-angle re-entrant notches.
beam which, for constructional reasons, was fabricated
with a thickness of 100 mm. All specimens failed with
a crack emanating from the notch root at an initial
angle of approximately 45". Details of the test strengths
are presented in Table 1 together with data from the
control tests, which were conductedinaccordance
with the Australian Standard(*).
For this shape of specimen, the stress-analysis
formula for KA was numerically determined as
ICA = . . . . . . . . . . . .(8)
From the results of the tests on the largest beams,
the brittle fracture criterion was determined as
KAc = 1.9@ N mm-1'55. . . . . . . . . .(9)
The ductile-brittle failure criteria are compared with
the individual test results in Figure 5 in the same man-
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Magazine of Concrete Research : Vol. 28, No. 94 :March 1976

T A B L E 1 : Experimental results for beams with T A B L E 2 : Results for stress intensity factors for

1
right-angle notches. specimens with right-angle notches.
I I
Cylinder Modulus Nominal Case
compressive of Splitting Depth of failure (see
strength, rupture, strength notch, stress, Figure 6)
l l I
FC' OC ON

(Nimm') (Nimm*) (Nimm') (mm) W/rnmz) 2 0.44

4 0.33 0.5
l 2.78 8 0.33
2 0.54
1 4 4 l .o 0.41
8 0.40
2 0.53
13.2 3.40
I 2oo 1 1.80
4
8
2.0 0.47
0.45

1 300 l 1.72
1.95
2
4 0.5
0.20
0.20
8 0.20
-
2 0.18
2 4 4 1 *o 0.18
35.0 4.78 2.12 8 0.18
1600 1.04
2 0.17
l l 5.43 4 2.0 0.17
8 0.15

3
68.0 9.07
5.62 l 2oo l 4.37
3.94 l I I

i 4

ner as described previously. Once again there isa good

5
correlation of theory with test for what couldbe con-
sidered a rather intractable problem. A special feature
of thefracture mechanicsapproachisthecorrect
l I I
assessment of the influence of specimen size. For the
*ON = P/W
largest beam, the strength was only 22% of the un-
notched strength, i.e. 22% of the strength of a pris-
matic beam of depth a in Figure 4. This scale effect
cannot be explained in terms of weakest-link-volume-
at-risk theories because in each case the failure point
is localized at the notch root. Conclusions
The application of this technique to general prob- The fracture strength for crack propagation of an
lems of re-entrant notches requires notonly thefailure existing crack and crack initiationat a re-entrant notch
conditions of equations 5 and 9 but also stress analysis can be based on simple ductile-brittle failure criteria.
solutions. For the structural configurations given in The ductile failure criterion is given by a limit of the
Figure 6 , a set of standard solution^'^) is given in nominal stress on the net section to the modulus of
Table 2. These solutions may beused to determine the rupture. The brittle fracture strength is defined by a
load at which cracks can be expected at the corners of critical value forthe stress-intensity factor. Simple
re-entrant notches. The presence of reinforcement is formulae for thecritical stress-intensity factor in terms
not expected to influence the crackingload signifi- of cylinder strength can be found and their accuracy
cantly and may be ignored in such calcuIations. is confirmed by test results.
40
 Crack initiation in plain concrete

An important aspect of fracture at sharp cracks or

or re-entrant notches is the marked influence of speci-
men size. This can have considerable effect upon the
validity of extrapolations to real structures from the
Il I -
c
I performance of laboratory-scale tests. Ingeneral, large
notched structures crack at lower stresses and cracks
( a ) Case I
will penetrateproportionallyfurther.This may in-
fluence strength results by diminishing the contribution
ZL I _
5 of uncracked concrete to the ultimate strength of the
member.

REFERENCES
1. KAPLAN, M . F. Crack propagation and the fracture of con-

(b) Case 2 crete. Journal of the American Concrete Institute. Proceedings

Vol. 5 8 , No. 5 . November 1961. pp. 591-610.
2. WELCH, G . B. and HAISMAN, B . Fracturetoughnessmeasure-
ments of concrete. Kensington, University of New South
Wales,January1969.UNICIVReportNo.R42.pp. 17 + 13.
3. BROWN, J. H . Measuring the fracture toughness of cement
paste and mortar. Magazine of Concrete Research. Vol. 24,
No. 81.December 1972.pp. 185-196.
4. PARIS, P. c. and SIH, G. c. M. Stress analysis with cracks.
Fracture toughness testing and its applications. Philadelphia,
(c) Case 3 American Society for Testing and Materials, 1964.ASTM
Special Technical Publication No.381.pp. 30-83.
5. WALSH, P. F. Linear fracture mechanics solution for zero and
right-angle notches. Melbourne, CSIRO, 1974.pp. 16.Divi-

R
c sion of Building Research Technical Paper (second series)
-3-
L No. 2.
2p
c 6. LEICESTER, R. H. Effect of size on the strength of structures.
Melbourne,CSIRO, 1973. pp. 13. Division of Building
Research Technological Paper No. 71.
7. WALSH, P . F. Fracture of plain concrete. The Zndian Concrete
Journal. Vol. 46,No. 11. November 1972.pp. 469-470,476.
8. STANDARDS ASSOCIATION OF AUSTRALIA. AS 1012, 1972.
Methods of testing concrete. Sydney. Part 9: Determination
of compressive strengthof concrete specimens. pp. 11. Part
IO: Determination of indirect tensile strength of concrete
cylinders (“Brazil” or splitting test). pp. 9. Part 11 : Deter-
mination of flexuralstrengthofconcrete flexure test
specimens.pp. 7.

(e) Case 5
Figure 6 : Panels with re-entrant notches. Various possible Contributions discussing the above paper should be in the hands
configurations. of the Editor not later than 30 June 1976.

41