Computer Aided Design

116
Surfaces and 3olids
of anobject can take different forms, depending on the choice of fractal representatin
119
Fractal objects are described with a procedure that specifies repeated operation in order model and three-dimensional geormetric model
as two-dimensional geometric A three

produce detais in the object subparts Theoretically. they are represented by

that repeat an infinite number of times. But for practical purpose, graphics
procedu Himensional
dim geometric model can be implicitly classified as
display of naturalal (A) line model (wire frame model)
objects are generated with a finite number of steps. (B) Surface model.
Fractal generated by repeatedly applying a specified transformation function
objects are
(C) Solid model (volume model) Refer Fig. 4.12
to points within a region of space. For example, if
P, (x, y, 2) is a selected initial point
=
The line model is commonly referred as wireframe representation. The reframe
then each successive interaction of a transformation function F will
generate successiva model representation contains only vertex and edge information. The complete mode! is
levels of details with the calculation constructed by line entity, with the end coordinates of lines having well defined connectivity
P= FP) relationships.Thus, line is the smallest drawing entity in wireframe model. An inherent
disadvantage in this type of model is that if the model is complicated, it becomes ambiguous
P2 FP)
P = FUP2) and difficult to understand. For complex models, a large number of lines may overiap each
ather. Hence, wireframe model is not suitable to represent solids with complex geometrical
and so on. The transformation function can be defined in terms geometric
transformations
such as translation, rotation, scaling. shear etc., or it can be nonlinear coordinate
shapes. Also, it cannot be used to calculate volumetric properties such as mass and moment
tions and decision parameters. As already discussed, for practical purpose, transformation
transforma of inertia. Most of the solid modeling software such as AutoCAD, Pro/E etc. provided option
for wireframe representation of solid model. refer as flg 4.12 (a)
IS carried out a finite number of times only such that objects displayed on screen have
finite Surface modelling refers to creating a graphics object model by using surfacesA
dimensions. As the number of transformations are increased, more and more details are surface model is made by joining surfaces to form a completely closed body object. Hence
visible ie.
procedural representation approaches a true fractal. The following figure shows in surface modelling, the smallest drawing entity is surface. The
type of surface used for
graphical image of a fractal object used to represent snowflakes surface modelling may be plane surface such as the one shown in figure 3.20(6) or it may
Each segment in 4.11 (a) is replaced by an exact copy of entire figure, shrunk by a factor
be ruled surfaces (rotated curved surfaces), quadric, superquadric surfaces or even more
of 3. The same process is applied to segments in 4.11 (b) to generate those in 4.11 (). complex ones like Bezier surface, B-spline surface etc. Unlike wireframe models, surface
models are not ambiguous in external shape and give a clear representation of the solid
object as far as external views are required. However, these to have some inherent limitations.
Surface models cannot give any information on internal shape and features of an object
Hence, interior detailing is not possible. They ca:not be used to calculate mass, moment
(a) (6) (C) of inertia, centre of gravity of the object. Surface modelling is not suitable where generating
Fig. 4.11. Fractal object that can be used to show snowflakes. NCICNC part program and tool path generation is required. Surface modelling is more
useful in applications such as designing sheet metal components and modeling of car
The degree of fragmentation (or the amount of roughness) in fractal object can be bodies etc. Design softwares such as Pro/E, CATIA, solid works etc. provide easy to use
expressed by a number called fractional dimensions. The extent of details of the fractal Surface modelling modules for this purpose.
image depends upon the number of iteration performed and the resolution of the display
Solid modelling, also sometimes referred as volume modelling, is the most widely used
system Obviously, one cannot display detail variations that are smaller than the size of a approach for representing solids as it gives complete description of the solid. A sold model
pixel can be used to generate internal details and cross-sectional views. Hidden line removal is
possible using solid modelling. Moreover, solid model can be used to calculate mass. centre
4.9 SOLIDS
of gravity, moment of inertia and other geometrical properties. Solid model can be used for
downstream manufacturing planning applications such as automatic cutting tool path
With advent of computers, CAD packages have
the
become an implicit tool with designers
to aid in product conceptualisation and representation of three-diniensional objects. Broadly. generation etc. A solid model can be generated by a number of technique. We shall study
this representation is called geometric modelling. Geometric models can be categorised solid rmodelling in detail in the next section.refer as fig 4.12 (c)
120 Computer Aided Design Surfaces and Solids

visualisation.
aDpropriate computer graphics
Let us understand the need of solid modelling

(1) Need for Analysis the solid model

volume of
(A) To evaluate surfaces area and
(B) To evaluate mass and inertia properties.
ia Line Model b) Surface Model r) Solid Model (C) For interierence checking in assemblies
Fig. 4.12. (D) Analysis of tolerance build up in assemblies.
other related components.
(E) Analysis of kinematics of machine components, robots and
4.9.1 Solid Modelling Characteristics (F) Automatic mesh generation for finite element analysis.
Solid modelling is a tool for generating a 3-Dimensional
representation of an object,. (2) In Drafting Application
Most of the applications in CAD softwares contain modules
(or tasks) for creating solid (A) Automatic planner cross sectioning.
part model geometry. These models can be used for many downstream applications such (B) Automatic hidden lines and surface removal.
as drafting 2-D drawing, interference studies, mass
properties calculation, kinematic analysis, (C) Automatic production of shaded images
stress analysis, manufacturing, assembly and other applications. Advanced CAD softwares (D) Automatic dimensioning.
like IDEAS, PRO/E, Catia solidwords, solidedge etc. are designed to facilitate a
concurrent
engineering approach to mechanical engineering product design and analysis. These (E) Automatic creation of exploded views for technical illustrations
packages allow different groups in a company to share solid model and design geometry (F) Automatic projections in different ways.
and exchange information freely for a variety of applications. (3)Manufacturing
A CAD solid modelling system should satisfy the following requirements : (A) Parts classification.

(1)RIGIDITY: A solid model should have unchangable, uniform

shape independent of objects location and orientation.
configuration and (B) Process planning
(C) Numerical control data generation and verification.
(2) HOMOGENEOUS A 3-D model should have homogeneous interiors and solid (D) Robot program generation.
boundry. (4) Production Engineering
(3) FINITE VOLUME A solid model must occupy some finite space.
(A) Preparation of Bill of Materials
(4) FINITE DESCRIPTION A solid model must be of finite size and should have a
finite number of faces so that it can be correctly presented by the computer.
(B) Materials Requirement Planning (MRP)
(C) Manufacturing resource requirement.
While preparing solid models of a component we must keep in mind the final objectives
(D) Scheduling.
for which the model will be used. For example, the model may be used to calculate mass,
volume and surface area of the solid, moment of inertia about various axes or position (5) Inspection and Quality Control
of its centroid. We may also wish to know how the object will move or deform under (A) Generation of data for inspection machines such as CMM (coordinate
measuring
specified forces, or how heat transfer can take place when applied
to some heat source. machine).
for its density,
To compute mass, the CADICAM engineer has to assume appropriate value (B) Comparison of produced part with respect to designed part
Visual effects have to be set Various methods have been developed to generate a 3-D solid model Two most
for deformation, value of modules of elasticity is required.
texture of part surface. Thus we can Commonly used techniques are
based on optical nature of the material and by the
to provide an accurate description of geometry
say that basic purpose of solid model is (1) Constructive solid geometry (CSG) or (C-rep)
various material properties
of the component. in addition, it should be possible to specify (2) Boundry representation (B Rep)
of engineering application, and for
and other visual inpuls needed to facilitate prediction Let us now study various techniques used to represent solhd models in computer graphics
122 Computer Aided Design
Surfaces and Solids
4.9.2Constructive Solid Geometry (CsG) 123
Irn
constructive sold geometry, a solid
object is created by combining the volumes Figure 4.15 shows a block and a cylinder
occupied by overiapping three-dimensional objects called
The Boolear operations used are union, primitives using Boolean operations.
intersection or difference. The primitives used
CSG are simple 3-D objects such as
cones, pyramids, cylinders, blocks, spheres,
by
wedge etc. Figure 4.13 shows example for forming new torus,
shapes using Boolean operation.

Fig. 4.15.

With a union operation the result is a single solid object incorporating all the space
Fig. 4.13. Combining
two primitives, a cone and a hemisphere using Occupied by each one of the individual components. Refer figure 4.16.
union
operation produces a new object.
in the figure a cone and a hemisphere are placed
adjacent to each other. On applying
the union operation, a combined object is obtained as shown in Fig. 4.13(b).

Readymade primitives are provided in most of the packages which can be given suitable
dimensions. Otherwise the primitives themselves can be formed using construction commands
like sweep., blend, extrude, revolve or their likes. To create a new three dimensional solid
using CSG method, two primitives are dragged into a region of space and given a suitable
orientation with respect to each other. Then a suitable Boolean operation is used to combine
the volumes of two primitives. Now more primitives can be added one by one to this new
solid to get the final shape. An object designed using this method can be represented by
a binary trees. An example of binary tree representation for an object generated by CSG
technique is shown in Fig. 4.14.
Fig. 4.16.
CSG With difference operation the result is a single solid incorporating the space which is
object
oCcupied by the first component minus the space occupied by the other component
Refer figure 4.17.

ocr1
opor 2

.
obj 1
obj 2 obj 3 obË

Fig. 4.14. Binary tree.

Fig. 4.17.

When two or more primitives are combined with intersection operation, the resuit is a
124 Computer Aidod Design Surfaces and Solids

single solid incorpoi ating the space which is in commonly used to implement CSG operalions. In this
occupied by both the primitives. Refer Fig. 4.18 A technique called Ray-casting
a plane called "firing plane'
is assumed corresponding to pixel plane of a video
method, are fired from each pixel position through
the objects
monitor. From this firing plane, rays This helps in determining the surface
are to be combined using Boolean operation.
that to distance
and to sort the intersection points according
nterseclion intersections along each ray path are determined by the
the firing plane. Now the surface limits of the composite objects
from
set operation. An example of ray casting
technique for determination of surface
Specified
timits for the CSG object
it given in figure 4.21(a)

Pig. 4.18.

For a CSG application, the

primitives may by provided by the CAD
package
Firing Plane
itself or the primitives may be developed
using two common techniques
Extr de. Refer figure 4 19(a). Figure 4. 19(a) shows extruding a section through Sweep and
a thickness

Extrud

(b) Fig. 4.21. (c) Ray casting technique for generating CSG objects
Fig. 4.19.

Figure 4.20 shows sweeping a section along a specified path.

- object 2

object 1-
Section 4-Path Pixel Ray
->

Sweep
Firing
Plane

Fig. 4.22. (b) Deternmining the surface limits and volume using ray casting technique

of the solid model as shown

Fig 1.20. Ray casting technique is also used to determine volume
126
Computer Aided Design
Suriaces and Solids
in
Fig. 4.22(b). For this the 127
squares with firing plane can be
divided into any large number of g4. Sweep representation
known area. Once
a
technique, the volume over the the thickness of the object is determined using small sized sweeping an object or a cross-section along
squares can be ray-casting specified trajectory through space, forms
a
In ray
casting, as a hypothetical ray is sent added to find the total volume. apw
ne objectoften called sweep. This
technique can be used for
be used to
locate points on the out from each screen
pixel position, it can have translational, rotational or other symmetries. For example, creating 3-D objects that

possible to decide whether or surface of the solid models. ated by a 2D cross-section being swept along normal to
a
simple sweep can be
not a pixel has Using this technique, it is plane of cross-section area It
the colour to be to be set
bright, the value known
is k as translational
sweep or extrusion. Figure 4.24 illustrates a
with a grOup of
given to that
pixel. The technique has also been
on a grey scale or translational sweep
solve visible
overlapping objects, such as models of machinesuccessfully used to deal
surface problem. tool
nearest to the screen.
According to the technique, that surface assemblies etc. to
is visible which
For example, the single ray shown in is
object at 1 and A, then object 2 at figure above, first intersects Direction
B, then again object 1 at C and
distance from the
the colour of the surface
screen to the intersected surfaces
nearest to the screen.
are
object 2 at D. The
computed. Then the pixel is set to O of sweep

4.9.3. Boundry Circular cross-section

Representation (B-rep) Cylindrical rod
Refer Fig. 4.23. B-rep is another Fig. 4.24. A cylindrical rod constructed from translational
method for generating a solid model sweep of circular cross-section.
is described by the in which a solid
elements which form its Rotational sweep is created
a set of surfaces boundary. Boundry representation is done by rotating a cross-section about an axis. Figure 4 25
that enclose the
object's interiors. The graphics systems store all by ilustrates rotational sweep.
descriptions as a set of polygon surfaces. Linear object
mathematically. This simplifies and speeds ups equations are used to describe the surfaces The object being swept may not necessarily be a 2D cross-section. Sweeps of solids

representation may precisely define the surfacerendering

and display of can be useful in modeling and determining the region swept out
objects. A polygon robot end by effector
features. In other applications, wireframe followingsome programmed trajectory or by machine tool
cutting head. Any axis can be
representation may be used.
chosen in case of rotational sweep. If the axis in perpendicular to the
The coordinates of the model plane of cross-section,
have to be arranged a two dimensional shape is created. But if the
Different types of using an appropriate data structure. cross-section has some depth, a three
data structure used to store the coordinates are enumerated below: dimensional object is created. More advanced
applications
of sweep include change in
1. Edge is a function of a cross-section shape
start vertex and a finish vertex, and or size from one end of sweep to the other, sweep
surface is the function along some non
of a set of n edges, ie. E =
f (V. V) ands= f(E, E2. Eg. E)
linear curve function etc.
2. A surface is a function of a
set of n vertices, and
vertex and a finish vertex, ie. S
an
edge is a function of a start
3. A surface is a function ofn
f = (V,. V2. V3 . . .

V,) and E =
f (V, V).
vertices, and an edge in a function of two
surfaces, i.e. S f
intersecting
=
(V, V2, V. V) and E =f (S,, S)
Often, more sophisticated data structure such as linked list more practical choice.

1-
Fig. 4.23. Boundry representation technique.
Axis of
rotation
Fig. 4.25. A washer created by rotational sweep.
 Surfaces and Solids

128 Computer Alded Dosign

cells.
using cubic
4.9.5. Spatial Partitioning Representation modelled
This is another technique for representing the solids in which a solid is further
into a number of closely spaced,
subdivided
non-intersecting smaller solids or cells. These cells may
or may not be of same type as the original solid. In fact, they may vary in size, type
and
orientation. Depending upon the way solid must behave in order to perform the desired
there are two main methods by which spatial-partitioning
task
representation is accomplished
cell decomposition and spatial-occupancy enumeration.

4.9.5.1. Cell Decompositioning

It is one of the most commonly used technique of spatial partitioning. It decomposes the enumeration
solid into set of 4.27. A world formed by cubic cells using spatial occupancy
a primitive cells that are parameterized (varying in few parameters). Cell Fig.
decomposition makes
of bottom up construction in which complex shapes are
use
created
from simple primitives by sticking them 4.10 COLOURS
together but the cells must not intersect while
upon capabilities
sharing single point, edge or face. Cell decomposition has potential use in finite element Various intensity level options are provided to a user, depending
colours and
of
analysis in which, system to be analysed is descretized or divided into smaller elements Raster Scan system provides a wide range
and design objectives of a particular system.
a few colour options. These colours
are
colours while random scan monitors provide only
called finite elements with the condition
that the
elements should not overlap each other.
For CRT monitors, these colour codes a r e then
An example of cell decomposition being used to
generate a solid is shown in figure 4.26. given some codes usually positive integers. electron beam. For other output devices like
The solid in figure 4.26(b) is created by sticking primitives in
figure 4.26(a) at flat faces. converted into intensity level settings for the
colour plotter or printer, the codes could control inkjet deposits or pen selections.
In a raster system some memory storage is
in the frame buffer. This memory storage per
provided corresponding to each
pixel decides number of
pixel the
colour choices available. Colour information is stored in frane buffer in either of the two ways
1. Colour codes are directly stored in the frarme buffer.
(a)
(b)
2. Put colour codes in a separate table and use fixed values as an index into this table
Fig. 4.26. Cell decomposition technique. At least 3 bits per pixel are desired for a minimum no. of colours. Each of the 3 bit
positions are used to control the intensity level (either on or off) of the corresponding
4.9.5.2. Spatial Occupancy Enumeration electron gun in an RGB monitor

technique of spatial partitioning representation analogous to cell decomposition but TABLE 4.1. Eight colour codes for 3 bit per pixal frame
t is
the difference is that, in spatial occupancy enumeration, the solid is subdivided into exactly
cells arranged in a fixed regular grid. These cells or volume elements are called
Colour Stored colour values in Displayed
identical
Various solid shapes such as cube, pyramid, prism etc. can be used as voxels but
code frame buffer corresponding to colours
vOxels. Red Green Blue
the most commonly used type is the cube. Representation of solid as
Is known as cuberille.
regular array of cubes
O Black
Spatial occupancy enumeration is an approximation technique.
0 1 Blue
For creating solid model using spatial occupancy enumeration, CAD engineer
has to
conirol the presence or absence of a cell at various iocations of the model so as to give Green
ta shape, as close as possible to the real object. For example, if a sphere is approximated Cyan
by cubic cels, true shape of sphere cannot be achieved. This is an obvious disadvantage
of
Red
spalial occupancy enumeration although the shape can be improved by reducing the size
of cell and increasing the
O 1 Magenta
number of cells. It is easy to determine whether a cell lies inside
or

outside a solid Parts with Yellow

orthogonal walls as surface boundaries can be accuratey
1 White
130 Computer Aided Design Surfaces and Solids
131

Colour look up table Projection plane

Projection
- Projection of plane
Line on the plaDe Projection
of Line

Lineentity
5 Line entity

6
Projectors

A colour look up table with 3 bits Centre of

per pixel proyection
Projector
4.11 3D VIEWING
(a) Parallel projection (b) Perspective projection
In computer graphics, generating a 3D view of solid model is far more complex as compared Fig. 4.32.
to 2D view. This is because the solid model has three dimensions the
computer display 4.11.1 Parallel Projections
devices are only 2D. For viewing 3D objects, computer
graphics makes use of concept of Parallel projections can be further classified into two categories based on relation between
projections which deals with representing curves, surfaces and solids on a plane. If straight
lines are drawn from various points on the contour of an object to meet a plane, the the direction of projection with expect to projection plane orthographic and oblique projection
object the of projection is normal to the projection plane, while
is said to be projected on the plane called projection plane. The
figure formed by joining, In orthographic projection, direction
in correct sequence, the points at which these lines meet the plane, in called the projection in oblique projection, it is not. direction of projection is also the prescribed direction of
The
all projectors. The most common form of orthographic
projection are the front-view, top-view
of the object. The lines from the object to the plane are called projectories. Projections can
be basically classified into two categories and side-view, which are formed when the direction of
projection is parallel to any one of
the three principal areas (x, y and z axis). Axonometric
() Perspective projection projection is a form of orthographic
projectionin which direction of projection is not parallel to any of the three principal axes
(b) Parallel projection
Parallel projection transformation can be determined
by specifying the direction of projection
Figure 4.32 illustrates projection of a line by the above mentioned methods. In parallel vector N and the
projection plane.
The projection plane can be easily defined if we know
projection, projectors are parallel to each other, so the hypothetical centre of projection is a point on the plane
and its normal vector N. Consider a
point P. in space having coordinates
Whereas in perspective projection there is a finite distance between
at
infinity.
projection and plane of projection. Centre of projection (being a point) is specified by
centre of 1 , 2). Now, the aim is to determine the projection of point P, on the projection plane
(P)as shown in Figure 4.33(a) i.e to find coordinates of
point P2 (t2: 2 22)
homogeneous coordinates of the form (x, y, 2, 1). In parallel projection, the direction of
projection has to be specified by a vector which can be determined by subtracting two points
Projection
Pd = (ta Ya a 1)- Yo Fa 1) = (a, b, c, 0). If centre of projection, in case of persecutive plane (P)
projection is shifted to infinity, it becomes parallel projection.

Ptg.1.

a
Fig 4.33
 Surfaces and Solids

Computer Alded Design

2

1.2. Perspective Projection

Compared to parallel projection This is
to form the transformation matrix if the plane of projection is either of 4 . 1 1 . 2

more realistic as
I is easily Derspective projection appears
is Similar to
that of photographic
tographic camera
plane. For example, consider orthographic projection onto x-z plane
as
shown perceptive projection
N.Y-Z visual effect of
2-1
in figure 3 23(b). It can be comprehended that x, = x . y2 = 0, but z2 = 21. h e transtormation of projection, parallel lines appear to converoe
-ause this type
human eyes. In smaller than objects
matrix can be written as tems as well a s appear to be distant objects
and
in the background, that objects appear to bbe
distant point illusionary
characteristic,
0 0 0
to the viewing
position. This perspective fore shortening
0 0 0 o
ger viewing position
increases in called

their distance from has to specíty its

centre projection of
maller as projection, CAD engineer
For defining perspective the point where the
projectors meet. The point
o o 0 1 i.e., it is
to human eye,
to converge is called vanishing point.
The
which corresponds parallel lines appear
Similarly for projection on x-y and y-z plane, transformation matrices are of
which a set projected the principal a x e s of an object
al
for a set parallel to any o n e of
of lines that are
vaishing point An example of this illusion is
that of rail
point (Refer figure 4.35).
called an axis vanishing
0 1 0 0
010 0 is
road tracks that s e e m to meet
at a point on the horizon.
or
Vnnishing Point
0 00 1 lo o o 1
To find the projection of a point P, on a generalised plane passing through point Po and
having direction vector D, as shown in figure 4.34. To from the compatible transformation
matrix, following transformations are involved.
View
plane

X
Fig. 4.35 Perspective view and var1shing point of a cube.
of
An anomaly in the perspective projection is
that we get a reverted image
which is behind the centre of projection. This characteristic is called view confusion Secondly.
an object
allhough perspective projection seems realistic, it is not useful for recording actual shape
Fig. 4.34 and dimensions of the objects. To derive the transformation matrix of perspectve
transformation using origin as the centre of projection, refer figure 4.36. The view plane
() Translate point Po to origin.
(projection plane) passes through point Po Xo Yo. Zo) and has normal vector N = n ' + nj
(i) Perform alignment of vector D of projection plane in the direction of i. on view plane. Since vector P0 and PO have
+nak. Let point Pis projected to point
P
(i) Project Pi to x
on z -

plane. same direction, PO =

kPO where a constant. Comparing components, we get x,
k is
(iv) Till the projection plane back to its original direction so that D points to its actual x, y, kz. To find the value of R, since point Pi also lies on the viewing
direction
ky and z, plane
View Po( b
()Translate origin to the original position of point Po N=n i t+
n2j+ n3 K

As wehave already discussed the 3D translation, rotation and projection to z plane -

matrices, they can be used derive the above composite transformation matrix. Based on the
direction of projection on the three principal axis, orthogonal projection can be classified
as
Isometric, diametric and trimetric projections. In isometric projections, the direction of
projectionofmakes equalmakes
angles with the three principal axes. In diametric projection, the
direction projection equal angles with only two principal axes. While in trimetric
projecion, the direction of projection makes unequal angles with the three principal axes Fig. 4.36.
 Computer Aided Design
We get,
Chapter
(where d= n, Xo n Yo + ng 20). Substituting the value
equation, we get of x, y1 and z, in the

5
aboya
n kx +
n Ry *
ng Rz =
do
This implies

k = -
n, +n2y + n^2
The perspective transformation between the object and the image of non-linear.
we cannot represent it by 3 x 3 transformation matrix. Making use of
homogeneous
Thus AUTOMATION AND
coordinates representation we can write 4 4
x
perspective transformation matrix as

d0 0 0 NUMERICAL CONTROL
0 d 0 0
per 0 0 d 0
n 0 OVERVIEW
in this chapter we shali learn .

Defination and role played by CAM. Automation, its necessity, advantages and
EXERCISE disadvantages. Numerical control, its need, suitability, historical developments and
future trends. Basic components of NC machines. Various classifications of NC
1. () Write down the name of two basic approaches systems. Coordinate system used in various NC machines.Limitations of NC
that are generally used to build the
model from solid machines. Comparison of ordinary and NC machine tools. Some methods of
graphics primitives.
improving accuracy. Direct numerical control. Computer numerical control and its
(i) State the concept of hidden line removal and shading. Explain both.
features. Adaptive control. Manual part programming of turning, drilling and miling
(in) State the limitations to the models which use the wireframe approach to form the operations. Computer aided part programming using APT programming language
image
Draw a schematic diagram and
explain the working of colour monitor display device.
Also explain RGB and CMY colour models.
3. Briefly explain 5.1 INTRODUCTION TO cOMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING (CAM)
() Superquadric surfaces and
Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAM) is the use of computer software and hardware in
()Blobbyobjects the translation of computer-aided design models into manufacturing instructions for numerical
4. Find the equation (u) of a Hermite cubic spline that passes through points (1, 2) and controlled machine tools. Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) commonly refers to the
of numerical control (NC) computer software applications to create detailed instructions
(3. 4) and whose tangent vectors are the two lines connecting these two points with Use
point (2, 7) (code) that drive computer numerically controlled (CNC) machine tools for manufacturing
parts. Manufacturers in a variety of industries depend on the capabilites of CAM to produce
5. Explain the Bezier curves and write its importance and properties. Derive a cubic Bezier
curve parametric equation. high-quality parts
A broader perspective of CAM can inciude the use of computer applications to define a
6. What do you understand by Boolean operations in CGS method of solid modeling?
manufacturing plan for tooling design, computer-aided design (CAD) model preparation, NC
Explain with the help of suitable examples. Desirable how union of two planes is
oblained ? programming, coordinate measuring machine (CMM) inspection programming. machine tool
Simulation, or post-processing. The plan is then executed in a production environment, such
as direct numerical control (DNC), tool management, CNC machining. or CMM execution