CHAPTER 10

Global Flows and Barriers in Migration

The concept of global flows and barriers is relevant to our exploration of migration in
this chapter and the book. Various types of migrants face different levels of difficulty in
moving around the world. Migrants with low skills or undocumented status encounter
significant challenges due to their perceived "heaviness" in terms of lacking education,
training, or engaging in activities such as prostitution. They encounter structural barriers
that impede their movement. On the other hand, migrants with valuable skills that are in
high demand are often encouraged to move freely across borders due to favorable
migration policies. Additionally, human traffickers, or pimps, face barriers in moving
their victims, but they exploit porous borders and contribute to the alarming increase in
trafficking flows witnessed in recent decades.

Migrants and Globalization

Globalization has led to substantial population movements, with migration being a

significant aspect. While migration can occur within a single country (relocation), our
focus in this chapter is on international migration. According to the United Nations, an
international migrant is defined as a person who lives temporarily or permanently in a
country where they were not born but have developed significant social ties. As of 2013,
there were an estimated 232 million international migrants, accounting for
approximately 3.2% of the world's population. This represents a 36% increase since
1990. However, the perception of unprecedented international migration in the global
era is contested by some who argue that current rates are not exceptional when
compared to certain historical periods. Furthermore, while migration for employment
receives considerable media attention, it falls behind the mobility rates of goods,
services, and technologies.

Distribution of International Migrants

Although the current numbers may not be extraordinary in historical context, migrants
constitute a substantial percentage of the population in many regions and countries.
Europe (72 million) and Asia (71 million) attract the largest numbers of international
migrants. However, the United States remains the country with the highest migrant
population, with 40.4 million foreign-born individuals in 2010, accounting for 12.9% of
the total population. The US-Mexico corridor is the world's largest route for
international migrants. Other countries with significant international migrant
 populations include Germany and France due to work migration and their proximity to
Africa, oil-producing nations like the United Arab Emirates, and rapidly developing
countries such as Malaysia, Singapore, and Thailand.

Push and Pull Factors in Migration

Migration is typically explained through a combination of push and pull factors. Push
factors refer to motivations of migrants, contextual issues in their home country (such as
unemployment or low wages) that hinder their goals, and major disruptions like war,
famine, political persecution, environmental disasters, or economic depressions. Pull
factors, on the other hand, include favorable immigration policies in the host country,
higher wages, lower unemployment rates, family reunification, existing networks
catering to migrants, labor shortages, and cultural and linguistic similarities between the
home and host country. These factors help differentiate between different types of
migration.

Types of Migration

1. Temporary labor migrants: This category includes guest workers and overseas contract
workers who move to a country for a specific period to work and often remit a
significant portion of their income to their families in their home country.
2. Irregular migrants (undocumented migrants): These individuals cross borders without
proper documentation or overstay their approved permits, often driven by economic
reasons.
3. Highly skilled migrants: These migrants possess specialized work qualifications and
respond to favorable labor markets or the demands of transnational corporations
(TNCs) and international organizations. Their migration can contribute to a brain drain
phenomenon when they come from less developed countries in the global South.
4. Forced migrants: This group consists of refugees and asylum seekers. Refugees are
compelled to flee their home countries for safety, often in large numbers due to reasons
such as war or environmental catastrophes influenced by climate change. Asylum
seekers, on the other hand, want to remain in their countries but are unable to do so
due to political reasons.
5. Family reunification migrants: These individuals have family ties across borders and seek
to reunite with family members who have migrated for economic reasons. They rely on
existing networks and contribute to the reconfiguration of those networks through
migration.
6. Return migrants: This category refers to individuals who, after spending time in a
destination country, choose to return to their home country.
Understanding these different types of migration helps provide insights into the
motivations and dynamics behind migratory movements.

MIGRATION

Components of International Migration

International migration involves four main components: in-migration (people moving to

a country other than their place of birth or citizenship), return migration (nationals
returning to their home country after residing abroad), out-migration of nationals
(nationals leaving their home country), and out-migration of foreigners (foreigners
leaving a country to which they had previously immigrated). In this section, our focus
will be on the out-migration of nationals and their in-migration to other countries. The
majority of these migrants originate from developing countries and move to developed
or rapidly developing nations.

Challenges in Tracking Migration

Tracking population flows and discussing migration can be challenging due to various
factors.

 Firstly, many countries do not collect comprehensive data on migration.

 Secondly, even if data is collected, some countries may not report it to

international agencies.


 Thirdly, there are differences in how population flows are defined across
countries, including variations in defining the permanency of a move and the
required residency period for migrant status.

 Fourthly, only a few countries keep track of their expatriates.

 Finally, there are significant difficulties in monitoring undocumented migrants

and survivors of human trafficking. It is essential to be aware of these limitations
when discussing migration.

Restrictions on Migration
Unlike other aspects of the modern world, such as trade, finance, and investment,
restrictions on the migration of people, especially labor migration, have not been widely
liberalized. The European Union is a notable exception, but in most parts of the world,
barriers to migration remain in place. Several factors contribute to this anomaly. Firstly,
nations strive to retain the labor they need, both highly paid skilled workers and low-
paid semi-skilled and unskilled workers, in order to maintain their economic
competitiveness. Losing large numbers of such workers could undermine a country's
ability to compete globally. Secondly, the influx of large numbers of migrants can often
lead to various conflicts, usually between newcomers and long-established residents,
and sometimes even between different groups of newcomers. Consequently, many
nations prefer to maintain significant barriers to migration. Thirdly, concerns over
terrorism, particularly in the United States and many European countries, have further
reinforced or increased restrictions on migration. This is evident in the significant
challenges involved in migrating to the United States today, including for business
travelers, students, and even tourists. These barriers and difficulties have raised concerns
about potential negative impacts on business, education, tourism, and the associated
income generated from these activities.

It is important to recognize the complexities and multiple factors that contribute to the
maintenance of barriers and restrictions on international migration, despite the
increasing interconnectedness of the modern world.

Heading: The Emergence of Mobility Regimes

Shamir (2005) discusses the emergence of a "mobility regime" that aims to control the
movement of migrants not only between national borders but also within them. As an
example, Great Britain started issuing identity cards to non-EU foreigners in late 2008 to
better track their movement within the country, with the intention of containing their
mobility if necessary. This desire for surveillance and containment stems from fears, real
or imagined, related to terrorism and crime associated with immigrants.

Heading: Barriers and Reductions in Migration

While much attention has been focused on barriers to the movement of migrants, it is
important to note that there have also been reductions in certain forms of migration.
For instance, within the European Union (EU), border controls have been eased through
agreements such as the 1985 Schengen agreements, which have become part of EU law.
Similarly, certain restrictions on movement have been relaxed within the North American
Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) between the US, Canada, and Mexico, particularly for
business executives and highly skilled workers. However, it is crucial to acknowledge
that barriers to migration still exist, and in some cases, they have even been
strengthened and increased.

Heading: Historical Context of Migration Barriers

Many of the barriers to migration are a product of the Westphalian era, characterized by
the dominance of the nation-state (as discussed in Chapter 5). Prior to this era, there
was relatively more freedom of movement, with fewer restrictions on migration. For
example, during the late nineteenth century, there was significant freedom of
movement, particularly during the mass migration from Europe to the US. However,
attitudes and policies changed dramatically with World War I, leading to the imposition
of stricter restrictions on global movement by nation-states. Today, although there are
variations among nation-states, there is no country that allows unrestricted immigration.

Heading: Irregular Migration and Global Remittances

Despite the restrictions on authorized migration, there has been an increase in irregular
or undocumented immigration, including the smuggling of people into and out of
various nations. Some countries have laws requiring them to accept refugees fleeing war
or political persecution. Additionally, the growing business of global remittances and
advancements in technology facilitating the transfer of funds have encouraged and
supported migration. Furthermore, select reductions in barriers to migration have been
observed in many countries, particularly through the implementation of "guest worker"
programs aimed at attracting temporary labor migrants to address labor shortages,
meet the needs of multinational corporations (MNCs), and address aging populations.

Heading: Undocumented Mexican Migrants to the US

More than one-tenth of the US population, approximately 40.4 million individuals out of
a total of around 312 million, were born outside the US, with many arriving during a
significant immigration boom starting in the early 1990s. A considerable number
entered the US as undocumented migrants without authorization. While they come
from various countries such as the Philippines, China, and El Salvador, the largest
proportion, estimated at least one-half, originates from Mexico. As of 2012, there were
approximately 6 million undocumented Mexicans in the US (Valdes 2013). In fact, it is
estimated that over 10% of Mexico's total population, around 116 million people,
resides in the United States. The majority of Mexican immigrants in the US lack proper
documentation, either having crossed the border without documentation
(approximately 85% of border crossings occur without documentation) or remaining in
the country after their visas expired. Economic factors play a significant role in their
migration, as they often earn poverty wages by US standards (around $300 per week),
which can be up to four times more than what they could earn in Mexico (Preston 2006:
A24). Additionally, better job prospects and future opportunities are available in the US
compared to Mexico.

Heading: Challenges Faced by Undocumented Mexican Immigrants

Life is challenging for undocumented Mexican immigrants in the United States. While
they may experience some economic improvement compared to their lives in Mexico or
compared to those who stayed or returned, they remain economically marginalized
within the US context. Their family lives are often fragmented, with many family
members and friends still residing in Mexico. The border between the two countries has
become increasingly difficult to cross from the Mexican side for those without
authorization. Despite these new restrictions, the deterrent effect has been minimal, but
it has resulted in increased demand for smugglers, higher smuggling costs, and a rise in
deaths during border crossings. The difficulties of returning to the US have also
discouraged many from going back to Mexico. Those who do attempt to re-enter face
increasingly dangerous conditions and an increasing number of deaths during the
journey (Cave 2011; Santos and Zemansky 2013). The economic situation of
undocumented immigrants is further complicated by their obligation to provide
financial assistance (remittances) to relatives and friends in Mexico who are worse off. In
2012, an estimated $20 billion in remittances was sent to Mexico (Mallén 2013). Lastly,
undocumented immigrants live with the constant fear of being apprehended by
immigration authorities, commonly known as "la migra"

Heading: Challenges and Trade-Offs Faced by Undocumented Mexican Immigrants

in the US

The life of undocumented Mexican immigrants in the US often becomes confined to a

small area within their immediate neighborhood where they feel safe from immigration
authorities, commonly known as "la migra." In this limited space, they are shielded from
being asked for documents they do not possess, such as insurance cards, credit cards,
Social Security cards, and "Green" cards, which grant legal permanent residence and the
ability to work legally in the US. Some local information networks help alert them to the
presence of government authorities, and certain places, like nearby Wal-Mart, become
off-limits when there are suspicions of surveillance by la migra. Undocumented Mexican
immigrants heavily rely on the underground economy and often resort to check-cashing
businesses that charge high fees when they need to cash a check. Despite facing
numerous challenges, many still prefer life in the US to their previous circumstances in
Mexico, as one person stated, "Living here without papers is still better than living there"
(quoted in Alvarez 2006b: A20).

Heading: Challenges Faced by Return Migrants to Mexico

Some undocumented Mexican immigrants, after living in the US for a period of time,
decide to return to Mexico due to various reasons, including the inability to interact with
family members who remained behind and the loss of their support network. However,
upon their return, they encounter new challenges. Separation from family and friends
who remain in the US becomes amplified by the reinforced border and the difficulty in
acquiring funds to finance an unauthorized trip to visit loved ones across the border.
Additionally, many return migrants struggle with relatively low wages and limited job
prospects in Mexico. Having experienced life in the US, they now compare it to their
current circumstances in Mexico and find it lacking. The disparities between their
previous life in the US and their present conditions in Mexico often lead to
dissatisfaction, prompting sentiments like the one expressed by the woman mentioned
earlier: "If I had the money, I'd leave today"

Heading: Central American Migrants and the Perilous Journey to the US

In addition to undocumented immigrants from Mexico, a significant number of migrants

from various Central American nations also make their way to the United States. By
2011, there were over 2 million unauthorized immigrants in the US from Central
America, with fluctuations in numbers over the years (Hoefer et al. 2012; Thompson
2008: A17). The majority of these immigrants originate from El Salvador, Guatemala, and
Honduras. To reach the US, most must traverse a significant portion of Mexico and cross
the Mexico-US border.

Heading: The Challenging Route and Dangers Faced by Central American Migrants

One common route for Central American migrants involves traveling through Mexico's
southern neighbor, Guatemala. They often cross the Suchiate River, which serves as an
"open border," and then continue to the city of Tapachula. From there, they embark on
an arduous 1,500-mile journey to the US border. Along this route, they face numerous
challenges and hazards.

To cover the distance, migrants frequently undertake a 250-mile walk along the Chiapas
coast to reach Arriaga. In Arriaga, they attempt to board moving trains, where they hang
precariously or squeeze into overcrowded compartments. It is estimated that an average
of 300 to 500 people per day manage to find their way onto these trains. Tragically,
many migrants are injured or lose their lives while falling from moving trains.

CASES:

One harrowing example is the case of Donar Antonio Ramirez Espinas, a Honduran
migrant who lost both legs above the knees when he fell from a train while dozing off.
Reflecting on his experience, he said, "I fell face down, and at first, I didn't think anything
had happened... When I turned over, I saw, I realized, that my feet didn't really exist"
(quoted in McKinley, Jr 2007b: 12).

Before reaching the trains, migrants must navigate a perilous journey fraught with
additional dangers. They encounter corrupt federal police, as well as robbers and
assailants who may steal their meager possessions and money. Incidents of robbery,
assault, and even rape are common along this treacherous path. In one account, Misael
Mejia, a 27-year-old Honduran migrant, shared his experience of being ambushed by
armed men who demanded their belongings. Despite such setbacks, Mejia remained
undeterred, driven by the hope of higher wages in the US compared to his limited
opportunities in Honduras. He expressed his feelings of hopelessness in his home
country, where he struggled to afford basic necessities and saw little prospect for a
better future

INCREASED LAW ENFORCEMENT

Heading: Reasons for One-Way Migration

Paragraph: In the past, migration from Mexico was often temporary, with individuals
making round-trip journeys for temporary labor. However, there has been a shift
towards one-way migration as more migrants settle in the US and other countries
without authorization. There are several reasons for this shift. Firstly, migrants have
better prospects for jobs outside of the agricultural sector, offering more stable and
year-round employment. Secondly, many migrants are moving beyond the
southwestern border states and deeper into the US, making it harder and costlier to
return to Mexico. Lastly, the tightening of border controls since the 1980s, particularly
after 9/11, has made it increasingly difficult and expensive for migrants to find a way
back to Mexico.

Heading: Decline in Return Migration Rates

Paragraph: The increased enforcement measures at the border have caused migrants to
be reluctant to repeat the challenging experience of crossing the border, leading to a
decline in rates of return migration. While about 47% of undocumented immigrants
returned to Mexico between 1979 and 1984, the percentage dropped to 27% between
1997 and 2003. However, as the number of overall migrants leveled off during the Great
Recession, return migrants have become a larger proportion of those attempting to re-
enter the US without documentation. As migrants travel to Mexico to visit family, it has
become more common for them to get caught attempting to cross the border back into
the US. In 2010, 56% of apprehensions at the Mexican border involved individuals who
had been previously caught, up from 44% in 2005.

Heading: Persistence of Undocumented Immigrants in the US

Paragraph: Interestingly, the longer immigrants stay in the US, the less likely they are to
return to Mexico. This means that despite increased border controls, more
undocumented immigrants from Mexico choose to remain in the US rather than
returning as they might have in an earlier era of easier border crossings. Additionally,
the presence of settled migrants in the US may attract family reunification migrants who
seek to join their parents, siblings, and other family members already residing there.

Heading: Increased Border Controls and Surveillance

Paragraph: The US has implemented various measures to tighten border controls along
the 2,000-mile Mexican border. This includes the deployment of thousands of new
border patrol agents and national guardsmen. Additionally, approximately 650 miles of
border fence have been constructed, with proposals to extend fencing along the entire
span. However, the focus on extending the border fence has shifted towards increased
use of guards and surveillance due to the high costs associated with constructing the
fence. For instance, in 2009, the Department of Homeland Security spent approximately
$21 million per mile to build the fence near San Diego, California. Building the entire
fence would require tens of billions of dollars. It is worth noting that other countries,
such as India and Israel, have also constructed fences or walls along their borders as a
means of controlling migration.

Heading: Effectiveness and Controversies Surrounding the Border Fence

Paragraph: The construction of the fence between the US and Mexico, along with
increased border patrols, has been credited with a 22% drop in apprehensions of
undocumented immigrants at the border. However, some argue that this decline may be
influenced by other factors, such as weaker economic "pull" factors during the recession.
While undocumented immigration decreased during the Great Recession, it has started
to increase again since the recovery. Critics question the effectiveness of the fence,
particularly considering the challenging terrain. The experience with a shorter fence near
San Diego offers little hope to supporters, as it simply redirected undocumented
immigrants to other, often more perilous, routes into the US.

Heading: Stricter Requirements for Citizenship

Paragraph: While some proponents of immigration reform advocate for an easier path
to citizenship, there are proposals to make it more challenging for undocumented
immigrants to become US citizens. These proposals include making the English and
history exams more difficult and conducting more extensive background checks. While it
remains uncertain whether such changes will be implemented, they reflect the prevailing
sentiment among conservative politicians and citizens in the US. It is worth noting that
the cost of applying for citizenship has substantially increased over the years, potentially
excluding some individuals from the application process due to the financial burden.

Heading: Tools and Measures for Border Policing

Paragraph: Alongside the border fence, the US employs various tools and measures to
enforce border control with Mexico. This includes the use of unmanned Predator Bee
drones that operate at high altitudes, assisting officers in helicopters, jeeps, on
horseback, and using other means of transportation. Seismic and magnetic sensors are
employed to detect footfalls and vehicles, while infra-red beams are utilized to identify
tunnels. Additionally, there are currently 21,000 border patrol agents stationed at the
border, with some advocates of stricter immigration policies calling for an increase to
40,000 agents. There have also been calls for enhanced enforcement and stricter
penalties imposed on employers who hire undocumented immigrants

Heading: Impact of Increased Enforcement on Local Communities

Paragraph: The effects of heightened enforcement of immigration laws extend beyond

the border regions and have reached even upper New York State. In this area, local
farmers who were already struggling face the threat of losing their low-paid
undocumented immigrant workers from Mexico. These workers are now at a higher risk
of being apprehended by immigration authorities, while farm owners themselves fear
potential criminal prosecution. A pervasive climate of fear has emerged, with
undocumented workers becoming suspicious of everyone, and farmers worrying that
their neighbors might report them for employing such individuals. Consequently,
deportation rates have seen a significant increase.

Heading: Diverse Perspectives on Law Enforcement

Paragraph: The support for stricter law enforcement measures varies among different
groups. Some individuals advocate for stronger enforcement out of concern for the
immigrant workers themselves, recognizing their low wages and the exploitative
conditions they often face as farm laborers. However, others support such measures
because they believe that undocumented immigrants depress wages for all workers and
resent the costs associated with providing public services to them. On the other hand,
native farmers, among others, tend to support immigrant workers, as they argue that
they are unable to find local laborers willing to perform the demanding agricultural
work. Additionally, there are those who express concerns about the human rights abuses
endured by undocumented immigrants, such as fathers being arrested and leaving their
wives and US-born children to fend for themselves.

Continued diligence in enforcing immigration laws has generated complex

consequences that resonate beyond the border, affecting local communities, economies,
and perspectives on immigration policy.

Returning undocumented immigrants

Heading 1: Reasons for Returning Home

Paragraph: The tightening of restrictions on undocumented immigrants in the US (and

elsewhere) has prompted a significant number of individuals to choose to return to their
home countries rather than contend with the increasing difficulties of remaining in their
adopted nation. This phenomenon is exemplified by the case of several hundred
thousand Brazilians who arrived in the US during the 1990s and early 2000s on tourist
visas and subsequently stayed as irregular or undocumented immigrants. Various factors
have contributed to their decision to return, including escalating deportation fears,
diminished economic prospects resulting from the Great Recession, housing losses due
to the sub-prime mortgage crisis, challenges in renewing expiring driver's licenses under
stricter regulations, limited access to reliable public transportation, the devaluation of
the US dollar compared to the Brazilian real, and improved job opportunities in Brazil at
the time. Additionally, the absence of viable pathways to legal status in the US has
condemned them to a life filled with apprehension about encountering immigration
authorities and the constant threat of deportation.
Heading 2: Challenges Faced by Returning Families

Paragraph: The choice to return home poses unique challenges, particularly for families
with American-born children. These children, who are US citizens by birthright, often
exhibit reluctance to leave the US, and in many cases, there is no legal requirement for
them to do so. As a result, families returning to Brazil face the burden of separation
from their American-born children, who may remain in the US. This situation engenders
concerns among returning families about potential resentment from their children, who
may feel forced to leave behind the place where they were born and the life they have
known. Furthermore, the emotional strain is intensified by the fact that the families are
barred by law from reentering the US, even as visitors, for a period of ten years. These
complexities highlight the profound emotional and familial implications associated with
the decision to return for undocumented immigrants and their families, underscoring
the challenging realities they face in navigating their uncertain status and seeking a
better future.

Heading 1: Migration Challenges in Europe

Paragraph: Control over borders and unauthorized immigration is not solely a concern
in the United States; it is also a significant issue in Europe. Since the implementation of
the Maastricht Treaty, which aimed to foster a borderless society within the European
Union (EU), the accession of less developed Eastern European countries such as Bulgaria,
Romania (2007), and Croatia (2013) has presented challenges. The movement of
immigrants from Eastern Europe to the more developed Western European nations has
led to significant issues in several countries, prompting calls for the reestablishment of
border controls. Similar to the US, there is a growing apprehension about unauthorized
immigration in Europe, resulting in increased efforts to reduce or halt the flow of
undocumented immigrants.

Heading 2: Impact of Immigration on Great Britain

Paragraph: Great Britain has been embroiled in a robust public debate regarding various
aspects of its EU membership, particularly concerning the free movement of workers
from Eastern European countries. Following the admission of new EU members,
including Poland, Great Britain and a few other EU nations opened their doors to
immigrants from these countries, resulting in an influx of over half a million people. The
presence of these immigrants in low-paying jobs has raised concerns, as they are
perceived as a threat to British workers and have contributed to a decline in wages,
particularly for low-skilled occupations.
Heading 3: Resurfacing Concerns

Paragraph: Similar concerns resurfaced with the admission of Bulgaria, Romania, and
Croatia to the EU, while the proposed accession of Turkey evokes apprehension among
many. The debate surrounding this issue encompasses larger considerations, with
proponents arguing that the influx of low-wage immigrants can benefit a country by
reducing product costs and enhancing competitiveness in the global marketplace.
Additionally, they contend that immigrant workers fill positions that native workers may
be reluctant to accept due to low wages or the nature of the work, and their tax
contributions support public services. Despite these advantages, efforts have been made
in Britain to tighten immigration rules, including facilitating the deportation of foreign
individuals convicted of crimes, imposing stricter penalties on employers hiring
unauthorized immigrants, and requiring private landlords to verify tenants' citizenship
status. There are also calls for further restrictions on immigration

Heading 1: Changing Dynamics in Sweden

Paragraph 1: Sweden has long been regarded as a tolerant and welcoming country for
immigrants, particularly refugees from war-torn nations, including a significant Muslim
population. Over the years, these immigrants have made substantial contributions to
Sweden's workforce while benefiting from the country's generous welfare system. For a
considerable period, Sweden appeared immune to the rising anti-immigrant sentiment
witnessed across Europe. However, the welcoming atmosphere has begun to shift.

Heading 2: Challenges and Backlash

Paragraph 2: Currently, around 17% of Sweden's population of 9.5 million is foreign-

born, with approximately one in four Swedes having either foreign-born individuals or
parents born outside the country. Despite relatively favorable economic conditions for
immigrants compared to other countries, unemployment rates among immigrants,
particularly in immigrant neighborhoods, remain alarmingly high, reaching 16% and
even higher for individuals under 25 years old. Consequently, there has been a growing
backlash against immigrants, leading to increased social conflicts. In 2010, Sweden's far-
right party campaigned on an anti-immigration platform, securing 6% of the vote, a
surprising outcome for many Swedes. The country has also faced instances of targeted
violence, such as the case of a "racist sniper" who specifically targeted foreign-born
Swedes before being apprehended in 2012. Additionally, Sweden witnessed immigrant
riots in 2013, reminiscent of similar incidents in France in 2005 and Great Britain in 2011.
Heading 1: Migration Challenges in Greece

Paragraph 1: Route and Increase in Undocumented Immigration Greece has become a

key entry point for undocumented immigrants into the European Union (EU). Many
migrants, including those from Iraq, Afghanistan, Somalia, Libya, Lebanon, Eritrea, the
Palestinian territories, and Iran, are using the shorter route from Turkey to Greek islands
such as Lesbos, Chios, and Samos. The journey is perilous, and despite the risks, the
number of people crossing the Greek border has been on the rise. Frontex estimates
that in 2011, 55,000 individuals crossed into Greece, marking a 17% increase from the
previous year (Kennedy 2012). As a result, Greece has become the backdoor to the EU,
leading to growing concerns and resentment among member countries towards the
increasing influx of immigrants from the Middle East, South Asia, and Africa (Kennedy
2012).

Paragraph 2: Challenges for Asylum

Seekers Greece has faced criticism for its handling of asylum seekers. According to EU
regulations, the country where an immigrant first arrives is responsible for processing
asylum claims. However, Greece's substantial backlog of refugees and poor living
conditions have led to revisions in the law. The European Court of Human Rights
changed the requirement in 2011, no longer mandating that asylum requests be filed in
the country of entry. This change reflects the challenges faced by forced migrants with
legitimate asylum claims in Greece. It is important to note the historical context, as
Greece was once a country from which large numbers of people emigrated. During
World War II, the islands of Lesbos, Chios, and Samos were often departure points for
Greeks seeking refuge in Turkey to escape the German army

Heading: Greek Resistance and Challenges for Undocumented Immigrants

Paragraph 1: Greek Resistance and Measures As the influx of undocumented immigrants

to Greece has intensified, so has the resistance within the country. Greek authorities
have implemented stricter measures, including detaining undocumented immigrants for
three months and then giving them 30 days to leave the country. In addition, Greece,
similar to the United States, is constructing a fence worth $7.3 million along its border
with Turkey. However, many doubt the effectiveness of such a barrier. The support for
conservative, anti-immigrant Greek politicians has also grown, reflecting the sentiment
that Greece was ill-prepared to handle the large numbers of immigrants (Brothers 2008:
A3).

Paragraph 2: Challenges Faced by Undocumented Immigrants

 Even highly desirable undocumented immigrants face numerous challenges in their
journey to Greece. An example is provided by an Ethiopian law student who endured a
perilous and costly journey involving bribery, hiding in trucks, crossing the Sahara,
staying in grim camps, and surviving treacherous voyages. Despite their determination
and sacrifices, many undocumented immigrants find themselves locked in overcrowded
and deplorable conditions, leading to a sense of dejection and a desire to return home
(Economist 2008: January 3 [“Keep Out”]).

Heading: Persistent Challenges and Uncertain Trends

Paragraph 3: Persistence of Undocumented Migration Despite barriers and deterrents,

large numbers of undocumented migrants continue to reach Europe, including Greece,
as well as the United States. The ultimate desperation of those seeking to reach their
desired destinations often surpasses the obstacles they face. While there is some
evidence of a decline in undocumented immigration from Africa to Europe, particularly
due to various factors, such as conflicts and poverty, it remains uncertain whether this
decline will be a long-term trend or a temporary blip in the overall migration patterns
(Economist 2008: January 3 [“Keep Out”]).

Paragraph 4: Endemic Challenges in Africa

The persistence of migration from Africa is likely due to the enduring problems
prevalent on the continent, such as ongoing warfare, poverty, and ethnic and religious
conflicts. For many migrants, the dire conditions they faced in their home countries and
during their journey make the risks of crossing the sea seem insignificant compared to
the desperate circumstances they leave behind. As one migrant from Darfur expressed,
the journey is seen as a survival choice, as they consider themselves already "dead" in
their home country

Heading: Undocumented Immigrants in Asia

Paragraph 1: Undocumented Immigrants in Malaysia

The issue of undocumented immigrants extends beyond the EU and the US to other
regions, including Asia. In Malaysia, approximately 16% of the workforce is foreign-born,
with over 1 million undocumented immigrants estimated to reside in the country. Most
of them come from Indonesia, while others originate from the Philippines, Bangladesh,
Nepal, and Myanmar. These individuals work in manual labor and the service industry
but often live in fear of harassment, arrest, punishment, and deportation
(Gangopadhyay and Ng 2013).

Paragraph 2: Rela and Abuses in Malaysia

In 2005, a group known as "Rela" (Peoples' Volunteer Corps), originally created to

combat communism, was transformed into a strike force to locate and apprehend
undocumented immigrants throughout Malaysia. With around half a million uniformed
volunteers, Rela is larger than the country's police and armed forces. The organization
has faced accusations of various abuses, including violence, extortion, theft, and illegal
detention. Human rights groups have criticized its practices, highlighting instances of
forced entry into migrant lodgings and mistreatment of inhabitants. Those apprehended
are tried, and if convicted, they can face up to five years in prison, whipping, or
deportation. The climate of fear and uncertainty has compelled some undocumented
immigrants to seek refuge in the jungle (Mydans 2007: A4).

Paragraph 3: Central Asia and Immigration Challenges

Central Asia also grapples with unauthorized immigration, particularly the movement of
people from impoverished and declining countries like Uzbekistan and Tajikistan to
more prosperous nations like Kazakhstan and Russia. Russian estimates suggest that
approximately 10 million documented immigrants and an additional 3 million
undocumented immigrants, including nationals from Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and
Kyrgyzstan, are employed, some seasonally, in Russia. Similar to other countries, anti-
immigrant sentiment has been on the rise in Russia, prompting stricter measures. The
treatment of immigrants in receiving countries is often deplorable, with cases of
exploitation and slavery. Despite the challenges, economic conditions in their home
countries compel these individuals to seek work in construction, factories, and market
stalls. Rising anti-immigration sentiments and demonstrations pose the potential for
further problems, including ethnic tensions and violence (Guillory 2013).

Paragraph 4: Smuggling and Border Difficulties

The open borders in the region have resulted in increased smuggling of undocumented
immigrants due to the growing difficulty of crossing these borders. This situation creates
additional problems for immigrants, as they face mistreatment and uncertain legal
status in their host countries. However, there are also positive aspects for immigrants,
such as improved conditions back home due to remittances sent by immigrant workers.
The overall situation remains complex, with the potential for both gains and challenges
in the context of immigration in Asia (see section below on human trafficking).
Heading: The Case Against the Backlash to Undocumented Immigration

Paragraph 1: Benefits for Immigrants and Sending Countries Arguments have been put
forth against the increasing barriers faced by immigrants, highlighting the significant
benefits they bring, particularly from the perspective of the sending countries in the
Global South. Immigrants often make substantial financial contributions by sending
money back home. When they eventually return, they bring savings, new skills, technical
expertise, and innovative ideas acquired during their time in the North. These
contributions can have positive impacts on the economies and development of their
home countries.

Paragraph 2: Benefits for Receiving Countries

Contrary to popular backlash, the North also reaps considerable benefits from
immigration, both documented and undocumented. Immigrants provide a youthful and
ambitious workforce, which is crucial for aging and potentially shrinking workforces in
the EU and the US. Certain industries heavily rely on immigrant labor, as demonstrated
by the example of an Irish hotel owner who received no applications from Irish
candidates for a receptionist position. Immigrants often fill job roles that native workers
avoid, such as farm labor or caregiving for the elderly. Their flexibility and willingness to
work in various sectors contribute to overall economic productivity. Furthermore,
migrants can free up native workers for different jobs or higher-status positions,
fostering upward mobility. Migrant workers' lower wages can also help mitigate
inflationary pressures. In some cases, the North may attract highly skilled workers from
the South, enhancing their own expertise and knowledge base. Additionally, migrants
contribute to local economies as consumers, stimulating growth and diversifying host
countries through their entrepreneurial endeavors (Kenny 2012).

Paragraph 3: Overall Economic Growth

Historically, the economies of the North have experienced growth as a direct result of
immigration, whether documented or undocumented. While the precise measurement
of immigrants' economic contributions is subject to debate, their impact is significant.
Their spending power, job creation, and entrepreneurial ventures contribute to the
growth of the local economy. Despite challenges and differing opinions, immigration
has been a driving force behind economic expansion in the North (Kenny 2012).

Paragraph 1: Political Exploitation and Scapegoating

 Politicians often capitalize on the issue of unauthorized immigration to gain support
and notoriety. By focusing national attention on the perceived threats posed by
immigrants, particularly the undocumented who lack voting rights, politicians can use
them as convenient targets for attack. Many members of the public harbor concerns and
fears about undocumented immigrants, making them receptive to the arguments put
forth by ambitious politicians. The public's lack of support for undocumented
immigrants and the fear associated with them create a conducive environment for
political exploitation.

Paragraph 2: Cultural and Integration Challenges

The fears surrounding undocumented immigrants in the North can also stem from
practical reasons. Some individuals may find it unsettling to witness a significant influx
of people from different cultures, particularly if they come into frequent contact with
them. Integrating into a larger culture can be challenging for immigrants, and some may
not even desire integration. Conversely, there may be resistance from the host
population in allowing or encouraging integration. Additionally, lower-skilled workers in
the North may perceive their jobs to be at risk or anticipate a decline in wages due to
competition from undocumented immigrants. These concerns are amplified by
increasing unemployment rates. However, evidence suggests that the negative impact
on wages due to immigration is relatively small, and wages tend to recover over time.
Moreover, immigration can lead to job creation as employers are attracted by the
availability of a diverse and skilled workforce.

Paragraph 3: Strain on Welfare Systems and Public Services

One of the fears associated with undocumented immigration, particularly in the US and
the EU, is the potential strain on state welfare systems and public services such as
schools, housing, and healthcare. However, the majority of immigrants, both
documented and undocumented, are in their prime working age and contribute to the
economy through various taxes, such as excise and sales taxes. While concerns exist, it is
important to note that immigrants play a role in sustaining the economy rather than
solely relying on welfare systems. It is worth acknowledging that fears related to
immigration, including concerns about security, were heightened following terrorist
attacks, particularly those occurring on or after 9/11.

Paragraph 4: Comprehensive Case Against Immigration

Restrictions Jonathon W. Moses presents a comprehensive case against restrictions on

international migration in his work "International Migration" (2006). He argues across
economic, political, and moral dimensions, emphasizing the potential benefits and
debunking misconceptions surrounding immigration. His analysis offers a robust
counterargument to the imposition of strict immigration measures.

ECONOMIC

Paragraph 1: Jonathan W. Moses argues that immigration has a positive effect on the
economy of the United States and other developed nations. Research conducted by the
Brookings Institution supports this claim, stating that immigrants, on average, raise the
overall standard of living for American workers by increasing wages and lowering prices.
Contrary to common beliefs, there is no clear evidence that immigrants directly compete
with native workers for jobs. In fact, immigrants often possess valuable skills and
contribute to innovation and productivity.

Paragraph 2: For instance, foreign nationals in the US make significant contributions to

patent applications, and foreign-educated nurses are an increasing proportion of those
passing licensure exams. While wages for native workers with lower skills may be
affected, overall wages are not negatively impacted and may even increase. Additionally,
immigrants are not a financial burden on public finances, as they often pay more in
taxes than they consume in services, particularly because they are typically young and in
their prime working years.

Paragraph 3: The aging workforces in developed countries can benefit from the influx
of young, motivated workers, making a strong economic argument for more open
immigration policies. Furthermore, the cost of enforcing strict border controls is
significant, and easing such controls would allow for resource allocation to other areas.

Paragraph 4: The economic benefits of migration are not limited to receiving countries;
sending countries also experience advantages. Workers who migrate can improve their
bargaining power, leading to better economic conditions and overall quality of life for
those who remain. Remittances, the money sent back to the home country by migrants,
can serve as capital for investments in economic development, further benefiting the
sending countries.

Paragraph 5: Freer immigration can also have positive political implications. It can
contribute to greater democratization and less authoritarianism in both sending and
receiving countries. In sending countries, the departure of individuals, particularly the
highly educated and skilled, due to a lack of democracy, can exert pressure on the
political system to initiate reforms. Overall, freer migration strengthens individuals'
ability to influence political regimes and encourages them to move toward increased
democratization.

Paragraph 6: Moreover, in a world with freer movement, nation-states would compete

with each other to retain their best people and attract talent from elsewhere, potentially
leading to improvements in governance and international exchanges.

In summary, Jonathan W. Moses presents a comprehensive case for the economic,

political, and moral benefits of more open immigration policies. These arguments
highlight the positive impact of immigration on both receiving and sending countries,
including economic growth, innovation, labor market dynamics, democratic reforms, and
international competitiveness.

The Moral Arguments:

There are two fundamental moral arguments supporting freer migration. Firstly, free
mobility is considered a universal and basic human right. Moses asserts that individuals
should have the freedom to move and pursue opportunities beyond the limitations
imposed by their place of birth. Secondly, freer migration is seen as a means to achieve
greater moral ends, specifically economic and political justice. By enabling greater
freedom of movement, global economic inequality can be reduced, and the potential for
global tyranny can be mitigated.

Moses emphasizes the moral aspect of freer migration, highlighting the inherent
injustice of the current migration regime. The existing system distributes opportunities
based on arbitrary factors such as birthplace, leading to individuals being confined to
limited prospects solely due to their country of origin. This prioritization of the rights of
the nation over the rights of individuals perpetuates inequality and denies people the
chance to improve their lives.

Additionally, promoting immigration aligns with the values of societies that cherish
diversity and vibrant cultures. Recognizing the contributions and experiences of
immigrants can be an additional rationale for advocating for freer migration.

Challenging Conventional Wisdom:

The arguments presented by Moses challenge prevailing notions and conventional

wisdom regarding migration and open borders. Many of the fears surrounding crime
and terrorism associated with increased migration are often exaggerated or misguided.
Moses contends that freer migration would facilitate greater global cooperation and the
development of improved systems for tracking people's movements. This enhanced
global coordination would enable more effective identification and apprehension of
individuals engaged in criminal or terroristic activities.

Overall, Moses demonstrates that the conventional wisdom surrounding migration and
open borders is often flawed or incomplete. By highlighting the moral imperatives,
economic benefits, and potential for enhanced security measures, he provides a
compelling case for reevaluating and reconsidering current perspectives on global
migration.

The Importance of Remittances:

1. Significance of Remittances: Remittances have gained increasing importance as

more immigrants, both documented and undocumented, seek employment in
developed countries. Successful immigrants often send money back to their country of
origin to support their families and provide care for various family members. Despite
being relatively low-paid compared to standards in developed countries, these
immigrants still enjoy better financial circumstances than many in their home countries.

2. Magnitude of Remittance Flows: According to the World Bank, remittances

amounted to $410 billion in 2013, surpassing global aid budgets threefold. It was
projected that this figure would continue to grow by 9% annually, reaching $540 billion
by 2016. If high-income countries were included, global remittances were estimated to
reach $550 billion in 2013 and $707 billion by 2016.

3. Remittance Transfer Businesses: To handle the large number of transfers involving

relatively small amounts of funds that banks often deem unworthy of attention, thriving
businesses specializing in remittance transfers have emerged in developed countries.
These businesses, often using internet-based platforms, operate with small offices in
cities both in the North (such as London) and in the South, facilitating the flow of funds
(Economist 2008: January 3 [“Send me a Number”]).

4. Impact on Developing Countries: Remittances represent the largest source of

money flowing into developing countries from the rest of the world. In some Southern
countries, remittances make up a substantial proportion of their Gross National Product
(GNP), with figures reaching 48% in Tajikistan, 31% in the Kyrgyz Republic, 25% in
Lesotho and Nepal, and 24% in Moldova (World Bank 2013).
 5. Major Recipients of Remittances: Major recipients of remittances include India
(receiving $71 billion), China ($60 billion), the Philippines ($26 billion), and Mexico ($22
billion).

The significant flow of remittances underscores their critical role in supporting families
and driving economic stability in developing countries. This financial lifeline provides
essential resources for meeting basic needs, improving living conditions, and fostering
economic development.

The Complexities of Remittances:

1. Positive Impacts of Remittances: Remittances are generally regarded as beneficial

to both recipients and the economies of the societies in which they reside. The influx of
remittances enables recipients to improve their standard of living, fulfill essential needs,
and even afford certain luxuries. The positive effects of remittances include:

 Reducing poverty rates

 Directly reaching those in need and promoting banking experience and saving habits
 Assisting with emergencies due to the flexibility and immediacy of money transfers,
addressing crucial needs such as food, clothing, housing, education, and healthcare
 Contributing to raising educational levels
 Instilling pride and confidence in the receiving community over the success of
individuals able to send remittances
 Exhibiting countercyclical behavior by increasing during economic slumps or natural
disasters, unlike investments that decline during such periods
 Being more predictable and better targeted at those in need compared to foreign aid,
while also being less prone to corruption since they bypass intermediaries

Overall, remittances have been instrumental in alleviating poverty, modernizing rural

societies, and supporting infrastructure development in recipient countries.

2. Challenges and Limitations of Remittances: Despite their positive impact,

remittances also face challenges and limitations that are difficult to ignore:

 Brain Drain: Skilled and educated individuals in less developed countries are more likely
to emigrate and remain in developed countries due to better earnings and the ability to
send money back home. This brain drain can have a detrimental effect on the
economies of their home countries.
 Limited Economic Development: The increased personal consumption made possible by
remittances does not necessarily translate into long-term economic growth or
 development. Remittance-driven consumption often fails to stimulate investment in
essential economic infrastructure required for sustained development.
 Potential for Exploitation and Crime: Those receiving remittances can become targets for
local gangs seeking to steal the cash or the products purchased with remittance funds.
Additionally, migrants who leave their home countries for work may face abuse, forced
labor, and other forms of exploitation.
 Support for Questionable Regimes: Remittances may flow to countries with dubious
regimes, indirectly supporting regimes that might not deserve global backing.
 Costs and Manipulation: Sending remittances can be costly, although the costs have
been decreasing. Payment processors may also manipulate exchange rates to increase
their profits, reducing the actual amount of money remitted to developing countries.
 Dependency and Social Issues: While remittances provide essential support, they are not
a comprehensive solution to poverty. There is a risk that recipients may become
dependent on remittances, reducing their motivation to seek self-sufficiency.
Remittances can also lead to family divisions and social problems within communities.
 Unequal Distribution and Exploitation: The poorest nations are not necessarily the
greatest recipients of remittances. Middle-income countries often receive the largest
share. Additionally, within the poorest countries, the neediest individuals may not be the
primary beneficiaries of remittances.
 Overall Impact and Exploitation: While remittances benefit many individuals, they should
not overshadow the issue of migrant exploitation. Furthermore, some argue that
remittances can justify the restructuring of the world for the benefit of a privileged few.

Despite the complexities and drawbacks associated with remittances, it is important to

recognize that even relatively small sums of money can have a significant positive
impact on the lives of those in need

Western Union and the Remittance Industry:

The Rise and Fall of Western Union: Western Union, founded in 1851, initially gained
prominence in the telegram business. However, as newer communication technologies
emerged, the company experienced a decline. It reinvented itself by focusing on money
transfer services, which propelled its resurgence in the remittance industry.

Praise and Criticism: Western Union has been praised for providing immigrants with a
secure and reliable means of transmitting money. However, it has also faced criticism.
The company's high fees, reaching up to 20%, and predatory pricing practices have
drawn scrutiny. Western Union settled a lawsuit accusing it of concealing its high fees,
highlighting concerns about deceptive advertising.
Global Presence and Reach: By June 2013, Western Union, along with its Vigo and
Orlandi Valuta branded services, had established an extensive network of 520,000
locations worldwide. This impressive figure exceeds the number of McDonald's locations
globally, showcasing Western Union's commitment to serving the growing population
of individuals leaving their home countries for work opportunities.

Changing Market Dynamics: Although Western Union was once the dominant player
in the remittance industry, its market share has significantly declined. In the late 1990s,
the company controlled a staggering 75% of the global remittance market. However,
with the emergence of competitors, such as MoneyGram and smaller players, Western
Union's market share has dwindled to 15%, while MoneyGram's share fell from 22% to
5% during the same period.

Reducing Costs and Benefits for Migrants: Intensifying competition within the
remittance market has led to a notable reduction in transaction costs. In the late 1990s,
sending $300 incurred an average cost of 15%, which has now decreased to 10%.
Notably, sending $300 to Mexico now carries a cost of just over 2%. Lower fees allow
migrants to send more money back home, enhancing the financial well-being of their
families.

Challenges and Fraudulent Practices: As the remittance market expands, counterfeit

services have emerged, defrauding vulnerable immigrants of their hard-earned wages
sent to their families. This issue highlights the need for effective measures to combat
fraud and protect individuals within the remittance ecosystem.

Potential for Technological Innovation: Innovative technologies and mobile money

transfers hold promise for reducing the costs of remittances further. Domestic transfers
using mobile phones have proven successful in countries like Kenya, enabling more
frequent and smaller-sum transactions. However, regulatory restrictions aimed at
combating money laundering and cross-border terror financing have limited the
widespread adoption of mobile technologies in international remittances.

Understanding Diaspora:

Historical Origins: The term "diaspora" originally referred to the dispersion of Jews
across different regions before and after the birth of Christ. Significant events, such as
the Babylonian dispersion in 586 BC and the Roman expulsion from Jerusalem in 136
AD, shaped the Jewish diaspora. However, the term has now been adopted by various
groups to describe their own situations, as well as being widely used in the media to
depict a range of population movements.
Broadened Definition: Over time, the term "diaspora" has expanded beyond its
association with the Jewish experience to encompass the dispersal, dislocation, and
deterritorialization of any population. It most commonly refers to the large-scale
dispersal of religious, ethnic, racial, or national groups. Other groups, such as the
Lebanese, Palestinians, Armenians, and the Irish, have also experienced diasporas. The
widespread and loose usage of the term has led to debates and concerns about its loss
of consensus and becoming a mere buzzword.

Differentiating Diasporas: Given the diverse range of diasporic experiences, it is more

appropriate to differentiate among various diasporas rather than treating them all under
a single overarching category. Efforts have been made to outline the ideal-typical
characteristics of a diaspora. For instance, Safran describes diasporas as expatriate
minority communities dispersed from a central location to multiple peripheral locations.
They possess a collective memory or mythology of their homeland, which is maintained
by the community and acts as a unifying force. Diasporas often consist of individuals
who feel alienated from their country of origin and may never be fully accepted there.
Despite this, they idealize a return to their ancestral homeland and maintain a
commitment to restoring it to its former glory, whether in terms of independence or
prosperity. The relationship between the diaspora and the homeland is sustained not
only through the commitment to restoration but also through group solidarity and a
shared consciousness stemming from this commitment.

Ideal Type and Variations: It is important to note that the characteristics described
above represent an ideal-typical diaspora and that no single diaspora fully conforms to
all these dimensions. Each diaspora is unique and shaped by its own historical, cultural,
and socio-political context. The concept of diaspora continues to evolve and adapt as
scholarly discussions and understandings evolve alongside changing global dynamics.

Diaspora as a Social Form: A diaspora can be understood as a social form

characterized by the maintenance of relationships despite the dispersion of a
population. These populations form transnational communities that span across
borders, even if the individuals themselves are widely scattered, sometimes globally.
While residing in different locations, diaspora communities maintain a connection to
their homeland or the ancestral place of their forebears.

Diaspora as a Consciousness: Diaspora involves a particular type of consciousness

among its members. They exhibit a heightened awareness of interconnections,
especially those that transcend national borders, and possess attachments that are
decentered. Diasporic individuals are conscious of their differences from the
surrounding communities and recognize the presence of their fellow diaspora members
in multiple locations, including the homeland.

Diaspora as a Mode of Cultural Production: Diaspora is also seen as a mode of

cultural production. Cultural objects, meanings, and images emerging from diaspora
communities are shaped by and contribute to global flows. Consequently, they exhibit a
high degree of fluidity and are subject to mutual influences, negotiations,
transformations, and contestations.

Diaspora as a Political Entity: Diasporas often assume a political role, with individuals
or collectivities becoming significant political actors in both their host countries and on
the international stage. Examples include the Palestinians and Tibetans, whose diasporic
presence and political engagement have garnered attention and influence.

Diaspora as a Transnational Process: An alternative perspective, influenced by the

understanding of globalization, presents diaspora as a transnational process rather than
a static phenomenon tied to specific locations or nation-states. Paul Gilroy's concept of
the "Black Atlantic" exemplifies this approach. It emphasizes flows, exchanges, and in-
between elements, highlighting the ongoing relationship and affinity among diverse
black populations across the entire Atlantic basin. Diasporas, including the Black
Atlantic, are imagined and contested communities that transcend specific geographic
spaces.

Diaspora in the Context of Globalization: The usage of the term "diaspora" has
expanded alongside the process of globalization. More diasporas are recognized, and
individuals increasingly describe themselves and their relationships in diasporic terms.
This expansion relates to the growing presence of "trans-state collective experiences"
associated with organized referents such as states, lands, nations, peoples, languages,
and cultures. The term "diasporization" has been used to describe the pervasive nature
of diasporas in today's world, closely intertwined with globalization. The decline of the
nation-state and deterritorialization have facilitated the proliferation of diasporas, while
advancements in technology have enabled communication and networking among
dispersed populations. As globalization continues to evolve, dispersals labeled as
diasporas are expected to increase.

Emergence of Virtual Diasporas: The role of new technologies in diasporas has

become increasingly significant, giving rise to the concept of "virtual diasporas." These
virtual worlds are created through various information and communication
technologies, including mobile phones, emails, video chats, and social media. These
technologies provide avenues for people to maintain connections and for communities
to sustain themselves and even form new communities. However, it is important to note
that virtual diasporas are rooted in the prior existence of real diasporas, representing the
physical dispersal of a specific population.

Contemporary example of a diaspora

The Lebanese diaspora serves as a contemporary example of a long-standing and

significant diaspora. Over the past century, multiple waves of Lebanese people have left
their country, migrating to various regions such as Africa and the Americas. Recent
events, including the 2008 street-fighting involving Hezbollah and ongoing political
instability and conflicts within Lebanon and the surrounding region, have further
contributed to the dispersion of the Lebanese population. These challenges have made
it difficult to conduct business and travel to and from Lebanon.

Consequently, there has been a "brain drain" phenomenon, where highly educated and
skilled Lebanese individuals are more likely to emigrate, often seeking opportunities in
oil-rich Gulf states. Notably, members of the Lebanese diaspora have achieved notable
success in various fields. Carlos Slim, a Lebanese-Mexican telecommunications tycoon, is
recognized as the wealthiest person globally, while Nick Hayek, a Swiss-Lebanese
individual, serves as the CEO of Swatch, the largest producer of Swiss watches.

Lebanese diaspora communities establish a strong sense of ethnic identity in their new
countries of residence. They form close-knit communities, which provide support and
foster a sense of belonging. Additionally, members of the Lebanese diaspora maintain a
deep devotion to their home country, making considerable efforts to stay connected
and contribute to Lebanon's well-being. This is particularly evident during significant
occasions like the Christmas season, when Christian Lebanese individuals, in particular,
go to great lengths to return to their homeland.

The Lebanese diaspora exemplifies the characteristics often associated with diasporic
communities, including the dispersion of a population, the maintenance of ethnic
identity, the formation of transnational communities, and the commitment to the
homeland despite residing in different locales

IMMIGRANT ENTREPRENEURS IN THE US

The United States presents entrepreneurial opportunities for new immigrant groups,
contributing to a vibrant and evolving landscape. Immigrants who possess the necessary
understanding, expertise, and skills to cater to the needs of various ethnic groups in
terms of food, clothing, travel, and more have been able to capitalize on these
opportunities. A 2012 report revealed that 10.5 percent of the immigrant workforce
owns a business, compared to 9.3 percent of the native-born workforce. Remarkably,
immigrants are twice as likely as native-born individuals to start a new business.

In the field of engineering and technology, about one in four American companies
founded between 2006 and 2012 had at least one founder born outside the US. This
influx of immigrant entrepreneurs injects fresh sources of entrepreneurialism and
increases ethnic diversity within American culture. While these developments have
traditionally been concentrated in major cities, they are now spreading to suburban and
smaller urban areas.

An exemplary illustration of this expansion is the Golden Krust Caribbean Bakery,

initiated in 1989 by an immigrant from Jamaica. It has since grown into a franchise with
over 100 restaurants across the United States. Undocumented immigrants face greater
challenges in establishing such businesses, but they often benefit from the services
provided by these enterprises. Successful entrepreneurs may also engage in tourism,
transitioning from being solely perceived as migrants to embracing the role of tourists.

BRAIN DRAIN

The global flow of people has many dimensions and carries with it many implications.
People flow around the world for a wide range of reasons and they bring with them a
wide variety of things. One of those things that is of overwhelming importance is
intellectual capacity and ability. People with great intellect and advanced training and
education, with much intellectual capital, are highly prized elsewhere in the world and
the loss of such people by a given locale involves what is often called the brain drain
(Manashi Ray 2012).

Historical and Contemporary Perspectives

The issue of brain drain has a long history and has affected, and continues to affect,
nation-states in various ways at different points in time (Docquier and Rapoport 2012).
The directionality of the flows of those with great intellectual capital often varies from
one place and time to another. In some places and times, the flows are primarily
outward, while at others, they are primarily inward. Whatever the primary direction, in
almost all places and times, it is bi-directional.

Negative Implications
The systematic loss of highly skilled migrants and their intellectual capital is a source of
great concern for the locales that experience a net outflow of their best-educated
individuals. This brain drain can have long-term negative effects on the development
and progress of a region or country. It represents a significant loss of human capital and
talent, potentially impacting various sectors, including academia, research, innovation,
and economic growth.

Bi-Directional Flows

While brain drain is often associated with the outflow of intellectual capital, it is
important to recognize that the movement of highly skilled individuals is not
unidirectional. There are instances when individuals return to their home countries or
choose to migrate to other regions seeking better opportunities. These bi-directional
flows of intellectual capital can contribute to knowledge exchange, cultural enrichment,
and the development of diverse networks.

Addressing the Brain Drain

Understanding the dynamics of brain drain is crucial for policymakers and societies to
address its potential negative effects and devise strategies to retain intellectual talent
within their respective locales. Efforts to enhance educational opportunities, create
favorable work environments, promote research and innovation, and establish networks
and collaborations can help mitigate brain drain. Encouraging individuals to contribute
their expertise to their home countries or regions through programs such as knowledge
transfer initiatives and diaspora networks can also contribute to reversing brain drain
trends.

Israel

Concerns over Brain Drain in Israel: In Israel, there is a growing concern, particularly in
the early 21st century, regarding the brain drain phenomenon (Ram 2008: 46). This is
evident from the 2013 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, where three Americans won the prize,
two of whom were immigrants from Israel. The trend indicates an increased likelihood of
individuals with advanced education leaving Israel for other countries. The reasons for
this migration include the overall atmosphere of instability, risks associated with
terrorism and warfare, as well as more practical issues like low wages, high taxes, and an
inflexible labor market. As a result, Israeli universities have experienced a significant loss,
with one in five faculty members leaving to work in American universities, and one in
four Israeli scientists emigrating to other countries since 2008
Japan's Skilled Workers Seeking Opportunities Abroad

Challenges and Opportunities in Japan: In Japan, there is a growing trend among

skilled workers, particularly engineers, with high levels of education and training, actively
seeking job opportunities in other Asian countries such as Taiwan, South Korea, and
China (Reuters 2012). The Japanese economy, after its peak in the 1980s and 1990s, has
experienced a decline, accompanied by a decrease in lifetime job security for employees.
Consequently, finding desirable jobs within Japan has become more challenging, and
the available positions are less attractive than in the past. On the other hand,
neighboring economies have thrived, creating more job prospects for highly skilled
Japanese workers.

Opportunities for Japanese Engineers: Beyond higher pay, skilled Japanese engineers
are enticed by the prospects of starting new businesses in countries like Taiwan (Fackler
2007a: C1, C5). These countries offer additional attractions, including Japanese-style
schools, restaurants, karaoke bars, and even "massage parlors." In China, the
manufacturing boom has drawn highly skilled Japanese workers who were unable to
secure comparable jobs in their home country. Employers benefit from this influx of
talent, resulting in a newly innovative workforce. However, critics argue that Japan's
educational system, which emphasizes rote learning, has hindered innovation.

Concerns and Economic Implications: The migration of skilled workers from Japan to
Taiwan and China raises concerns about the loss of talent and technological expertise
(Reuters 2012). Additionally, there is apprehension that Taiwan and China's ability to
produce high-quality goods at a lower cost may adversely impact Japan's economy. A
Japanese government official voiced his worry, stating that emerging countries are
benefiting from the knowledge and skills nurtured by Japan without bearing the
associated costs (Reuters 2012). The situation presents a significant challenge to Japan's
economic competitiveness and growth.

Brain Drain in the Global South

The Challenge of Brain Drain: While brain drain is a significant concern in the Northern
countries, it poses an even greater challenge in the Global South, where evidence shows
that many of the best and brightest individuals are leaving their home countries,
creating difficulties in addressing crucial tasks locally. South Africa, for instance,
experiences a large number of college graduates each year, but a significant portion of
them emigrate to countries like Great Britain and Australia. Similarly, in Morocco,
individuals with specialized skills, such as computer expertise, often choose to leave for
other nations, particularly France. Consequently, Morocco faces obstacles in upgrading
its internet systems, as many of its most highly trained professionals in this field are
abroad, potentially members of a Moroccan IT association based in Paris.

Higher Education and Healthcare Struggles: A concerning trend is observed in

countries like Jamaica, Trinidad, Senegal, and various African nations, where over half of
the college graduates choose to relocate abroad. This exodus of educated individuals
has a profound impact on these countries, as they struggle to provide essential services.
For instance, in African countries, where one in five doctors works overseas, hospitals
face challenges in delivering adequate patient care due to the emigration of skilled
medical personnel to the Gulf States, the European Union, and other destinations. The
consequences of this brain drain are distressing, with patients enduring prolonged
waiting times and limited access to specialized treatments. In some cases, the lack of
proper medical expertise results in irreversible harm, as individuals suffer the
consequences of delayed surgeries or inadequate healthcare resources.

Push and Pull Factors: The migration of highly educated individuals from the Global
South to other countries is driven by both push and pull factors. While higher wages
and improved living conditions attract them, they are also compelled to leave their
home countries due to low wages, poor living and working conditions, inadequate
infrastructure, and other challenges. The allure of better opportunities abroad often
outweighs the drawbacks they face in their home countries.

Addressing the Brain Drain Challenge: Mitigating the brain drain in the Global South
requires comprehensive strategies that address the root causes and create an
environment that encourages professionals to stay and contribute to their local
communities. This entails improving working conditions, offering competitive wages,
investing in infrastructure development, and fostering an environment that supports
entrepreneurship and innovation. By creating an atmosphere conducive to growth and
providing opportunities for professional development, countries can retain their skilled
workforce and leverage their talents to drive economic and social progress domestically.

Questioning the Impact of Brain Drain

Exploring the Brain Gain: While the brain drain phenomenon raises concerns, it is
essential to consider that there is another side to this issue, known as the brain gain.
Some nations may actually benefit from acquiring individuals with an increased
knowledge base, surpassing the number of professionals they lose. However, historically,
and to a large extent today, it is predominantly the rich and powerful countries of the
North that benefit from this process. For instance, in response to the nurse shortage in
the US, efforts are made to attract nurses from other nations, often from the Global
South, such as the Philippines and India. Consequently, the US gains high-quality nurses
while other countries, particularly in the South, suffer losses. The pay gap plays a
significant role in this scenario, as highlighted by a study revealing that Ugandan nurses
start at a monthly salary of $115, compared to $3,000-$4,000 in the US. It is no surprise
that many nursing students in Uganda express a desire to work abroad, with the US and
UK being preferred destinations.

Brain Circulation and Returning Talent: In some cases, countries may witness the
return of well-trained professionals who come back with enhanced knowledge and
expertise, surpassing their capabilities when they left. This phenomenon can be
described as "brain circulation." Taiwan serves as an example of a nation that has
successfully attracted back highly trained and experienced personnel to its research and
development centers, many of whom had previously sought better opportunities
elsewhere.

Questioning the Negative Consequences: There are several reasons to question the
notion that brain drain only brings negative consequences for the sending country.
Contrary to popular belief, the majority of migrants are not doctors, engineers, and
physicists who leave solely for financial gain. Many migrants are less-skilled or unskilled
individuals, and their departure may not have as significant an impact or could even be
beneficial, such as reducing the economic burden they might place on the state.
Moreover, emigrants can play various roles for their home countries, such as
establishing important networks involving people and technology and sending
remittances back home. The emigration of highly trained individuals can also stimulate
others in the sending country to pursue advanced education and strengthen the
educational system domestically. Additionally, there is a moral argument to consider,
suggesting that it would be unethical to prevent individuals with skills, or anyone for
that matter, from migrating. Therefore, some argue that regardless of the costs to the
sending country, it is immoral to restrict those who wish to leave from doing so.

While the brain drain undoubtedly poses challenges, it is crucial to examine the
multifaceted nature of this issue and consider the potential benefits and complexities
associated with international migration of skilled professionals.

Human Trafficking

Definition and Scope Human trafficking involves the forceful movement and
exploitation of individuals through coercion, fraud, or abuse of power. It encompasses
recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring, or receipt of persons for the purpose of
 exploitation. While trafficking can occur within countries, our focus here is on
international trafficking, specifically for sexual exploitation and forced labor.

Magnitude and Challenges in Measurement Estimating the scale of human trafficking

is difficult, resulting in varying figures. The commonly cited range suggests that between
700,000 and 2 million people are trafficked internationally each year, with some
estimates reaching up to 4 million people. Additionally, domestic trafficking is even
more prevalent, affecting an estimated 2 to 4 million people within countries. Contrary
to popular belief, trafficking occurs not only from developing to developed countries
but also within both developed and developing nations. The majority of victims are
women and girls (75%), with children comprising 27% of the total.

Trafficking Routes and Networks Trafficking routes often align with unauthorized
immigration patterns. For instance, routes into the United States commonly pass
through Mexico, and routes into Europe involve northern Africa, Northeastern Europe,
or Central Eastern European countries.

Human trafficking operates through complex global networks. High demand, significant
profits, and relatively low risk for traffickers contribute to the industry's growth. In 2005,
the International Labor Organization estimated that human trafficking generated $31.6
billion in profits. Transnational criminal organizations play a pivotal role, collaborating
with other criminal and ethnically based groups. The involvement of "corrupt
guardians," such as immigration officers, embassy officials, border patrol agents, and
police officers, who facilitate or turn a blind eye to trafficking activities further fuels the
network.

Sex Trafficking and Labor Trafficking While sex trafficking is commonly reported as
the more prevalent form, accounting for approximately 79% of cases according to the
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, critics argue that labor trafficking is
significantly underestimated. The International Labor Organization claims that labor
trafficking constitutes 68% of all trafficking victims.

Understanding the complexity and scale of human trafficking is crucial for combatting
this grave violation of human rights. Efforts should focus on prevention, protection, and
prosecution to dismantle these criminal networks and support the victims of trafficking

Sex Trafficking

1. Methods of Coercion: Victims of sex trafficking are subjected to force and coercion,
often through abduction or deceitful job offers. They may be targeted in areas with high
 unemployment rates, where traffickers promise legitimate employment opportunities
but later force them into the sex trade. Vulnerable children with family problems are also
at risk of being exploited.
2. Exploitation and Control: Once victims are trafficked to their destination, their
passports are confiscated, and they are trapped in a cycle of exploitation. They are told
they must work to pay off a significant debt, which often includes fees for various
services. Traffickers exert control through physical and sexual abuse, surveillance, and
threats of violence against the victims and their families.
3. Living Conditions and Work Expectations: Sex trafficking victims endure deplorable
living conditions and face extreme work expectations. They are forced to provide sexual
services to numerous clients each day, sometimes as many as 25-30 men, leading to
physical and emotional exhaustion. The exposure to such high-risk sexual encounters
also increases their vulnerability to sexually transmitted infections.
4. Financial Exploitation: The earnings of sex trafficking victims are controlled by pimps
or traffickers. The victims receive little to no compensation for their services, as all or
most of their income goes to the traffickers, who use it to maintain control over them.
This financial exploitation perpetuates the cycle of enslavement.
5. Physical and Psychological Abuse: Traffickers use physical and psychological abuse to
maintain control over their victims. Victims endure severe beatings, rape, and other
forms of violence as a means of coercion and punishment. The trauma inflicted on them
leaves lasting scars, both physically and mentally.
6. Prevalence and Global Networks: Sex trafficking is a widespread issue, with estimates
suggesting that millions of individuals are trafficked each year. The industry operates
through complex global networks, involving transnational criminal organizations and
corrupt individuals such as immigration officers and police officers who facilitate or turn
a blind eye to the illicit activities.

Addressing sex trafficking requires comprehensive strategies, including prevention

efforts to raise awareness, support systems for victims, legal frameworks to prosecute
traffickers, and international cooperation to dismantle trafficking networks. Efforts
should focus on protecting vulnerable populations, providing resources for victim
rehabilitation, and addressing the underlying socioeconomic factors that contribute to
trafficking

Labor Trafficking

1. Exploitation and Conditions of Slavery: Labor trafficking involves the exploitation of

workers who are subjected to slavery-like conditions. They often endure physical abuse,
lack of wages, long working hours without breaks, and substandard living conditions.
 Low-skilled, temporary, and irregular migrants are particularly vulnerable to forced
labor.
2. Scope of Forced Labor: Forced labor is a significant global issue, with an estimated 20.9
million individuals trapped in forced labor worldwide. Unlike sex trafficking, most cases
of forced labor occur within or near the victims' home countries. While international
movement is less common in labor trafficking, a large number of victims are trafficked
from the global South to the global North.
3. Domestic Labor Trafficking: A common form of labor trafficking is the exploitation of
domestic workers in affluent countries. Women from countries like China, Mexico, and
Vietnam are often trafficked to destinations such as Europe, North America, the Middle
East, and Asia. These workers are lured with false job offers and charged high fees, and
upon arrival, they become trapped in their employer's home and are unable to leave
without permission.
4. Trafficking by Foreign Diplomats: Domestic workers are also trafficked using
authorized routes by foreign diplomats. Some diplomats, under special visas, transport
domestic workers to their host countries. These workers, once brought into the country,
may have their passports confiscated and are subjected to forced labor without any
legal protection.
5. Legal Challenges and Diplomatic Immunity: Prosecuting cases of labor trafficking
involving foreign diplomats can be challenging due to diplomatic immunity. Diplomats
may claim immunity from legal action, making it difficult for victims to seek justice and
hold their traffickers accountable. In some instances, laws protecting victims of
trafficking may not override diplomatic immunity, hindering the pursuit of justice.

Efforts to combat labor trafficking require international cooperation, legal reforms, and
increased protections for vulnerable workers. Enhanced regulations, monitoring systems,
and awareness campaigns can help prevent and identify instances of labor trafficking. It
is crucial to ensure that victims have access to support services, legal assistance, and
pathways to escape exploitation and rebuild their lives.

Tourism

1. Globalization and Tourism: Tourism is a significant aspect of global flows of people.

The rise of air travel, particularly with the advent of budget airlines, has made global
travel more accessible and affordable for a larger number of people. However, it is
important to note that tourism remains predominantly limited to the world's elites,
particularly from the global North.
2. Impact of Globalization: Globalization has increased people's interest in traveling to
different parts of the world. People today are more knowledgeable about various
 destinations globally and have access to modern, high-speed transportation options.
This has opened up opportunities for tourists to explore even remote locations such as
the Galápagos Islands off the coast of Ecuador, known for Charles Darwin's research.
3. Traveling to Remote Locations: The Galápagos Islands serve as an example of how
tourism has reached once-remote and ecologically significant locations. Travelers can
reach the islands by taking an international flight to Guayaquil and then an internal
flight to Baltra. From there, they can explore the islands by joining organized tours that
usually involve smaller ships accommodating a limited number of people.
4. Range of Tour Options: There are various tour companies offering different durations
and price ranges for exploring destinations like the Galápagos Islands. Some tours are
highly luxurious and expensive, catering to high-end tourists, while others are more
budget-conscious, although still not considered inexpensive.
5. Transformation of Remote Locations: The availability of affordable transportation and
organized tours has led to a significant transformation in once-remote or unlikely
destinations. These places have now become part of global tourism, attracting visitors
from different parts of the world.

While globalization has increased the opportunities for global tourism, it is essential to
address the disparities in access and affordability, ensuring that more diverse
populations can benefit from and participate in tourism. Sustainable tourism practices
and responsible travel can help preserve the cultural and ecological integrity of these
destinations for future generations

Specialized Forms of Tourism

1. Ecotourism: Ecotourism aims to provide tourists with the opportunity to experience

natural environments while minimizing harm to the ecosystem. It recognizes that
conventional tourism often has a destructive impact on the environment. Many
countries promote ecotourism, but there is a fundamental contradiction: the more
successful ecotourism becomes, the more tourists are drawn to these natural areas.
Despite efforts to minimize harm, the sheer numbers of tourists are likely to have some
impact on the environment. The Galápagos Islands, for instance, have implemented
measures to practice ecotourism, including limiting the number of visitors, restricting
activities, and requiring overnight stays on ships rather than the islands. However, even
with these measures, the increasing popularity of the Galápagos Islands strains their
ecological balance, challenging the notion of true ecotourism.
2. Ethnotourism: Ethnotourism involves immersing oneself in the lives and cultures of
people from different backgrounds. Unlike ecotourism, which focuses on natural sights,
ethnotourism is centered around experiencing the daily lives and traditions of local
 communities. For example, a tour of Malaysia might emphasize understanding and
observing the lifestyles and customs of Malaysians.
3. Adventure Tourism: Adventure tourism revolves around visiting remote and often
challenging natural environments. The primary goal is to seek adventure and thrilling
experiences, rather than solely focusing on natural sights or local communities.
4. Niche Tourism: Niche tourism refers to specialized forms of tourism that cater to
specific interests or preferences. Some examples include:
 Sex tourism: This form of tourism revolves around seeking sexual experiences or
services in a particular destination.
 Food and wine tourism: It involves exploring and experiencing the culinary traditions
and wine regions of different cultures.
 LGBTQ+ tourism: This form of tourism focuses on destinations and experiences that are
welcoming and cater to the interests of the LGBTQ+ community.
 War tourism: It involves visiting sites associated with historical conflicts or war, often to
learn about the history and consequences of these events.
 Heritage tourism: This form of tourism focuses on visiting and experiencing sites of
cultural and historical significance.

These specialized forms of tourism provide opportunities for unique experiences and
cater to specific interests and preferences of travelers. However, it is important to ensure
that such forms of tourism are conducted responsibly, respecting the environment,
cultures, and communities involved.

Adverse Effects of Tourism

1. Environmental Impact: The rapid growth of tourism in many popular destinations has led to
significant environmental challenges. While some destinations, like the Galápagos Islands, have
implemented careful management practices to minimize environmental damage, other places face
detrimental effects. For example, iconic sites such as the Acropolis in Athens, the Forbidden City and
Great Wall in China, and the Hagia Sophia area in Istanbul have experienced increased tourism,
resulting in strain on the infrastructure, degradation of historical sites, and environmental
deterioration.
2. Cultural and Heritage Challenges: The influx of tourists can have negative impacts on local cultures
and heritage sites. The example of Angkor Wat in Cambodia demonstrates this issue. The massive
increase in tourism has generated much-needed income for the country but has also brought
challenges to the preservation, restoration, and study of the ancient temples. The sheer volume of
visitors has caused damage to the structures, including the stone paths, statues, and carvings.
Additionally, issues such as graffiti on walls adjacent to precious carvings have arisen. Despite the
need for better protection, the Cambodian government faces financial constraints and struggles to
balance preservation with the desire to attract more tourists. Consequently, some sites have been
transformed into commercialized attractions, leading to concerns about the preservation of their
cultural and historical significance.
3. Infrastructure Strain: The influx of tourists can strain local infrastructure and resources. Popular
tourist destinations often face challenges in meeting the increasing demands for accommodations,
transportation, water, energy, waste management, and other essential services. Insufficient
infrastructure can lead to overcrowding, traffic congestion, environmental pollution, and a decline in
the quality of life for local residents.
4. Economic Disparities: While tourism can be a significant source of revenue and employment for
certain regions, it can also exacerbate economic disparities. The benefits of tourism are often
concentrated in specific areas, such as popular tourist hotspots or resorts, while neighboring
communities may not benefit equally from tourism-related opportunities. This imbalance can lead to
social and economic inequalities within a destination.
5. Social and Cultural Disruption: Mass tourism can disrupt local communities and traditional ways of
life. The influx of tourists can lead to changes in local customs, values, and social dynamics. Some
destinations experience a loss of authenticity and a commodification of culture, as local traditions
and practices are altered or performed solely for tourist entertainment. Local communities may also
face challenges in preserving their identity and maintaining a sense of community cohesion amidst
the constant influx of tourists.

It is crucial to address these adverse effects through sustainable tourism practices, including
responsible management, community engagement, environmental conservation, and equitable
distribution of benefits. Balancing the positive aspects of tourism with the preservation of cultural
heritage and the protection of the environment is essential for the long-term sustainability of the
industry and the well-being of host communities.