CHAPTER 12: GLOBAL MIGRATION

"Migrants and refugees are not pawns in the chessboard of humanity."

- Pope Francis

Intended Learning Outcomes

At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Gain a fuller understanding of the dynamics of global migration;
2. Understand the various reasons for Global migration;
3. Have a better appraisal of the issues and concerns related to migration;
4. Be able to correlate Global migration with Globalization; and
5. Equip students with 21st century learning and develop higher order thinking skills that will lead
towards a deeper understanding of Global Migration and how it can impact oneself and the Philippines.

The previous chapter analyzed global demography. It is believed that one of the essential aspects of
demographic analysis is migration. However, due to the complexity and importance of this subject matter in
relation to Globalization most especially, we shall be discussing it here in a separate chapter.
Humanity seems to be always on the move. Throughout history, we have seen how civilizations and empires
arose out of constant human mobility. We have witnessed how patterns of social transformation as well as
institutions were shaped because of the desire to explore and the zeal to discover. The nomadic spirit of man
is very much evident in the fact that pluralistic and multi ethnic societies exists in our midst which could be
regarded as by products and fruits of many years of migratory processes. The most recent era of mass
voluntary migration was between 1850 and 1914 wherein over one million people a year were drawn to the
new world by the turn of the 20th century (Andreas, 2000).
Now, more than ever, it is important to understand the core dynamics of global migration. The
patterns, concerns, issues and prospects for the future are indeed important elements to be considered
leading to a more solid appraisal of how Global migration and the phenomenon we call Globalization are
intertwined.
To begin, it is worthy to highlight that based on the 2017 International Migration Report by the United
Nations, the number of international migrants continue to escalate at a rapid pace. The report shows that the
number of international migrants worldwide has continued to grow rapidly in recent years, reaching 258
million in 2017, up from 220 million in 2010 and 173 million in 2000. This staggering increase can be
attributed to technology, the ease of transport and mobility thus making it cheaper and faster for people to
move in search of jobs, opportunity, education and quality of life. At the same time conflict, poverty, inequality
and a lack of sustainable livelihoods compel people to leave their homes to seek a better future for
themselves and their families abroad (Daniels, 2002). Essentially, these comprise the major trigger factors for
migration to persist. We shall however, discuss it more in detail later.
First, it is imperative to clarify some basic concepts related to migration. By definition, an international
migrant is a person who is living in a country other than his or her country of birth. One cause of confusion is
the difference between immigration and emigration. In fact, some people use these terms interchangeably.
The difference between "immigrate" and "emigrate" is that "immigrating" is the act of entering a foreign
country to live while "emigrating" is the act of leaving a country to live in another. Then, there is the difference
between the home country which is the country of origin of an emigrant and the host country which is the
country of destination of an immigrant (Carrera et.al, 2009).
Both activities of immigrating and emigrating can bring a host of positive effects for both the host and
home countries. In fact, the UN International Migration Report in 2017 noted that migrants from developing
countries sent home an estimated US $413 billion in remittances. The Philippines is one country that enjoys a
relatively large sum of remittances especially from its Overseas Filipino Workers. In fact, in 2017, OFW
remittances hit $28.1 billion. These remittances are important especially for the home countries as these
constitute a significant source of household income that improves the livelihoods of families and communities
through investments in education, health, sanitation, housing and infrastructure (Lorenzo et al, 2007).
On the other hand, countries of destination or host communities benefit significantly from migration as
migrants often fill critical labor gaps, create jobs as entrepreneurs, and pay taxes and social security
contributions. However, Leiken (2001) opined that some migrants are among the most dynamic members of
the host society contributing to the development of science and technology and enriching their host
communities by providing cultural diversity. In the Philippines, again, this is very noticeable as many expat
migrants have put up foreign investments that does not only create jobs but also contributed to the social and
cultural aspects of the country. For example, the $2.4-billion integrated resort Okada Manila established by
Japanese businessman Kazuo Okada is an architectural beauty and also a contributor to local employment.
Refugees might be the face of migration in the media, but 90 percent of the world's 258 million
migrants have moved across borders voluntarily, usually for economic reasons. Voluntary migration flows are
typically gradual, placing less stress on logistics and on the social fabric of destination countries than refugee
flows. Most voluntary migrants are working-age adults, a characteristic that helps raise the share of the
population that is economically active in destination countries (McElroy, 2011).
Despite the significant benefits of migration, some migrants remain among the most vulnerable
members of society. What could be some reasons for this assertion? Well, to begin, migrants are often the
first to lose their jobs in the event of an economic downturn. Some work for less pay, for longer hours, and in
worse conditions than native-born workers. While migration is often an empowering experience, some
migrants endure human rights violations, abuse and discrimination. Migrants, particularly women and children,
may fall victim to human trafficking and the heinous forms of exploitation that it entails (UNODC, nd). The
Philippines, is in fact, no stranger to this as we have seen, heard and endured countless stories of
maltreatment and abuse especially among women OFW's who are either raped, inhumanely treated or worst
met their untimely death in a foreign land. The succeeding discussion shall focus on the primary reasons for
migration.

Reasons for Global Migration

Some people choose to migrate, e.g. someone who moves to another country to enhance their career
opportunities. Some people are forced to migrate, e.g. someone who moves due to war or famine. In this
section, we shall try to analyze the reasons as well as the factors that compel people to migrate. We shall
attempt to discuss these factors one by one and categorize these reasons as well. They are as follows:
I. Political (Civil Strife, Wars and the need for Asylum)
The deplorable state of displacement brought about by civil conflict and insecurity places asylum
seekers at the topmost of our list. As stated, 90 percent of migration is borne out of economic reasons. By
contrast, the remaining 10 percent are refugees and asylum seekers who have fled to another country to
escape conflict and persecution. A refugee is someone who has left their home and does not have a new
home to go to. Often refugees do not carry many possessions with them and do not have a clear idea of
where they may finally settle (Wilson, 2007).
Roughly half of the world's 24 million refugees are in the Middle East and North Africa, reflecting the
dominant pattern of flight to a neighboring country. Globally, 20 people are newly displaced every minute.
Overall, more than 65 million people around the world have been forcibly displaced. That's the most since
World War II, according to the U.N. Refugee Agency (UNHCR).
Here are the six countries of origin that account for the most refugees in the world today.
1. Syria - 5.6 million refugees
Almost 660,000 Syrians fled the country in 2017, according to the UNHCR. That puts the total number
of refugees from the 7-year-long conflict to 5.6 million people. Most settled in neighboring countries, including
Turkey (3.5 million people), Lebanon (1 million), Jordan (658,000), and Iraq (247,000). The vast majority of
Syrian refugees remain in the Middle East. The war has displaced an additional 6.6 million Syrians within the
country (Abedine et. al 2013).

(Source: https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2018/jun/19/record-68-million-people-flee-war-
persecution-un)
The Syrian Civil War, which began in the spring of 2011, provides an extreme example of the
relationship between internal violence and the emigration of refugees. The war has included horrific violence
between government forces and rebel groups attempting to overthrow the Assad regime, resulting in more
than 80,000 deaths as well as extensive human rights atrocities (Abedine et al, 2013). As a result of the
deteriorating conditions in Syria, which include the alleged use of chemical weapons, torture, civilian
massacres and so on, Syrian citizens have fled in mass numbers. As of May 2013, more than four million
Syrians were internally displaced and over 1.5 million had vacated the country to neighboring states as
refugees. These numbers have drastically increased as circumstances have become more dire; one million of
the total refugee population has fled during the first five months of 2013 alone, and the UNHCR suggests that
these estimates may be significantly undercounted (Abedine et al, 2013).
2. Afghanistan - 2.5 million refugees
About 2.5 million people from Afghanistan are living as refugees, representing the second-largest
refugee population in the world, Pakistan hosts nearly 1.4 million, including some second - or third-generation
Afghan refugees who have never lived in their home country. Some have been forced to return home from
neighboring countries, but increased violence there since 2015 has led to a new surge of asylum seekers. As
many as 1.5 million Afghanis are displaced within the country due to conflict.
3. South Sudan - 2.4 million refugees
The world's youngest country sank back into violent turmoil in July 2016 after renewed fighting
shattered a peace deal that was years in the making. This forced more than 1.5 million people from their
homes between July 9, 2016 - South Sudan's fifth birthday - and March 31, 2018. Now, more than 2.4 million
South Sudanese people are refugees, nearly half of whom fled to Uganda. In addition, 1.9 million people have
been displaced within the country.
4. Myanmar-1.1 million refugees
More than 1.1 million Rohingya people have fled their homes in western Myanmar's Rakhine state and
have registered as refugees in Bangladesh as of April 2018 because of fighting between intercommunity
groups, minority groups, and government military forces. The United Nations is calling this the world's fastest
developing refugee crisis. About 375,000 people are also displaced within Myanmar.

File Photo: Rohingya Refugees from Myanmar (Source: https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/rohingya-crisis)

5. Somalia 876,000 refugees
The total number of registered Somali refugees sits at almost 876,000, as 2018. Most refugees have
settled in Kenya, Ethiopia, or Yemen. Some have lived in massive refugee camps for years. About 100,000
have returned to the country since June 2016, largely due to the Kenyan government's intent to eventually
close Dadaab refugee camp, once the world's largest. But the widespread humanitarian needs as a result of
conflict and recurring and severe drought inside Somalia continues, Within Somalia, an estimated more than
15 million people are displaced because of insecurity.

(Source: https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/06/01/5-facts-about-the-global-somali-diaspora/)
File Photo: Somali refugees (Courtesy of Pew Research.org)
6. Democratic Republic of the Congo - 735,000 refugees
The DRC has been mired in conflict for decades. The second-largest country in Africa is fraught with
political instability, armed clashes, and human rights violations. This instability and violence have forced
almost 735,000 people to flee their homes and settle in other countries as refugees. The latest conflict
erupted in 2016 in the Kasai region, which includes five provinces in the center of the country. It is yet another
instance of fighting between the military and splintered ethnic militias. Nationally, 1.9 million people were
newly displaced in 2017, making the DRC the African country with the highest number of internally displaced
people - 4.3 million.

II. Economic-In Search for Better Opportunities

The second most prevalent reason is economic. An economic migrant is someone who emigrates from
one region to another to seek an improvement in living standards because the living conditions or job
opportunities in the migrant's own region are not sufficient. People who work legally in another country are
often described as immigrants or expatriates. Economic factors provide the main motivation behind migration.
In fact, according to the International Labor Organization, approximately half of the total population of current
international migrants, or about 100 million migrant workers, have left home to find better job and lifestyle
opportunities for their families abroad (International Labor Office of the Director-General, 2008). In some
countries, jobs simply do not exist for a great deal of the population. In other instances, the income gap
between sending and receiving countries is great enough to warrant a move. India, for example, has recently
experienced a surge in emigration due to a combination of these factors (Index Mundi, 2012).
Economic effects of Migration
The economic effects of migration vary widely. Sending countries may experience both gains and
losses in the short term but may stand to gain over the longer term. For receiving countries temporary worker
programs help to address skills shortages but may decrease domestic wages and add to public welfare
burden. The economic effects of migration for both sending and receiving countries may also vary depending
on who is moving, specifically with respect to migrant workers' skill levels. A Swedish Professor notes, "the
problem is not immigration; it is integration, especially in the labor market. If there are no jobs, the
consequences are segregation, housing problems and divided cities" (Traynor, 2010).
For sending countries, the short-term economic benefit of emigration is found in remittances.
Remittances are funds that emigrants earn abroad and send back to their home countries, mainly in order to
support families left behind. According to the World Bank, remittances totaled $529 billion worldwide in 2012,
with $401 billion of that money flowing into developing nations (2013). Significantly, these figures only account
for funds sent through formal channels, so the amount of remittances is likely much larger than these
numbers suggest. The World Bank notes that remittances sent through informal channels could add at least
50 percent to the globally recorded flows (UNCTAD, 2011).
At the same time, developing countries can suffer from "brain drain"_ the loss of trained and educated
individuals to emigration. For example, there are currently more African scientists and engineers working in
the U.S. than there are in all of Africa, according to the International Organization for Migration (IOM).
Similarly, during the last several decades, labor migration from Latin America (particularly Mexico) to
the U.S. has surged. A sizeable portion of this growing migration stream has been undocumented, a fact often
called upon by immigration opponents in their quest to limit immigration rates. The backlash against
immigrants from Latin America in the U.S. has resulted in the fortification of the U.S.-Mexico border, including
the construction of physical walls at popular entry points. However, these efforts don't appear to have
seriously limited the number of immigrants arriving in the U.S. without authorization each year; in fact,
undocumented immigrants now number close to 11 million U.S. residents (Andreas 2009). Additionally, many
individual states have recently passed legislation making it difficult for undocumented immigrants to receive
social services and find work in the US, causing extensive backlash from immigrants and supporters
(Synovitz, 2008).
Areas in Europe have also experienced influxes of immigrants in recent years. Spain provides an
interesting example; the foreign-born population of the country increased by nearly 5 million people between
2000 and 2009, growing from less than four percent to nearly fourteen percent of the total population (Arango,
2013). Like immigration to the U.S, Spain's immigration is largely labor-driven, coming from areas in North
Africa, Latin American and Europe. Unlike the U.S, however, increased immigration in Spain has not been the
cause of extensive backlash (Arango, 2013). Alternatively, France has experience widespread resistance to
immigration flows in recent years. Former President Nicolas Sarkozy pursued highly restrictive immigration
policy during his term (which ended in 2012). During 2011 alone, France deported nearly 33,000
undocumented immigrants, a 17 percent increase from the previous year, and right-wing government
members pushed for additional limits on legal migration as well (The Guardian, 2012).
Meanwhile, for developed countries, which are often on the receiving end of migration streams, the
positive economic gains from immigration are largely the result of the infusion of inexpensive and eager
laborers into the economy. In the U.S. and Canada, for example, migrant workers often fill low-wage jobs for
which there is not enough local supply of labor, such as in the agricultural and service sectors. Just as cheap
imports of industrial goods benefit the American economy, so too does the import of low-cost labor.
Economists who support the notion of these positive gains claim that immigration has little impact on wages or
job availability for domestic workers and that there is no correlation between immigration and U.S. income
distribution and unemployment rates (Davies, 2011).
III. Environmental - Disaster driven migration
Environmental problems and natural disasters often cause the loss of money, homes, and jobs. In the
middle of the 19th century, for example, Ireland experienced a famine never before seen in the country's
history. By late fall 1845, the main staple of the Irish diet, the potato, was practically wiped out. With the
government not clear on how to respond, many people died of starvation. The famine killed hundreds of
thousands and forced millions of Irish to flee. Between 1841 and 1851, the Irish population decreased by 1.6
million people, or approximately 17% of the total population, due to starvation and emigration (Daniels, 2002).
These emigrants were also encouraged to leave Ireland by their English landlords, who often rented
out unseaworthy vessels that became known as "coffin ships," and by the British government, which offered
cheap fares to Canada. The large population of Americans and Canadians of Irish descent, especially in
Boston, New York, and Chicago, can trace its ancestry to this period (Daniels 2002). More recently, the term
"environmental refugee" has been adopted to describe migrants fleeing environmental disasters.
In recent years, the concept of "environmental refugees" has gained new importance, as global climate
change and desertification have threatened the livelihoods of millions of people, causing many to leave home
in search of new opportunities. "Environmental refugee", a term coined by Essam El-Hinnawi, describes
"people who have been forced to leave their traditional habitat, temporarily or permanently, because of a
marked environmental disruption (natural and/or triggered by people) that jeopardizes their existence and/or
seriously effects the quality of their life" (LISER.eu).
In 2012, approximately 32.4 million people were displaced by environmental disasters, including those
who were forced to relocate within their countries of origin and those who sought refuge through international
migration. Ninety-eight percent of this displacement was caused by climate and weather-related disasters,
especially flooding. While developing nations tend to be disproportionately affected by such displacement,
often due to "compounded vulnerability" of repeated natural disasters and difficulty rebuilding infrastructure
and protections for the future, wealthy countries also suffered considerable environmental-induced
displacement during 2012 (IDMC, 2012).
Desertification currently affects between 100 and 200 million people worldwide. In northern Africa, the
region arguably most affected by this environmental trend, desertification threatens an additional 50 million
inhabitants of land at risk of becoming uninhabitable due to climate change and poor farming techniques. This
trend has led to a wave of North African migrants fleeing to Western Europe in order to escape crop failure
and water shortage. Although many environmental refugees would like to make it to Western Europe, the vast
majority end up migrating to neighboring countries, which tend to be some of the poorest in the world. In many
of these places, refugees are seen as unwelcome guests, putting further strain on already scarce water and
land supplies. This social mistrust and competition may escalate to further conflict and violence (Re thinking
Policies to Cope with Desertification, 2006).
According to Oxford-based environmental migration expert Norman Myers, when global climate
change takes hold, "there could be as many as 200 million people overtaken by disruptions of monsoon
systems and other rainfall regimes, by droughts of unprecedented severity and duration, and by sea-level rise
and coastal flooding". Exposure to the negative effects of global climate change will, in many cases, lead to
massive waves of migration (Nordland, 2008).
Environmental refugees are a particularly difficult problem for governments and policy-makers to cope
with due to the variety of environmental disasters that can have dramatic impacts on the forced migration of
people. For example, in Bangladesh, rising sea-levels and resulting floods have caused many people to flee
across the border to India. On the other hand, in the Sudan, droughts have reduced sources of water for
consumption and traditional agriculture, leaving many people without sufficient access to food or water and
increasing conflict over these resources. Governments must be able to foresee and respond to these
environmental issues, requiring time, money and organization. Additionally, as noted above, many of the
states most gravely affected by environmental disasters and resulting migration are in the developing world,
meaning they may lack resources to adequately address the detrimental effects of these crises (The
Economist, 2008).

(Source: https://www.flickr.com/photos/unhcr/4192569382)
Somali refugees fleeing flooding in Dadaab, Kenya

Push-Pull factors of Migration

Sociologists have long analyzed migration in terms of the "push-pull" model. This model differentiates
between push factors that drive people to leave home, from pull factors that attract migrants to a new location.
Push factors occur within sending states, that is, those that send migrants abroad, while pull factors occur
within receiving states, that is, states that receive immigrants from sending states abroad (Jonjic and Mavrodi,
2012).
Push factors are negative aspects of the sending country, while pull factors are positive aspects of the
receiving country. In fact, these differentiating factors are really two sides of the same coin. In moving
migrants must not only find a lack of benefits at home (push factors) but also expect a surplus of benefits
abroad (pull factors); otherwise the move would not be worthwhile. Whereas push factors drive migrants out
of their countries of origin, pull factors are responsible for dictating where these travelers end up. The positive
aspects of some countries serve to attract more immigrants than others (Hanson, 2012).
There are also more ambiguous factors, called network factors that can either facilitate or deter
migration. As mentioned above, network factors include cost of travel, the ease of communication, and
international business trends. These factors are not related to a specific country, but still have a profound
effect on international migration.
Examples are thus given below.
Push factors are the reasons why people leave an area. They include:
1. Lack of economic opportunities
 2. Lack of safety
3. High Criminality
4. Crop failure
5. Drought
6. Flooding
7. Poverty
8. War
Pull factors are the reasons why people move to a particular area. They include:
1. Higher employment
2. More wealth
3. Better services
4. Good climate
5. Safer, less criminality
6. Political stability
7. More fertile land
8. Lower risk from natural hazards
Migration usually happens as a result of a combination of these push and pull factors.
 (Source: https://mrbelloblog.com/ap-18-514-what-are-the-push-and-push-factors-of-migration/)
Trends in Global Migration
The number of international migrants worldwide has continued to grow over the past seventeen years,
reaching 258 million in 2017, up from 248 million in 2015, 220 million in 2010, 191 million in 2005 and 173
million in 2000. Between 2000 and 2005, the international migrant stock grew by an average of 2 per cent per
year. During the period 2005-2010, the annual growth rate accelerated, reaching 2.9 per cent. Since then,
however, it has slowed, falling to around 2.4 per cent per year during the period 2010-2015 and to 2.0 per
cent per year during the period 2015-2017. High-income countries host almost two thirds of all international
migrants. As of 2017, 64 per cent of all international migrants worldwide - equal to 165 million international
migrants - lived in high-income countries. Thirty-six per cent or 92 million - of the world's migrants lived in
middle - or low-income countries. Of these, 81 million resided in middle-income countries and 11 million in
low-income countries Analyzing data by geographic region provides additional insights into current trends.
More than 60 per cent of all international migrants worldwide live in Asia or Europe. In 2017, 80 million
international migrants were residing in Asia, compared to 78 million in Europe. Northern America hosted the
third largest number of international migrants (58 million), followed by Africa (25 million), Latin America and
the Caribbean (10 million), and Oceania (8 million).

Between 2000 and 2017, Asia added more international migrants than any other region. Asia gained
some 30 million international migrants during this period, representing a net increase of about 1.8 million
migrants per annum. Europe added the second largest number of international migrants between 2000 and
2017 (22 million), followed by Northern America (17 million) and Africa (10 million). Latin America and the
Caribbean and Oceania added comparatively smaller numbers of migrants during this period (3 million in
each of these regions).
 (Source: https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/
migration/publications/migrationreport/docs/MigrationReport2017_Highlights.pdf)
Between 2000 and 2017, the number of international migrants originating in Asia recorded the largest
increase (40.7 million), followed by the migrant population born in Africa (14.7 million), in Latin America and
the Caribbean (12.9 million), in Europe (11.6 million), in Northern America (1.2 million) and in Oceania
(700,000). In relative terms, however, the number of international migrants originating in Africa experienced
the largest increase since 2000 (+68 per cent), followed by the population of migrants born in Asia (+62 per
cent), in Latin America and the Caribbean (+52 per cent) and in Oceania (+51 per cent).
 (Source: https://www.migrationdataportal.org/infographic/number-international-migrants-millions-region-
destination-2000-and-2017-0)

Migration and Globalization

At this point, it is of great importance that we turn our attention to how migration and globalization
affects one another. We cannot over emphasize further the intrinsic relation between Migration and
Globalization. Both have affected each other in a variety of ways. The ease of travel, technologically driven
means of transportation and communication has definitely become an impetus to migrate especially with push
and pull factors seemingly overwhelming and hard to resist. On the other hand, the intermixing and
conglomeration of people of various races and nationalities has pushed the bounds of the nation state
towards becoming more dynamic imbued with a truly global appeal. The development that several industrial
countries experience and continue to experience may have been spurred by trade liberalization and increased
economic integration (Espisova and Ray, 2009).
This on the other hand, also serves as a huge pull factor for migrants to consider these countries as
their settlement. The resultant effect is an assimilation which does pave the way for a more cosmopolitan and
global environment. In simplistic terms, just as anything and everything right now falls within the ambit of
Globalization, migration too is affected by Globalization and in turn also affects Globalization (Geddes, 2012).
However, states have often firmly resisted applying similar deregulatory policies to the international movement
of people, yet the latest tally of global migrants pegged at 258 million shows that migration is showing no
signs of slowing down. In fact, the UNFPA even opined that "Today, the number of people living outside their
country of birth is larger than at any other time in history. International migrants would now constitute the
world's fifth most populous country if they all lived in the same place" (UNFPA).
As well as encouraging migration, globalization also produces countervailing forces. For example, as
businesses grow and become more internationalized, they often outsource their production to developing
countries where labor costs are lower. This movement of jobs from developed nations to the developing world
mitigates certain economic factors leading to migration. In other words, in a global economy jobs can move to
potential migrants instead of migrants moving to potential jobs (Givens and Luedtke, 2004).
Challenges and Prospects
While specific events are unpredictable, most experts predict a continued rise in international
migration during the coming decade. In addition to the economic and cultural issues already facing countries
dealing with mass migration, persistent migration streams will bring new problems in the years ahead, such as
illegal immigration. Dealing with the terrorist attacks of 9/11 and the expansion of the EU will also pose
significant challenges to migration policy. Meanwhile, growing world economic disparity will serve to intensify
push and pull factors.
Human Trafficking - often times involuntary form of migration, is an important international issue. The
UN defines human trafficking as, "the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring or receipt of persons, by
means of the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the
abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve
the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation" (UNODC.org)
Concern over the links between human trafficking, criminal organizations and the exploitation of trafficked
people has prompted governments and organizations to actively counter trafficking activities. Even so, human
trafficking forms the third largest illegal industry worldwide, following illicit drugs and arms trafficking and
generating more than $32 billion in revenue annually (dosomething.org).
Terrorism - In the aftermath of the 9/11 terrorist attacks, many Americans became hostile toward
immigration because the terrorists who perpetrated the attacks exploited gaping security holes in the U.S.
immigration system. Border security became both an immediate and long-term concern, as the borders with
Canada and Mexico were closed for days. Since then, the Immigration and Naturalization Service, which
handled immigration prior to 9/11, has been subsumed under the Department of Homeland Security, and
reformulated into several new agencies, including the Immigration and Customs Enforcement (Miller, 2005).
The recent terrorist attacks in London and Paris also prompted governments to further regulate and enforce
more stringent measures to control migration.
Increased Racism - Racism is the belief that characteristics and abilities can be attributed to people
simply on the basis of their race and that some racial groups are superior to others. Racism and
discrimination have been used as powerful weapons encouraging fear or hatred of others in times of conflict
and war, and even during economic downturns (Davies, 2011). Recent turn of events in North America
especially with the election of Pres. Donald Trump has spurred reports that racism has resurfaced in the US.
Nevertheless, migration will continue to be a major, unstoppable factor of global life until the different
push and pull factors associated with migration, including economic disparities between sending and receiving
states are eliminated. Even as governments have attempted to limit cross-border flows of goods, services,
capital and migration, the smuggling of human beings and resulting populations of illegal immigrants in both
developed and developing nations have assumed a growing importance. Concerns over undocumented
immigration have been tempered by the need for migrant labor, specifically in developed nations, as well as
the existence of growing refugee populations, further complicating the creation of efficient migration policy.
Dealing with both legal and illegal immigration, then, is one of the pressing issues facing governments and
societies across the world (Hanson, 2012).

Reference Book:
Coronacion, D. & Clilung, F. (2018). Convergence: A College Textbook in Contemporary World. Books
Atbp. Publishing Corp.