REVIEW OF LITERATURE

(GLOBAL MIGRATION, GLOBAL CITIES, AND GLOBAL ECONOMICS)

 GLOBAL MIGRATION

Global migration is a mobility done by individuals wherein they cross political and
administrative boundaries of another place or country for a certain period. However, the
mere crossing of borders does not instantly imply migration since there are tourists and
businessmen visitors who do not have the intention of staying in a place for a longer
period (depends on the policy of the country regarding residency). Migration is divided
into two types, namely internal and international migration. Internal migration refers to the
mobility of migrants from one municipality, province or city to another, which are both
located in the same country. On the other hand, international migration is moving from
one country to another. It is a result of the continuous rise of globalization, which further
enhances the interconnectedness among people and countries.

1. Global Demography is an account of world artefactual natality (birth rate), mortality

(death rate), and migration (rate of movement).

Demography as defined in most of the dictionaries is the statistical study of

populations based on different factors and the processes that bring change to the
population. Natality. Mortality and Migration are the main compositions, also known as
the big three, of demography. These three produce populations to stabilize or encounter
some changes. It alters some population patterns which bring changes to it. Jointly they
have a big effect on different aspects of society. Stockholm University’s Department of
Sociology once noted that the Global Demography is a “central component of societal
contexts and social change”.

Natality rate is basically the average annual number of births per 1,000 persons
while the Mortality rate on the other side is the average annual number of deaths per
1,000 persons. When it comes to the growth of the population, the natality rate is the
dominant factor to determine its rate. According to an article by Marie Menke (2020),
birth rates have been falling since 1950. Dr. George Leeson (2018) doesn't see anything
bad about this declining birth rate as long as the community will adjust to the
massive demographic changes. There are some countries that are aware of the
declining populations because lack of one of the three (Natality, Mortality, and Migration)
is being compensated by the others.

2. Global Migration refers to the rate of movement of peoples in the international order.

Due to rapid globalization, people from less developed countries migrate towards
urbanized and developed countries. According to the Global Commission on
International Migration (2005), factors such as the movement of capital,
goods, and skilled professionals influence a person’s decision to migrate. Since
not all countries provide
 good work opportunities, people are forced to leave their place and settle into a much-
developed country to engage themselves in economic development.

The World Commission (2004) concluded that despite increasing security in order
to limit the cases of migration from a country to another, people were able to pass
through it because of several reasons such as political, environmental and economic
reasons. Some choose the path of being an illegal migrant just to have a higher paying
job. As a result of this, the population of most developed countries is composed of many
migrants and lesser natives. The number of migrants rapidly increases as
economies develop because it provides them with more income opportunities. In a study
made by the Balbo, M. and Marconi, G. (2005), it showed that the number of foreign
workers or international migrants represent 6.2 % of the total population of
Johannesburg, South Africa.

In another study by McKinsey Global Institute regarding Global migration’s impact

and opportunity (2016), it was proven that since we move into a globalized world,
countries need to build more connections and have more resources. Migration in this
sense could help boost global productivity by sending out people to those countries who
need more human resources. Out of the world’s 247 million international migrants, more
than 90% move due to economic reasons while the other 10% moved for personal
and security issues. Half of their total population moved from developing to developed
countries. While only 35% of them are skilled and professional workers. The labor force
was boosted from
40 to 80 % from 2000 to 2014. They also contributed to 9.4% of the global Gross
Domestic Product (GDP). Sixty-five percent of immigrants settled in developed
countries which contributed to the increase in population growth. The increase in
population due to migration was about 3% on average.

3. Artefactual Reasons for Global Migration:

a. Political: Civil strife, wars, need for asylum

According to Castles (2019), migrating to other places has been part of

human history. In ancient times, people are forced to migrate because of nation-state
formation, the presence of warfare, and imperialism. Industrialization in the Western part
of Europe had led to rapid growth in migration to other continents because the residents
or citizens became landless. Along with this, colonial labor has become rampant
among African slaves. There were about 15 million workers that were forced to migrate
during the 15th to 19th centuries in the colonial empires. Furthermore, it was stated by
Giovetti (2019) that during the 2017 Rohingya crisis in Myanmar, 75% of the Muslim
population in the country migrated to Bangladesh because of the violence that they
have experienced, and the ethnic cleansing done by the government. It was
considered by the United Nations as the world’s fastest-growing refugee emergency. In
addition, due to the occurrence of deadly civil war in Syria, there were about 11 million
citizens who were forced to migrate (6.2 million Syrians are internally displaced while
5.6 million are refugees). The Syrians
 migrated because of the four-year battle for Aleppo, which includes aerial bombing that
destroyed most parts of the city. The majority of the migrants moved to the Middle East
(Turkey, Lebanon, Jordan, Iraq) while others decided to flee to some parts of Europe and
North America. Also, based on the research conducted by Gebrekidan (2017),
South Sudan has experienced a refugee crisis because of armed conflicts since
the 1950s. There were millions of people who were killed and affected by the numerous
wars in the country. Because of this, around 2 million Sudanese fled Ethiopia, Kenya,
Sudan, and Uganda.

b. Economic: Search for Better Opportunities

In the present period, one of the reasons for international migration is the disparity
in the employment level of different countries. People who often move from one area to
another are those who are looking for better job opportunities. It is stated in the
neoclassical economic theory that individuals tend to migrate so that they can receive the
maximum level of income that will match the labor or skills that they provide to
their employers. They usually choose countries with high wages and are more
economically stable in order to satisfy such desire. Another factor is the aspiration of the
migrants to secure their survival chances. When transferring to another country,
individuals often consider the security of their employment, availability of the capital if
they plan to establish businesses and the need to assess as well as manage possible
risks. Moreover, based on the research conducted by De Haas (2013), individuals
migrate because of their continuous advancement in education and the availability of
information. Their perception of having a good life has changed and their aspiration
of material possession has increased as well. Due to the emerging technology, the
lifestyle of people has evolved. Other reasons for migration are demographic growth and
climate change in their countries.

c. Environmental: Disasters

An environmental disaster is one of the major push factors of migration. It could be

considered a form of survival strategy or a household risk reduction approach. A study
estimates that 10-25% of migration around the world was caused by environmental
factors (Clark, 2007). Some of these factors include geographical area, frequency of
calamities, possibility and extent of recovery, how the community assists its citizens, and
how it plans to prevent or mitigate reoccurrence. Migration may either be forced (when
the area has become uninhabitable) or voluntary (when people no longer feel at home
and safe). There is also a distinction between a long-term or short-term migration
which are often dependent on location and status. Those who migrate permanently due
to disasters are often greatly influenced by both social and economic issues, considering
their financial capabilities and how their community responds to the aftermath of
disasters. On the other
 hand, short term migration is most commonly practiced by those who cannot afford to
relocate and have few options. Most of these people almost immediately return to their
homes despite the risks as soon as it’s reconstructed. Several studies particularly noted
that most environmental induced migrations are also influenced by social, political,
or economic reasons.

4. Artefactual Food Security, Population Control, and Global Citizenship

a. Need for Food by the Global Community

Globalization is putting a huge impact on food systems all over the world. Although
food is being made available through tons of mediums, it is by no means more
accessible by those who need it more. Changes in the food system are interrelated to
urbanization, increasing incomes, market liberalization, and foreign direct
investment. Because competition is intense for the food industry, entry by the
multinational companies tend to lead the small local businesses into a loss. Because of
these effects, there is a shift in diet patterns and consumption. (Kennedy, 2004)

The Global Community (2007) has found that the estimated future growth, together
with the changes in the food system, would not have access to enough food by 2030.
They claim that by then, agricultural products would be insufficient to meet the demand
for it. Food security, which exists only when everyone has physical and economic access
to sufficient, safe, and healthy food to meet their needs at all times. While the Peace
Corps claims that as of the moment, nearly a billion people already have no secure
access to food that is required for an active and healthy life. However, food is available,
and these are sufficient to supply everyone right now. The problem is with
accessibility and distribution.

Fortunately, steps to resolve the food insecurity issue are being made. The Global
Communities Organization listed a few ways to resolve it. These ways include increasing
productivity and diversifying production, improving access to markets, and
expanding financial products and services. As stated above, because of
competition in the food industry, local food producers are neglected. One way to
ensure accessibility to food is by coming up with ways for these local producers to be
able to reach their market and for their businesses to thrive. This will also ensure that
prices are not manipulated by those with a strong hold of the market. Access to
economic resources for both sides is important as well. Sellers would not be able to
produce products without investing money and buyers would not be able to buy these
products without the capacity to do so.

Food insecurity is a real problem for the global community. While it is true that the
food that the people need exists, access to these is limited. Fortunately, various
organizations are fighting to resolve inaccessibility. These organizations’ programs help
solve a global problem that everyone should be contributing to.
b. Population Control

According to Frank Düvell (2008), globalization was one of the reasons why there
is increased mobility and migration across the globe. The number of international
migrants was at its peak when it showed an estimated three percent of the whole
population who moved to the country for a year or more. In which these numbers are
expected to increase in the 21st century because of the inequalities among countries.
Influenced by different reasons such as finding better opportunities or searching for a
place for asylum. The trend started to disrupt different countries as one country
continues to have a slack number of population and a surplus to the others. It requires
the different nations to intervene and to make plans and actions in limiting or preventing
the number of people who enter and exit a particular country.

According to Bill Frelick (2015), the externalization of migration controls was

defined as an extraterritorial State with the intention of preventing migrants, including
asylum- seekers, from entering the legal jurisdictions of destination countries that make
them be legally prohibited from entering without individually checking the assigned
qualifications. In which the Population Reference Bureau stated that the very first step to
consider in making migration manageable is to determine the different reasons why
people migrate which can be used to lessen the difference between the countries where
people tend to migrate. Based on the study of Bill Frelick (2015), it shows that the
migration policy has become an increasingly politicized issue. Externalization is
sometimes deceptively conceived either as mandatory security and a life-saving effort or
both for welfare rather than simply as a strategy of containment and control to those who
enter and exit a country. Over time, this scenario has grown into a commonly
standardized enlistment of third countries to prevent migrants or asylum-seekers from
entering destination states.

Each country has its own ways of managing population when it comes to the issue
of Migration. Most countries discourage immigration and they do not welcome the arrival
of foreigners who wish to settle and become naturalized citizens like Europe. On the
other hand, North Korea continues to prevent its citizens from leaving the country,
but the International Refugee law has provided principles of "safe third country" as a
standard for asylum denial in countries of destination (UNHCR Executive
Committee, 1999). This obliges countries to have an evaluation of whether it provides
effective protection, which is based on the following criteria:

● No risk of oppression within the basis from the 1951 Convention or serious harm
in the previous state;
● No risk of previous expulsion from the previous state;
● Compliance, in law and practice, of the previous state based from the relevant
international refugee and human rights standards, including adequate standards
of living, work rights, health care, and education;
● Access to a right of legal stay;
 ● The assistance of persons with specific needs; and
● Timely access to a durable solution (UNHCR 2002).

c. Global Citizenship is the awareness of the wider world and their role in it

A global citizen in its sense is someone who grasps reality and is aware of a wider
world rather than being stuck on one or two geographical areas wherein that
person stands. It is the understanding to seek goodness and respect towards different
places in the world. To be a global citizen is to take part in the idea that there is such a
thing as an emerging world community to which people can identify, and that the
community has a set of progressive principles and values.

The role of a global citizen is to help and nurture the development of their
community. As such it is necessary for one to be involved in social issues. Being a global
citizen entails a responsibility not only focused on the small communities but by this
effect takes part in a much larger scale. A part of these responsibilities must be
education. It should take a massive portion of being a global citizen to educate those who
are ignorant of the societal issues in the world with respect to the diversity of different
cultures. A role of a global citizen should also fight the social injustices towards the world.
Injustices that enrage the very heart of being a global citizen should never be tolerated
by one. The goal of this type of ideologist should pertain to a better, peaceful, and well-
developed life for the entire world. It is vital that the majority of the population should be
global citizens to enhance and further the scales of the globe in political, social,
economic, and environmental terms.

5. Human Trafficking and Racism

a. Human Trafficking

As stated in the study of Castles (2010), development is not the root of

why individuals migrate to more developed and urbanized countries. Instead,
inequality of wealth and power among nations and their citizens usually leads to
migration. Because of this, marginalization, human trafficking, and exploitation of the
migrants are rampant in different parts of the world. Due to poverty and inequality,
individuals are forced to migrate in order to provide the necessities of their families and
make their lives better. According to David, Bryant, and Larsen (2019), undocumented,
child and adolescent migrants are the most vulnerable to modern slavery, forced labor,
and sex work. There are 40 million out of 258 million migrants who are experiencing
modern slavery in various parts of the world. Female migrants are slaves in the domestic
works and sex industries. On the other note, male migrants are being exploited in forced
labor as construction and manufacturing workers.
 The government officials must improve and increase the protection of vulnerable
migrants to ensure that they are treated and compensated properly by their employers.
They must enhance and advocate the labor rights of the workers, particularly those who
work outside the country. Also, the government must acknowledge the sacrifices done by
the migrants and do whatever it takes to protect them against slavery, exploitation, and
discrimination.

b. Racism

Migrating is a protected human right and we are no strangers to

immigration. Immigrants often move to build a new life, to settle in the country that they
want to live in or forced to move because of injustices. In addition, forced migration
is a violation of human rights and tends to deny human dignity. Because of global
migration, a country can be a settlement for many people of their own culture thus
making the community diverse. However, these immigrants can be subjected to racism
and xenophobia. They become targets of internal disputes on national identity. Even
though many countries try to grasp the idea of multi-ethnic societies, there are still
extremist groups who discriminate and pick a fight with migrants, refugees, and other
non-nationals. There is more than enough anecdotal evidence to prove such acts. In
my opinion, one of the factors that racism came to life is because of global migration.
People tend to alienate those who they find different or not normal. Moreover, they
feel that they have the need to establish superiority with the migrants. Thus,
finding a way to degrade those who they see as “different” through racism.
 GLOBAL CITIES

1. Global City is an artefactual Global Social Space, that forms the building block
of
Globalization

According to Exenberger (2013), it is often said that the world is turning into a
“global village” but in reality, it is much more a “global city”. The greater part of the total
population today lives in urban areas, and numerous cities of the world are
substantially more financially profitable and noteworthy as for worldwide systems than a
large portion of the world's states. They also pointed out how alike the “global cities”
have become that they are now indistinguishable from other cities in other continents.
The authors emphasized how the modern city is the essential appearance of
globalization today, and its very core is a global network of multidimensional spaces of
congestion that both describes and shapes it. Global cities are seen throughout the
world in different countries.

Global cities play an important role in shaping a global economy, culture,

and society, but they are also shaped by it. These are the places where countervailing
forces match and local reactions to globalization become particularly noticeable.
Consequently, the negative effects of globalization are evident as well: not only economic
exchange, migration, communication, and technological development take place
predominantly in cities, but also political conflict, cultures clashing and amalgamating,
and violence. Hence, the global city is making a way for the world, for better or for worse,
as a multifaceted information interface and as a point of convergence of globalization in
different structures.

According to Saskia Sassen (2005), in her scholarship on the “global city” which
initially focused on New York, London, and Tokyo, she has noted the destabilizing impact
of the city’s increasing centrality on older spaces of governance such as the nation-state.
Over the past fifteen years, the global cities model has influenced much social science
research on the global economy as a system of covering streams between urban spaces.
In fact, 95 percent of urban population growth during the next generation will occur in
cities of the developing world. By 2025 it is predicted that Asia will contain nearly
a dozen “hypercities” (with populations of 25 million or more), including Mumbai, Jakarta,
Dhaka, and Karachi. One of the elements of Global cities is having a large population
that will continue to grow because of urbanization and the abundance of opportunities
that can be found within these cities.

2. Elements of Global City

a. Large Population and Complex Urban Planning

A global city, an urban centre that enjoys significant competitive advantages and
that serves as a hub within a globalized economic system. The term has its origins in
research on cities carried out during the 1980s, which examined the
common characteristics of the world’s most important cities. However, with
increased attention
 being paid to processes of globalization during subsequent years, these world cities
came to be known as global cities. Linked with globalization was the idea of
spatial reorganization and the hypothesis that cities were becoming key loci within
global networks of production, finance, and telecommunications. In some formulations
of the global city thesis, then, such cities are the building blocks of globalization.

An examination of globalization through the concept of the global city introduces a

strong emphasis on strategic components of the global economy rather than the broader
and more diffuse homogenizing dynamics we associate with the globalization of
consumer markets. Consequently, this also brings an emphasis on questions of
power and inequality. It brings an emphasis on the actual work of managing, servicing,
and financing a global economy. Secondly, a focus on the city in studying globalization
will tend to bring to the fore the growing inequalities between highly
provisioned and profoundly disadvantaged sectors and spaces of the city, and hence
such a focus introduces yet another formulation of questions of power and inequality.

Thirdly, the concept of the global city brings a strong emphasis on the networked
economy because of the nature of the industries that tend to be located there: finance
and specialized services, the new multimedia sectors, and telecommunications
services. These industries are characterized by cross-border networks and specialized
divisions of functions among cities rather than inter-national competition per se. In the
case of global finance and the leading specialized services catering to global firms and
markets—law, accounting, credit rating, telecommunications—it is clear that we are
dealing with a cross- border system, one that is embedded in a series of cities, each
possibly part of a different country. It is a de facto global system.

Fourthly, a focus on networked cross-border dynamics among global cities

also allows us to capture more readily the growing intensity of such transactions
in other domains—political, cultural, social, and criminal.

b. Economic Wealth

According to Mckinsey Global Institute (MGI), the world’s largest cities are in the
world’s largest economies. For a city to be the powerful center of economic development
i.e. a global city, it needs economic power. Such power lies in economic wealth which
refers to the total value of physical and intangible resources owned expressed in gross
domestic product. Generally, economic wealth is created using labor and capital to
provide or perform services that have a value yet is not limited to these two dues to
globalization. According to Sassen (1991,126), imagine globalization as an enormous
market and that global cities function as major producers and service providers that
make the globalized economy run. They don’t necessarily directly compete; each global
city is like production nodes. Here are some of Sassen’s sources of economic wealth in
his idea of a global city: a) major stock exchanges and indexes b) major industries
such as transportation,
 insurance, consumer goods, and manufacturing c) center for technology and media hub
d) home to world-renowned cultural institutions.

c. Center of Political Authority

In order to have a great understanding of what Political Authority is, differentiation

as an individual and how they work as one between the two terms Politics and Authority
is key in acquiring the knowledge of how Political Authority works in a Global City.
Politics, as defined by Merriam Webster, is the art or science of government. Authority as
defined by yourdictionary is a public organization that controls an area or certain
activities. Thus, the government, being a public organization, considers its power to
control and govern areas as an art and science in order to promote the well-being of the
citizens in society.

According to Landemore, Political Authority is the power held by a political entity to

require action and claim obedience to its rules. It can also be broken down into two types
based on the power of authority which is called De facto or De Jure. De Facto Political
Authority is the actual possession of the right and power of a political entity to rule and be
obeyed. On the other hand, De Jure Political Authority is the moral power, or right, of a
political entity to use the laws in order to claim obedience in a legal manner. An example
of Political Entities using the De Facto Political Authority is The Republic of North Korea,
and De Jure Political Authority is The Republic of the Philippines.

In Conclusion, A Global City can’t be what it is if no such authority will govern its
activities such as Taxes and Peace and Order. The importance of Political Authority is
very much emphasized in achieving the state of a global city as it tends to develop and
lead citizens to progress and grow in their own way with the help of such Center of
Political Authority.

d. Center of Learning

Learning is crucial to the evolution of humankind. One would expect to encounter a

sense of perseverance in assuring the free flow of higher education across
national borders in an acknowledged era of the knowledge society (Czinkota, 2005).
UNESCO states that “better education contributes to higher lifetime earnings and
more robust national economic growth.” According to McCann (2011), public education
in global cities is advertised as a primary channel for preserving competitiveness and
social prosperity. In a January 2008 paper titled Gaining Advantage through Global
Learning Hubs, the authors advocate viewing affiliates in global cities as “global learning
hubs” tied together in a network that by drawing on the connections between global
cities, it builds strategic advantage. Four objectives for gaining the most advantage from
a “global learning hub” according to authors are; (1) Widen the goals of their
presence in a global city to
 emphasize learning. (2) Organizations must also develop what the authors describe as a
“customized learning and evaluation process.” (3) Exploit the many new possibilities a
global hub provides to create advantages not previously available. (4) Global learning
hubs allow organizations to take advantage of “innovation linkages” previously not
available.

e. Plurality of Religion

According to Norris and Inglehart (2004), ever since the 19 th century, many
philosophers and great thinkers, including Emile Durkheim and Karl Marx have predicted
the fate of religions all over the world when modernization comes. They believe that once
the world embraced modernization, the importance and authority of religion in the society
would diminish greatly. Mills (1959, as cited in Norris and Inglehart, 2004), even asserts
that religions may altogether vanish, if not be limited to the private sector once
modernization takes over the world. This claim is more popularly known today as
the “Secularization Theory”.

However, in contrast to this theory, the present world is far from being secularized.
Global Cities from all over the world are brimming with various types of religion. Brought
about by migration, people of different cultures and beliefs are forced to interact with
each other, and through that, they learned how to tolerate and even embrace unique
attributes of people, particularly with regards to religion. With that said, we can
say that modernization does not bring secularization in Global Cities, rather, it has
brought a variety of religions to the people (Berger, 2005).

This diversity of religion is termed plurality of religion or sometimes religious

pluralism by people, though the term ‘plurality’ was suggested by Skeie (2009) to be
used in cases involving diversity, and pluralism when talking about the attitude of a
person towards plurality. Because of this element of a Global City, people are now
exposed to the unique and sometimes misunderstood features of certain religions,
thus eradicating prejudice and promoting openness of an individual to a once
foreign belief. This consciousness gives people the opportunity to explore new ideology
or teachings, thus giving them an option to choose faith (Berger, 2005).

To conclude, as Global Cities are a melting pot of different cultures, it is

characterized by having a plurality of religion, that is, different people, may it be a local or
an immigrant are existing side by side, practicing their belief while embracing the
differences of each other. This plurality also gives people a choice, gone are the days
where religion is forced upon a person or taken for granted, in these Global
Cities, individuals can now choose who and what to believe in.
 f. House International Organizations

According to Sassen (1991), the producer and financial services sectors that serve
the command and control requirements of international capital (i.e. banking, accounting,
advertising, financial management and consulting, business law, insurance, and the like)
are the propulsive growth industries of global cities. International organizations, both
inter- governmental organizations (IGOs) and international non-governmental
organizations (INGOs) are among the organizations that can demonstrate an influence of
a given city in the world beyond the relative strength of its producer service sector (Su et
al., 2014). As a major tool for dealing with affairs among national states, these
organizations only developed as a major phenomenon in the second half of the
twentieth century.

According to Selznick (1957), an international organization represents a form

of institution that denotes a formal system of rules and objectives, which is a rationalized
administrative instrument. In addition to this, Duverger (1972) also says that it
also possesses a formal technical and material organization such as constitutions,
local chapters, physical equipment, machines, emblems, letterhead stationery, a
staff, an administrative hierarchy and so forth. According to him, an institutional
framework adds stability, durability, and cohesiveness to individual relationships which
otherwise might be sporadic, ephemeral, and unstable. These international organizations
regulate the peace and order of the different aspects of these global cities. Like the
example given by Krasner which is the General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs
(GATT) that helped regulate international trade. However, it was later formalized
and established in 1995 into an international organization which is the World Trade
Organization. With diplomacy, these global cities have created global governance and
international relationships through these international organizations.

According to the Chicago Council on Global Affairs, much of the contributions

global cities make are on the local, national, and global scales. Global cities have
developed a series of impressive capacities and capabilities over the past few decades,
which make them the best candidates to form novel transnational socio-political
assemblages that can scale up to the level of global challenges–in effect, ushering in
another transformation of the international system and housing international
organizations.

3. Global City and Mobility (Modern Transport System)

According to Sassen, a global city is the command centre in which it is the main
place for the triumph of capitalism. They tend to separate from the full control of its
national state. It is where they engage in cosmopolitanism in which the large cities attract
people, material, and cultural products from all around the world resulting in human
mobility and migration. Due to cultural diversity, people wanted to experience the
cosmopolitan variety of cultural products of other places which are provided by the global
cities, leading them
to move from one place to another. With the advent of emerging global cities, human
mobility increases, thus leading to the development of modern transportation systems.

The rise of the modern city is built on mobility (Wegener, 2012). There is a large
difference in automobile dependence of cities in different countries revealed by
the comparison of global cities over 1980 to 1990. New York City, London, and Tokyo
are the triad of global cities. In fact, US cities are by far the most auto dependent with the
highest levels of auto use and lowest levels of transit provision and use followed by
Australian cities, Toronto, European cities, wealthy Asian cities, and developing Asian
cities. Mobility has many dimensions, such as intellectual, social, professional or spatial
mobility. Spatial mobility comprises temporary relocations, such as trips, as well as
permanent relocations, such as change of job or migration (Wegener, 2012).
Furthermore, employment mobility has been markedly increasing since the early 1970s.
The highly educated are the most footloose section of the population: the professional
middle classes, having, in general, more control and autonomy in their workplace, and a
tendency to understand their working life as a ‘career’, often change jobs and many are
ready to relocate to another city or country (Colic-Peisker 2010; Moretti, 2012: 155).
According to the estimate of the Brookings Institution in 2010, 28% of the world’s
population is middle class, but that by
2022 it will surpass 50%, and by 2030 it will be two-thirds (Kharas and Gertz, 2010).
According to McMichael, the affluence of the middle class is symbolized by car
ownership and meat consumption.

Global cities are known for liberalizing the movement of products thus, also
liberalizing the free movement of people. However, there is a reality that many of the
resources necessary for global economic activities are not hypermobile (Sassen, 2000).
According to her, a global city is the ascendance of a new type of city and regions which
serve as the strategic spaces for global capitalism. For her, these global cities are not
apart from the local places in which globalization is much more evident. In fact,
her hypothesis for 30 years of research is that global is partly endogenous to the national
rather than a formation that stands necessarily outside and in opposition to the national.
Globalization and the national are not distinct, separate realms but remain firmly
embedded in one another. Thus, no matter how mobile the people in a global city it will
still go back on its original national condition because it allows us to see the multiplicity of
economies and work cultures in which the global information economy is
embedded (Sassen, 2000).
 GLOBAL ECONOMICS

1. Global Economics is an artifactual union of economies

Undertakings of globalization are inseparably attached to competitiveness. In

a worldwide economy, the quest for domestic competitiveness grows in unison with
the global framework, placing this hypothetical point of view in a special situation to
dissect current patterns & trends. In any case, due to its attention to historical
advancement over the long haul, the school has neglected to make the most of this
advantage. It contends that the development of this worldwide framework has prompted
the existing countries, together with those in the Third World, and each has discovered
its relative situation in the global hierarchy of importance. In accordance with sociological
viewpoints, the current global framework, the school has come nearer to
anticipating the general pattern of occasions during the past 25 years. Immanuel
Wallerstein, the founder of a university, and his devotees never attempted to contend
that the actual capitalist world economy, which started inside the arrangement of the
European state in the sixteenth century and came to rise above the whole world, was
only the main unit of inquiry. For them, newly industrialized or developing nations
are worried about new formalization with their rivals along with the legal laws to increase
the upper hand in their production in increasingly regulated regions of the global
economy (Castells and Portes, 1989). Globality, union, and competitiveness are
coinciding standards & principles of the contemporary paradigm of economic
globalization.

The procedures of globalization are getting conflicting results between

the accelerated development of the worldwide economy and a developing
polarization of social imbalance or inequality. The framework of the worldwide
economy - as comprehended and adapted by the multilateral sectors, for example, the
World Bank and International Monetary Fund and the rest - does not really encourage
democratic turn of events, or states of justice and equity for the organizations on the
grounds that the model is forced, not proposed and acknowledged. Ireland and Hitt
(1999) guarantee that signs of the extraordinary broadness and profundity of the impacts
of the worldwide economy lead them to foresee that country states will be deprived of
their power in the twenty-first century.

The present globalization forms are influenced by the "decalogue of neoliberalism",

which produces inequality in competitive markets and a rapid increase of technological
developments, innovation, and information. Indications of the demise of this framework
are evident in the territorial budgetary emergencies that started in 1994 and the disorder
brought about by the elements of the new economy that was credited to the Mexican
crisis. The worldwide economy went into a catastrophe in 2001. It could be that the
idea of authority on the global economy depicted in the matter of periphery (less
developed countries) and semi-periphery (industrializing, mostly capitalist nations) is
improper to clarify the dynamism of the standard with an accentuation on dominance by
force. The U.S. sovereign approach to alter the course of the decrease of domineering
capitalism has given rise to greater irregularity in the worldwide economy, and in
this way, has
 prompted some geopolitical game plans that predict the unavoidable breakdown of the
supreme authority of capitalism.

Then again, among these systems, there is a pattern of developing dissatisfaction

in the regular workers, who have scarcely received any advantages. There is additionally
discontent among pundits from the conservative systems and their partners in the
military, who dread that even the constrained democracy occurring in Latin America
has gone excessively far. The degrees of divergence in development rates and salary
dissemination are developing. There is a genuine worry to cultivate and
acculturate the worldwide economy. This concern is communicated by the
same global organizations who erroneously propose the requirement for additional
liberalization procedures by solidifying the purported original changes and advancing
second-age reforms focused on the fortifying of the institutions, the detailing and
execution of dynamic social strategies and the making of social well-being networks. In
the event that a globalized world economy is characterized as far as points other than
the capitalization of wealth in the system, at that point, efficiency based on profits must
be viewed as inefficient concerning that reason.

2. Global Market
a. Market Integration

As indicated by the Cambridge Business English Dictionary, Market Integration is a

circumstance wherein separate markets for a similar item become one single
market. Coordination shows the relationship of the firm in a market. The degree of
combination impacts the directness of the organizations and thus their showcasing
effectiveness. The conduct of an exceptionally coordinated market is not quite the same
as that of a broke down market. Market coordination expects to expel exchange costs,
encourage rivalry, give better motions toward ideal age, and improve the security of
flexibility. There are three sorts of market combinations, in particular, horizontal
integration, vertical integration, and conglomeration. Horizontal integration happens when
a firm or office deals with different firms or offices performing comparative promoting
capacities at a similar level in the showcasing succession. In this sort of mix, some
promoting organizations join to shape an association with the end goal of lessening their
successful number and the degree of real rivalry in the market. It is invaluable for the
individuals who join the gathering. Vertical integration happens when a firm performs
more than one action in the succession of the advertising procedure. It is a connecting
together of at least two capacities in the showcasing procedure inside a solitary firm
or under a solitary proprietorship. This kind of mix makes it conceivable to practice
command over both quality and amount of the item from the earliest starting point of the
creation procedure until the item is prepared for the purchaser. It decreases the number
of center men in the showcasing channel. A blend of offices or exercises not
straightforwardly identified with one another may, when it works under a brought together
administration, be named a conglomeration. All types of market integration have their
own advantages and disadvantages. Some of the advantages of horizontal integration
are lower costs, higher efficiency, and increased differentiation. But
 despite these advantages, horizontal integration has reduced the flexibility of firms in the
global market because many firms are becoming one. The degree of vertical integration
in a market might be surveyed by tallying the number of capacities performed by each
firm in the market. While the degree of horizontal integration might be estimated
by contemplating the number of firms playing out a similar promoting capacity yet
working under one regular administration. The result of an examination on the existence
of vertical and horizontal integration in the showcasing of wheat in eight primary wheat
delivering regions of Rajasthan uncovered that about portion of the advertising firms
(50.5%) were incorporated vertically on the grounds that they performed a few
capacities.

Be that as it may, this combination of the world wheat markets and world
rice markets had genuine results. During the 1920s there was an extraordinary extension
in the measure of land under wheat and rice on the planet on the loose. Ordinarily, great
wheat harvests were counterbalanced by poor rice harvests, and great rice harvests
were balanced by poor wheat harvests. In any case, when great climatic conditions
happened for the two grains, especially starting in 1928, this brought about an excess,
constraining down costs and bankrupting ranchers everywhere throughout the world. As
ranch salaries fell, so did the capacity of ranchers to buy made merchandise, and
this influenced producers, adding to the overall Great Depression of the 1930s. As
the downturn bit, nations expanded their duty obligations to keep outside items out of
their business sectors so as to support their own producers and ranchers. In 1932 even
Britain, with its profound responsibility to organized commerce, had to go to
protectionism and give up the unhindered commerce perfectly. Organized commerce
and open markets were grievous setbacks of the Great Depression, and in truth, their
breakdown added to the droop's prolongation. The reclamation of unhindered
commerce and open markets was one of the essential points of those arranging the
activity of the world financial framework after the finish of world threats in 1945.

b. Firm - World Bank-International Monetary Fund (IMF)

Established in 1944, International Monetary Fund (IMF) is an

international organization consisting of 189 countries that are attempting to cultivate
worldwide money related participation, making sure about monetary dependability,
reducing the level of poverty, promoting high employment, and sustaining economic
growth throughout the world. Its primary purpose is to guarantee the stability of
the exchange rates and international payments which allows countries to negotiate with
one another.

Surveillance

The IMF monitors each member country's policies as well as national, regional, and
global economic and financial developments in order to sustain the stability and prevent
crises in the international monetary system. It advises the member countries and
promotes
 policies designed to enhance economic stability, mitigate vulnerability to economic and
financial crises, and raise their living standards.

Financial assistance

IMF also provides loans to member countries who are experiencing problems with
the actual or potential balance of their payments. Every nation modification programs are
planned with close collaboration with the IMF and are being supported by IMF financing,
and ongoing financial support on effective implementation of these alterations.

Capacity Development

The IMF is providing technical assistance and training to help each member
country on building better economic institutions which can strengthen human-related
capacities. Some of these activities are designing and implementing more effective
policies especially on taxation and administration, monetary and exchange rate
policies, legislative frameworks, expenditure management, and economic statistics.

c. Consumers –Different Economies

Purchasers are the fundamental financial elements of an economy. Buyers

are individuals or associations that buy items or services. The term likewise
alludes to employing merchandise and ventures. They are people or other economic
institutions that utilize goods and services.Furthermore, they do not sell on that item that
they bought. They are the end-users in the distribution chain of goods and services. For
example, some of the time the customer probably won't be the purchaser. For instance,
small kids are the end-users of toys, yet their guardians get them. Accordingly, in the
market for toys, the purchaser and buyer are frequently various individuals.

Different types of consumers according to their behavior:

1. Loyal Consumers

Loyal buyers are probably going to involve a little portion of your customer base.
However, considering their dependability, they are huge to every business. At the
point when they have found the right association to work with they will remain
ardent, normally transforming into a sponsor of the brand by offering their experience
to their friends, family, and extended relational association.
 2. Discount Consumers

Markdown purchasers are consistently on the chase for limits. Like loyal
customers, they additionally tend to visit similar associations and brands. However,
they possibly make buys when there is a deal or rebate.

3. Impulsive Consumers

Impulse buyers are the most troublesome with regards to expanding promoting
guarantee. These buyers normally don't shop taking into account a specific thing or
organization, also a brand. On the other hand, they make purchases
incautiously, buying when something makes them energized. Considering the
whimsical thought of hasty purchasers purchasing inclinations, fitting publicizing
attempts to them may not seem, by all accounts, to be the best usage of your
advantages.

4. Need-based Consumers

Need-based shoppers buy to satisfy a need. Maybe they experience running

into money-related trouble and need direction. Possibly they are taking a break and
need another course of action of rigging. They could be pushing toward an
accomplishment in their life and are searching for authentic advice. To market to a
need-based client, your publicizing framework needs to anticipate these prerequisites
suitably.

3. Labor Market, Fiscal, and Trade Agreements

a. Labor Market

Labor Market is where the people and employers come together to seek work and
wages or other forms of compensation. This is where the employers compete to hire the
best and for the workers to compete for a satisfying job.

Components of the Labor Market

The labor market comprises four components, namely, the labor force population,
applicant population, applicant pool, and the individuals selected.

1. Labor force population

It is the number of people who are employed and the people who are
unemployed and are certainly looking for a job. The problem that arises here is
difficulties faced by wage earners due to the employers who began cutting wages.
 2. Applicant population

It is a part of the labor population that is available for recruitment by utilizing

specialized recruitment methods. Coming up with appropriate criteria for selection to
match the position inside the organization is very critical in matching the individual’s
suitable role.

3. Applicant pool

A term used to describe all the applicants who are applying for a particular job
position by sending in a resume or completing an application. It is the total number of
people who applied for an open position.

4. Individuals selected

This essentially refers to the individuals who have endured the screening
procedure and have been recruited for the job. Obviously, this decision has been
made dependent on various variables, and the individual is screened against an
arrangement of capabilities and qualifications that were meticulously and rigorously
fixed.

b. Fiscal policy

Fiscal policy in which revenue collection takes action for the tax policies and for the
government to adjust their spending levels. It also monitors the tax rates and influences
a nation’s economy.

c. Global Trade Agreements

i. World Trade Agreement (WTO)

The World Trade Organization (WTO), instituted in the year 1995, is a

worldwide organization that administers the international trade policies among
countries. It supplanted the 1947 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade GATT
established after World War II. The WTO depends on understandings marked and
agreed by a large number of the globe's trading countries. The principal purpose of
the association is to give assistance to producers of services and
merchandise, importers, and those who engage in exportation in ensuring their
rights and dealing with their businesses. Starting in 2019, the WTO is being made
up of 164 member nations, with Afghanistan from Central Asia and Liberia from the
West African Coast the latest members, having participated in July 2016, and 23
observer nations.
 Understanding the World Trade Organization

The WTO is basically a non-partisan third party that lends a helping hand to
disputing groups in settling conflicts that maintain the universal standards of trade
among countries. The association gives a manifesto that permits parties to reach
terms on issues of trade with different parties. The WTO's fundamental aim is to
furnish lines of communication that are accessible and available with reference to
trading issues among its members.

When deliberations are finished and an agreement has been reached,

the WTO at that point offers to decipher that agreement in case of future discourse.
Each and every agreement of WTO incorporates a settlement procedure, whereby
the association legitimately presides over an impartial resolution of conflicts.
There would be no arbitration, intervention, or verdict conceivable without the
fundamental WTO agreements. These sets of agreements lay down the
lawful guidelines for global business that the WTO regulates. They tie a nation's
legislature to a set of limitations that must be seen when settling future trading
arrangements. These understandings secure exporters, importers, and producers
of goods and services while urging international governments to meet certain
social and ecological benchmarks.

Advantages and Disadvantages of WTO

The historical backdrop of global trade has been a fight among free
commerce and protectionism, and the WTO has driven globalization to
generate various impacts- positive and negative. The association's endeavors
have expanded worldwide trade development, however, its aftermath has a
negative effect on human rights and domestic communities. Defenders of the
WTO, especially multinational corporations (MNC) stand that the association is
useful to business, seeing the incitement of facilitated commerce and a decrease in
disputes regarding trade as valuable to the worldwide economy. Pessimists are of
opinion that the WTO sabotages the standards of the democratic system and
broadens the wealth inequality of nations. They hold that the decrease in local
businesses and expanding foreign domination have adverse effects on the global
economy.

ii. The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)

The main goal of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) is to
have a legal agreement between each and every country. Its objectives are
to promote international trade, to debar the trade barriers that are keeping the
trades limited, and to surpass the maximum quota of the trades of each country. It
is also to reduce the tariffs which were before to cut down all the imports
and exports between countries.
 iii. United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD)

The United Nations Conference on Trade and Development aims to promote

exports that are manufactured goods from developing countries. It is also
the principal organ of the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) dealing with
trade, with investments and development issues.

4. Development as an Artefactual Phenomenon – the Change in the Gross National

Product and Human Wellbeing Index of Nation-States

a. the Human Development Index (HDI) and Gross national product (GNP)
i. The Human Development Index (HDI)

The Human Development Index (HDI) is a measurement created and

gathered by the United Nations to quantify different nations' degrees of economic
and social development. It is made out of four head zones of interest: gross
national income per capita, life expectancy at birth, and education (mean years
of schooling and expected years of schooling). This statistic is a device used to
observe variations in levels of development after some time and to look at
the development levels of various nations.

It is a statistical tool used to measure a country’s overall achievement in its

economic and social dimensions. The social and economic dimensions of a country
are based on the health of the people living in the country and they’re education
attainment.

ii. Gross national product (GNP)

Gross national product (GNP) is the estimated value of services and all of the
final products and services turned out in a given time. It includes the income
of citizens and companies abroad.

Why is the GNP important?

It is important because GNP indicates the strength and growth of an

economy and the productive use of its factors of production such as labor and
capital. It is inevitable to avoid duplications or double counting of the negotiator’s
products that are sold and brought to the economy. The data of GNP also solve
national problems such as inflation and poverty.
b. Theories of Development (Modernization, Dependency, World-System)

As ideologies and environment change, so are the concepts of development and

governance. Its changes can be traced back during World War II as depicted by different
theories: Modernization, Dependency, and World-System.

(1) Modernization – Linear development of Nation-States through the help of

Developed Modern Nation-States

The first theoretical models of development were highly influenced by the

concept of economics such as industrialization and economic growth. Walt
Rostow, an American economic historian, elaborated a linear development model
which explains development as a series of stages which society should undergo and
from this concept, the basic blueprint for modernization theory emerged.

Modernization theory emerged after the Second World War and according
to Alvin So, there are three elements to the inception of this theory. First is the rise of
the United States as the superpower and as the world leader while parts of Western
Europe were weakened because of the second World War. Second is a more united
world communist movement wherein Eastern Europe, China, and Korea were
influenced by the Former Soviet Union. Lastly is the birth of new nation-states in the
Third World because of the disintegration of European colonial empires. Because
these nation- states are newly formed, they are in the stage of exploring a model of
development that they will follow to shape and improve their economy and political
independence.

In this theory, it aims to shape and help countries become developed

and progressive along capitalist lines based on the characteristics of the United States
and Western Europe and modern societies are described as more productive
societies wherein welfare and education are given importance. Under this theory,
there are 5 major assumptions that are derived from European and American
evolutionary theory. First is that modernization is a phased process. According to
Rostow, the economic theory of modernization is based on Rostow’s model of
development: (1) traditional society, (2) precondition for takeoff, (3) the takeoff
process, (4) the drive to maturity, and (5) high mass consumption society. Based on
this model, underdevelopment is treated as a stage that is universal to any developing
nations and that solutions for the modernization of Third World countries
became possible through aiding these countries. Second, modernization is a
homogenizing process wherein it is possible for different societies to be in
convergence. Third, modernization is a Europeanization or Americanization process
since these nations are seen as a society with economic prosperity and
democratic stability. Fourth is that modernization is an irreversible process
wherein it is claimed that once developing countries come into contact with Western
Europe and the United States, these countries would not be able to resist
modernization. Fifth, modernization is a progressive process where in the long run,
more desirable outcomes will be achieved. Lastly, modernization is a lengthy process-
- it will take years before profound results will be realized and seen.
(2) Dependency – underdevelopment of Nation-States because of their
Dependency on Developed Modern Nation-States

By the 1960s it was comprehended that Third World countries remained

underdeveloped, unlike what the modernization theorists envisioned. That’s why
another claim was made wherein it was said that advanced countries and developing
countries are distinct in terms of their structure and so will have to develop and follow
a theory that would help underdeveloped countries improve towards modernization.
This claim became the foundation of the theory of dependency from the research of
the Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC).

Under this theory, major hypotheses relating to the development of Third World
countries is that the development of these nations should entail subordination to the
core, unlike the core nations where their development is self-contained. Second, the
greatest economic development of peripheral nations is experienced when their link to
the core is weakest. Third is when the core encounters a crisis and recuperates from
it, reestablishes trade and investment ties, and includes peripheral nations once again
into their system, the growth of these nations is suppressed. Lastly,
when underdeveloped nations are still continuing on following the traditional system,
these nations are those that had the closest tie with the core nations.

However according to Theotonio Dos Santos, a Brazilian economist, “the basis

of dependency of underdeveloped nations is the industrial-technological production,
rather than from financial ties to monopolies from the core nations”. Dependency
theory dismisses the restricted national focus of modernization theory and
stresses the significance of understanding the multifaceted nature of imperialism
and its role in forming postcolonial states. Its main tenet is that the periphery
of the international economy is being economically abused (exploited) by the core.
Expanding on ECLA's point of view, the dependency theorists contend that
colonialism recast economies in the Third World in an exceptionally particular export-
producing mold, making major and interrelated structural deformations that have
kept on frustrating the development. When this reshaping was finished, market
forces attempted to sustain the relationship of dominance and abuse among the
periphery and core.

(3) World-System – development of Nation-States according to World-Systems of

Core and Periphery Nation-States

One of the critiques of Modernization Theory and Dependency Theory is the

basis of their assumptions and outcomes on the nation-state. On the other hand, the
World- System Theory is focused mostly on the global connections among
countries, especially regarding trade, international financial system, world technology,
and military cooperation.
 One main element of the emergence of the World-System Theory is the different
kinds of capitalism that have been adapted around the world. It treats the world like a
sole capitalist world economy based on the universal division of labor among three
nations: the core, periphery, and a semi-periphery which either consists of core
nations in decline or one trying to develop to be able to improve their position in the
economy of the world. The division of work among these regions influenced their
relationship with one another just as their type of labor work conditions and political
framework. In the core, strong central governments, immense bureaucracies,
and private armies empowered the local bourgeoisies to acquire control of the
global business and amass capital surpluses from this trade. While the periphery
lacked what the core has: strong central government, resulting in them to be easily
manipulated by other states. They are exporting raw materials intended to the core
and just relied on forced labor practices and in relation to this, much of the capital
surplus being generated by the periphery is being seized by the core through unfair
trade relations. And lastly, the semiperiphery had constrained access to international
banking and the production of high-cost, top- notch manufactured merchandise yet
they didn't benefit from international trade to a similar level as the core.

This theory establishes the main assumptions that: (a) There is a strong
connection between social sciences (especially between sociology, economics, and
political disciplines). World-System Theory discerns that more focus is usually given to
the sole development of each of these disciplines instead of the interaction between
these social sciences. (b) It is important to study the reality of the social system,
instead of addressing the interpretation of the variables. (c) It is also important to be
open in recognizing new characters in the capitalist system.

Originally, the logic of these perspectives follows the Import-

Substitution Industrialization (ISI), which aims to produce internally manufactured
goods for the national market as opposed to importing them from industrialized
nations. Its long-run objective was to first accomplish the greater domestic industrial
expansion. Afterward, the protected manufactured goods will be exported as
economies of scale and low labor costs make the domestic costs more
competitive in the global market. Thus, these theorists deduced that ISI was a step
for further colonization and dependency.

Furthermore, the world-systems theory shows that the vital unit of analysis is the
social system, which can be studied at the internal level of a country and the external
environment of a nation. So when the world-systems theory considers
trade mechanisms, it determines direct transactions (which are those who have
more a significant and direct effect on a country) and operations that are
indirect trade transactions.
c. Sustainable Development

i. Humble Beginnings of Sustainable Development

The 1972 Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm, Sweden, attended

by 113 states and agents from 19 worldwide associations, was the truly first universal
meeting dedicated only to ecological issues. There, a gathering of 27 specialists
enunciated the connections among development and environment expressing that
“although in individual instances there were conflicts between environmental and
economic priorities, they were intrinsically two sides of the same coin” (Vogler, 2007, p.
432). Another outcome of the Stockholm Conference was the formation of the
United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP), which has the mission “to provide
leadership and encourage partnership in caring for the environment by inspiring,
informing, and enabling nations and peoples to improve their quality of life without
compromising that of future generations.”

This meeting assumed a catalytic role in advancing the subsequent reception of

global agreements concerned about dumping in oceans, contamination from ships, and
the jeopardized species exchange. It likewise received the "Stockholm Declaration on the
Human Environment," which included forward-looking standards, for example, Principle
13167, that pronounced the requirement for reconciliation and coordination in
development planning to take into account ecological insurance. In any case, "the
Stockholm gathering was restricted in its viability on the grounds that
environmental assurance and the requirement for advancement, particularly in emerging
nations, were viewed as competing needs and hence, in this manner were
managed in a different, uncoordinated style". A few critics presumed that “the
conference was more concerned with identifying trade-offs between environment and
development than with promoting harmonious linkages between the two” (Prizzia,
2007, p. 21).

In spite of the fact that the beginnings of Sustainable Development (SD) can be
traced to the seventies, it is in the World Commission on Environment and Development
in 1987 (WCED or “Brundtland Commission”) that the term is coined and furthermore
characterized as “development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (Le Blanc, D., et
al. 2012:1). In
1992, one of the defining moments for Sustainable Development was held in Rio
de Janeiro which was widely known as the United Nations Conference on Environment
and Development (UNCED) or the "Earth Summit". This was made possible
through the agreement between the member States to set in motion a process to
develop a set of sustainable development goals(SDGs) that could be a helpful
device for pursuing a committed and systematic action on sustainable development.
(United Nations 2012:15; Le Blanc, D., et al. 2012:17).
ii. Social Science and SDGs

In the second decade of the twenty-first century, the financial crisis of 2007-08 or
“Global Financial Crisis”, series of Arab Uprisings, West Bengal Food Riots in India, and
the protest movement of Occupy Wall Street (OWS) have put inequality back on
the worldwide political agenda. The ongoing increment in economic disparities appears
to discover its inceptions during the 1980s and 1990s, when the neoliberal paradigm got
predominant in western nations. During a similar period, the association of international
organizations like the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank with states
and private segment actors additionally observed neoliberalism flourish in different parts
of the world, in the context of the financialization globalization and of the global economy
after the fall of the Eastern Bloc. The presumption behind this shift in the rationale
of economic development was that the advantages of development produced by
market powers would eventually 'stream down' to poor and vulnerable populaces.
Nonetheless, this neoliberal 'virtuous circle' impact did not occur on a larger
scope. Following the advancement of their economies, and in an inexorably globalized
world, a few nations – both emerging and developed– did certainly record high rates
of economic growth. However, inequality, and particularly income disparity,
expanded quickly. With the adoption of the Millennium Development Goals by the
worldwide network in 2000, a solid accentuation was put on the decrease of extreme
poverty and hunger, primary education for all, women empowerment, gender equality,
and well-being.

In truth, inequality stands extremely high in the rundown of classical social science
themes. Social Science was generally resulting from endeavors to understand new types
of inequality related to the industrialization of European nations. In the course of recent
hundreds of years, social theories have concentrated consistently on inequality in one
way or another, and the quantity of studies managing issues and aspects of inequality is
most likely inestimable. Inequality never completely vanished from the radar of the
social sciences. For this reason, challenging inequality is at the heart of the SDGs, with
their commitment to ‘leave no one behind’. One explicit Goal (10) is dedicated to
'Reducing inequality within and among nations'. Goal 10 has ten aims, some of which
underline the economic component of inequality, for example, Target 1, to advance
quicker than average income development for the bottom 40 percent of the populace.
Target 2 burdens the need to advance the social, financial, and political consideration of
all, independent of age, disability, gender, ethnicity, race, religion or different status.
Arriving at these objectives will require political, macroeconomic, legal, and fiscal
instruments. Beyond SDG 10, a few different SDGs incorporate the need to lessen
disparities and encourage inclusiveness by 2030. They incorporate Goal 1 (End
poverty in the entirety of its structures all over), Goal 2 (End hunger, achieve food
security and improved sustenance and advance feasible agriculture), Goal 3 (Ensure
healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages), Goal 4 (Ensure inclusive and fair
quality training and advance deep rooted learning opportunities for all), Goal 5
(Achieve gender equality and enable all women irrespective of age), Goal 6 (Ensure
accessibility and sustainable administration of water and sanitation for all), Goal 7
(Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable
and modern energy for all ), Goal 8 (Promote continued, comprehensive and sustainable
economic development, full and productive employment and decent work for all), Goal 11
(Make urban areas and human settlements inclusive, secured, resilient and sustainable)
and Goal 16 (Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, give
access to justice for all and build successful, responsible and inclusive institutions at all
levels).

iii. Theoretical & Conceptual Framework of SDGs

The Rio Declaration on Environment and Development is the foundation of

Sustainable Development, a set of twenty-seven(27) standard and principle-
centered ideas, for example, the centrality of individuals to the concerns of SD (Principle
1); the precedence of poverty eradication (Principle 5); the significance of the earth for
present and people in the future and its equivalent footing with development (Principles 3
and 4); the extraordinary concern given to emerging nations (Principle 6); the rule of
common yet differentiated obligations (CBDR, Principle 7). It likewise revered the two
basic economic standards of polluter pays (Principle 16) and the preparatory
methodology (Principle 15). It acquainted standards relating to participation and the
significance of specific groups for sustainable development (Principles 10, 20, 21, 22) (Le
Blanc, D., et al. 2012:1).

Various frameworks like the Millennium Development Goals (MDG), are an

unmistakable exhibit that leaders of the world can come together to address the
significant challenges within our time– not only war, pandemics, and economic
crisis, but also poverty (UNRISD 2010:3; Le Blanc, D., et al. 2012:16). A distinction
between the MDGs and the SDGs is the level of agreement that exists among
nations on the expansive underlying objectives, also between the settings of the
MDGs and the SDGs is the pervasiveness of collective action problems at the core of
sustainable development, and the successive failure of nations at taking care of
those issues (Le Blanc, D., et al.
2012:17-20).

iv. Conclusion

Following all the gatherings from 1972 to 2002 we can see that there was a shift in
the political discussion from an essential accentuation on ecological issues at the 1972
Stockholm Conference, through a mutual spotlight on environmental, economic and
social advancement at the Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit in 1992, to seemingly an
essential emphasis on poverty and inequality eradication at the Millennium Summit in
2000 and at the Johannesburg World Summit in 2002. This does not really mean
ecological protection has been viably sidelined, of concern specifically in its ability to
mitigate poverty. Rather, no doubt what started as a call to protect nature in the
administration of human advancement has become an increasingly explicit call to
prioritize enhancements in the
 well-being of the very worst-off now and in the future. The greatest test of sustainable
development remains the worldwide awareness from family units to meeting rooms with
respect to the significance of handling the challenges of the Industrial Revolution:
a boundless human and ecological abuse.

d. UN Millennium Development Goals

The United Nations Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) are the eight goals that
are developed to eradicate extreme poverty and improve the lives of the world’s poorest
people – it is agreed to be achieved by 2015. These goals are set in the historic
millennium declaration, signed by 189 countries held at the United Nations Millennium
Summit in
2000. These countries committed to combat poverty in every aspect – hunger, disease,
gender discrimination, illiteracy, and environmental degradation. To track the progress of
their commitment, a set of ambitious quantified goals were made, called the Millennium
Development Goals which specific indicators and targets were attached to each goal.
The eight Millennium Development Goals and their corresponding targets and indicators:

MDG GOALS TARGETS INDICATORS

FOR
PROGRESS
1. Eradicate extreme i. Halve the proportion of
poverty people whose daily i. Proportion of population
income is less than below $1 (PPP) per day
$1.25 ii. Poverty Gap ratio
ii. Achieve full and iii. Share of poorest quintile in
productive employment national consumption
– a decent work for all iv. Growth rate of GDP per
iii. Halve the proportion of person employed
individuals who suffer v. Employment-to-population
from hunger in period ratio
between 1990 and 2015 vi. Proportion of employed
people living below $1
(PPP) per day
vii. Proportion of own-account
and contributing family
workers in total
employment
viii. Prevalence of underweight
children under five years of
age

2. Achieve universal i. By 2015, all boys and
primary education; girls should complete
primary school
3. Promote gender i. Eliminate gender
equality and empower disparity in primary and
women; secondary education,
preferably by 2005, and
in all levels of education
by 2015
4. Reduce child mortality; i. Between 1990 and
2015, Reduce the
mortality rate of children
under five by two-thirds
5. Improve maternal i. Reduce the ratio by
health; three - quarters of
women dying in
childbirth by 2015
ii. Universal access to
reproductive health to
be achieve by 2015
6. Combat HIV/AIDS, i. By 2015, Reverse the
malaria, and other spread of HIV/AIDS
diseases; ii. By 2010, Universal
access to treatment for
HIV/AIDS
ix. Proportion of population
below minimum level of
dietary energy consumption
i. Net enrolment ratio in
primary education
ii. Proportion of pupils starting
grade 1 who reach last
grade of primary
iii. Literacy rate of 15-24-year
old, women and men
i. Ratios of girls to boys in
primary, secondary and
tertiary education
ii. Share of women in wage
employment in the non-
agricultural sector
iii. Proportion of seats held by
women in national
parliament
i. Under-five mortality rate
ii. Infant mortality rate
iii. Proportion of 1-year old
children immunized against
measles
i. Maternal mortality ratio
ii. Proportion of births
attended by skilled health
personnel
iii. Contraceptive prevalence
rate
iv. Adolescent birth rate
v. Antenatal care coverage (at
least one visit and at least
four visits)
vi. Unmet need for family
planning
i. HIV prevalence among
population aged 15-24
iii. By
201
5,
 Reverse the incidence of years
malaria and other major ii. Condom use at last high-
diseases risk sex
iii. Percentage of population
aged 15-24 years with
comprehensive correct
knowledge of HIV/AIDS
iv. Ratio of school attendance
of orphans to school
attendance of non-orphans
aged 10-14 years
v. Proportion of population
with advanced HIV infection
with access to antiretroviral
drugs
vi. Incidence and death rates
associated with malaria
vii. Proportion of children under
5 sleeping under
insecticide-treated bednets
viii. Proportion of children under
5 with fever who are treated
with appropriate anti-
malarial drugs
ix. Incidence, prevalence and
death rates associated with
tuberculosis
x. Proportion of tuberculosis
cases detected and cured
under directly observed
treatment short course

7. Ensure environmental i. Integrate the principles i. Proportion of land area

sustainability; and of sustainable covered by forest
development into ii. CO2 emissions, total, per
country policies and capita and per $1 GDP
programs and reverse (PPP)
the loss of iii. Consumption of ozone-
environmental resources depleting substances
ii. By 2010, a significant iv. Proportion of fish stocks
reduction in the rate of within safe biological limits
biodiversity loss v. Proportion of total water
iii. By 2015, Reduce by half resources used
the proportion of people a
without sustainable c
 cess to safe drinking vi. Proportion of terrestrial and
water and basic marine areas protected
sanitation vii. Proportion of species
iv. By 2020, achieve a threatened with extinction
significant improvement viii. Proportion of population
in the lives of at least using an improved drinking
100 million slum water source
dwellers ix. Proportion of population
using an improved
sanitation facility
x. Proportion of urban
population living in slums

8. Develop a global i. Develop further an open Indicators are monitored

partnership for trading and financial separately for the least
development. system that includes a developed countries (LDCs),
commitment to good Africa, landlocked developing
governance, countries and small island
development and developing States such as but
poverty reduction not limited to:
nationally and i. Net ODA, total and to the
internationally least developed countries,
ii. Address the least as percentage of
developed countries’ OECD/DAC donors' gross
special needs, and the national income
special needs of ii. Proportion of total bilateral,
landlocked and small sector-allocable ODA of
island developing States OECD/DAC donors to basic
iii. Deal comprehensively social services (basic
with developing education, primary health
countries’ debt problems care, nutrition, safe water
iv. Develop decent and and sanitation)
productive work for iii. Proportion of total
youth developed country imports
v. In cooperation with (by value and excluding
pharmaceutical arms) from developing
companies, provide countries and least
access to affordable developed countries,
essential drugs in admitted free of duty
developing countries iv. Total number of countries
vi. In cooperation with the that have reached their
private sector, make HIPC decision points and
available the benefits of number that have reached
 new technologies their HIPC completion
especially points (cumulative)
information and v. Proportion of population
communications with access to affordable
technologies essential drugs on a
sustainable basis
vi. Telephone lines per 100
population, Cellular
subscribers per 100
population, and Internet
users per 100 population

Source: Unicef.org (2014)

Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) were put into place to reduce poverty and
improve the lives of millions, it provided a framework for the countries to have
coordinated action, clear targets and to measure progress. As the countries near the
2015 deadline, it delivered encouraging results, many countries have experienced
extraordinary progress in improving the lives of millions of people. However, the
progress has been unequal, not all countries are able to meet the MDGs, thus, leading
the country to the “2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development” that includes
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) that will help address the new challenges of
the world.

In achieving the MDGs, many challenges were faced by developing nations.

These challenges brought hardship and made it difficult for the countries to
experience development, some are specific to individual countries, others broadly
shared. These are some of the common challenges experienced by mostly least-
developed countries: Poor starting conditions, the burden of underdevelopment is not
shared equally, countries who are at the lowest level of human development indicators
are least equipped to reach the MDGs, technically and financially. Weak Governance
and Institutions, Government plays a primary role in the development of under-
development countries, they help to get rid of poverty and attain a high standard of
living, they develop and implement policies that would promote sustainable economic
growth and human development. The incompetent and inefficient government would
make growth and development more difficult to achieve since they are the central body
or the governing authority. Conflict and Instability, least developed countries are much
more vulnerable to civil wars. “Conflict doesn’t only stop development but reverses
progress, worsens hunger, poverty, disease, and deaths … Poverty is both a cause
and an outcome of conflict” (Muñoz). According to Collier, a conflict is a trap that
the countries fall into, they’ll find it difficult to escape. They interrupt normal economic
activity, reduce economic growth, increase poverty, and violate human rights – abuses
suffered mostly by women; thereby, making the country at risk of falling back into
conflict. Lastly, Environmental Degradation, “Balancing nature and development so that
social welfare does not decline over time is at the core of environmental
sustainability” (International Monetary Fund, 2008). The relationship between
environment
 and economy are mutual to each other. The environment provides natural resources as
an essential input for every production in many sectors in the economy. The environment
acts as a basin for the pollution, emissions, and waste made by the productions. “Rapid
global ecological changes are threatening to overtake the efforts of many
countries” (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2007) because to achieve
sustainable development, one must ensure environmental sustainability.

e. Environmental Problems

As the world progresses, one cannot deny that our economy and standard of living
also grows. This makes us mindful that each country must develop its own policies in
order for them to experience such sustainability over time. The term sustainability, as
defined by scholars, refers to a kind of harvesting treatment for a certain natural resource
that is capable to be reproduced and maintained throughout the coming years.
Ecologists have extended the meaning to promote awareness of how the entire
ecological system should be preserved in order to keep its status and function well-
maintained. Nevertheless, the economists have stressed out that the development
and upholding of the human’s standard of living in relation to the importance of our
environment and natural resources signify only a part of the whole picture. The
importance of having input from various institutions and good governance must be
prioritized for one to fully commit itself in putting this action into practice to achieve
sustainable development (Baker, 2015).

The environment is commonly viewed as an asset with high intrinsic value, wherein
everyone has a great responsibility to safeguard and preserve it in its natural
state. However, this kind of action comes at a cost where the developed countries are
the only ones who seem to be prepared and can move on to achieve sustainability in this
aspect. The developing countries are in an unfavorable position in this reality. That is
why, both the developed and developing countries must have a meeting of the minds to
work in policies regarding environmental protection and development in order to surpass
these challenges not only in environmental aspects but also in economic development.

Nations must keep in mind that its assets provide a lot of benefits that would flow to
its economy, but only for a limited time (Kopp, 2016). After realizing this reality, nations
must then give importance to how investing in these assets would help them reduce the
costs they would incur for future problems. He also emphasized that developing
countries must follow a strategy in order to protect and keep the value of its natural
assets. First, organizations need to have sustainable management about the exceptional
character of its natural assets. Followed by the existence of an available capital surplus
for investments so that the economies can move in accordance with their goal to achieve
sustainability over time.
 The developing countries need to focus on its natural assets that provide all kinds
of private services such as but not limited to, fish habitats and agricultural and forest
lands
to execute the strategy successfully as these natural assets sustain the basic necessities
in life as they provide food and housing, and create an opportunity to produce
more surplus. If these countries focus on the other characteristics that its natural assets
offer, the assets would not only be impaired from time to time, but it will also limit these
countries to only experience economic development problems. In addition, natural
assets that provide quasi-public services such as but not limited to, surface and ground
waters and air should also be given importance. If not, these assets will impose
health concerns wherein the people are the first ones who are affected and later on, the
country’s economy as well. It is only natural to enhance further the capital and make it
strong by a well- planned resolution to combat these problems before the economy gets
worse or to prevent a downfall in the economy.
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