DESIGN OF RCC STRUCTURES

UNIT – 1
1. Define reinforced concrete.
Reinforced cement concrete is a composite material is made of
concrete and steel reinforcement. The concrete may be assumed to work
purely in compression whereas the reinforcement is predominately subjected
to tension. For a large range of applications it is sufficient to consider the
uni-axial response of either material.

2. What is the purpose of using reinforced cement concrete?

 Plain cement concrete has very low tensile strength. The tensile
strength of concrete is about one-tenth of its compressive strength. As
a result, a plain concrete beam fails suddenly as soon as the tension
cracks start to develop.
 To improve the tensile strength of concrete, some sort of
reinforcement is needed which can take up the tensile stress developed
in the structure.
 It’s not only increases the strength but also in preventing the
temperature and shrinkage.
 Therefore, reinforcing steel is added in the tension zone to carry all
the developed tensile stresses.

3. What are the advantages of RCC when compared with other building
materials?
 Concrete is workable when fresh and strong when hardens.
 It can be molded into any required shape and size.
  The raw materials required are easily available.
 Skill is not required for casting concrete elements.
 Concrete is durable, fire resisting and rigid.
 Concrete requires less maintenance.

4. What are the disadvantages of RCC when compared with other

building materials?
 The self-weight of the structural elements will be more while concrete
is used.
 Concrete has a very low tensile strength. Hence cracks will form in
the tension zone if reinforcement is not provided properly.
 Cracks develop in concrete, also due to shrinkage, creep, temperature,
etc. which permit seepage of water into the concrete. This causes
corrosion of steel reinforcement and thereby peeling of concrete.
 Concrete has poor insulating property.
 Dismantling and reusing of concrete elements are mostly not possible.
 Concrete is brittle in nature and hence has low impact resisting
capacity.

5. What are the uses of reinforced concrete?

It is used for the construction of,
 Buildings
 Bunkers and silos
 Chimneys and towers
 Flyovers
 Retaining walls
 Roads and railway bridges
  Water tanks

6. What are the types of load on R.C.C structures?

 Dead load
 Live load or Imposed load
 Wind load
 Snow load
 Earthquake load
 Seismic load

7. What are the elements of structures?

 Beam
 Column
 Floor
 Foundation
 Slab
 Staircase

8. What are the methods of design?

 Modular Ratio Method (or) Working Stress Method(WSM) (or)
Elastic Method of Design
 Load Factor Method (or) Ultimate Load Method(ULM) (or) Ultimate
Strength Method
 Limit State Method(LSM)
9. Define elastic method of design.
The elastic method of design of reinforced concrete member is also
known as Working Stress Method (or) Modular Ratio Method. Elastic
behaviors of materials are used in Elastic Method of Design. The method of
elastic design of a structure is defined as a method which limits the structural
usefulness of the material of the structure upto a certain load at which the
maximum stress in extreme fibre reaches the characteristic strength of
material in bending.

10.Define ultimate load design method.

This method is otherwise known as Load Factor Method or Ultimate
Strength Method. This method is based on the ultimate strength, when the
design member would fail. In this method factors are taken into account
only on loads are load factors. The method of ultimate design of a structure
is defined as a method which limits the structural usefulness of the material
of the structure upto ultimate load.

11.Define limit state method.

The Limit State Method is defined as a method which limits the
structural usefulness of the material of the structure upto a certain load at
which acceptable limit of safety and serviceability are applied so that the
failure of structure does not occur. It is the combination of Working Stress
Method and Ultimate Load Method. In this method partial factor of safety is
considered on both loads and stresses. This method is advance over other
methods. Since, safety and serviceability are considered.
12.Define characteristic load.
A characteristic load is defined as that value of load which has a 95%
probability of not being exceeded during the life of the structure.

𝐹𝑘 = 𝐹𝑚 + 𝐾 𝑆𝑑
Where,
Fk = characteristic load
Fm = mean load
K = constant = 2.645 ≏ 2.65
Sd = standard deviation for the load

13.Define permissible stress.

It is defined as the ratio of yield stress to the factor of safety.
𝑈𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑠
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑂𝑓 𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦

14.Define factor of safety.

Factor of safety is a number used to determine the working stress. It is
fixed based on the experimental works on the material. It accounts all
uncertainties such as, material defects, unforeseen loads, manufacturing
defects, unskilled workmanship, temperature effects etc. Factor of safety is a
dimensionless number. It is defined as the ratio of ultimate stress to working
stress for brittle materials or yield stress to working stress for ductile
material.
𝑈𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝐹𝑂𝑆 = (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙)
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
15.Define modular ratio.
It is defined as the ratio of elastic modulus of steel to that of concrete.
It is used to transform the composite section into an equivalent concrete
section.
280
𝑚=
3 𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐

16.What is the expression recommended by the IS 456-2000 for modulus of

elasticity?
𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝐸𝑐 = 5000 √𝑓𝑐𝑘

17.State the assumption made for design of RC members in working stress

method.
(Refer IS 456:2000 Page no: 80)

18.What are the advantages in limit state method?

 Ultimate load method only deals with on safety such as strength,
overturning, and sliding, buckling, fatigue.
 Working stress method only deals with serviceability such as crack,
vibration, deflection etc.
 But, Limit state method advances than other two methods. Hence by
considering safety at ultimate load and serviceability at working load.
 The process of stress redistribution and moment redistribution are
considered in the analysis and more realistic factor of safety values are
used in the design. Hence, the design by limit state method is found
to be more economical.
  The overall sizes of flexural members arrived by limit state method
are less and hence they provide better appearance to the structure.

19.What are the advantages of working stress method?

 The design usually results in relatively large sections of structural
members, compared to ultimate load. Due to this structures designed
by working stress method gives better serviceability performance
under working loads.
 This method is only the method available when one has to investigate
the reinforced concrete section for service stresses and for the
serviceability state of deflection and cracking.

20.What are the disadvantages of working stress method?

 The WSM does not show the real strength nor gives the true factor of
safety of the structure under failure.
 The modular ratio design results in larger percentage of compression
steel than that given by the limit state design, thus leading to un-
economic design.
 Because of creep and non-linear stress-strain relationship, concrete
does not have definite modulus of elasticity.
 The WSM fails to discriminate between different types of loads that
act simultaneously but have different uncertainties.

21.What are the advantages of ultimate load method?

 While the WSM uses only the nearly linear part of stress-strain curve,
the ULM uses fully the actual stress-strain curve.
 The load factor gives the exact margin of safety against collapse.
  The method allows using different load factors for different types of
loads and the combination thereof.
 The failure load computed by ULM matches with the experimental
results.
 The method is based on the ultimate strain as the failure criteria.
 The method utilizes the reserve of strength in the plastic region.

22.What are the disadvantages of ultimate load method?

 The method does not take into consideration the serviceability criteria
of deflection and cracking.
 The use of high strength reinforcing steel and concrete results in
increase of deflection and crack width.
 The method does not take into consideration the effects of creep and
shrinkage.
 In the ULM, the distribution of stress resultants at ultimate load is
taken as the distribution at service loads magnified by the load factor.
This is erroneous since significant redistribution of stress resultants
takes place as the loading is increased from service loads to ultimate
loads.

23.What are the factors considered in limit state of collapse?

 Flexure
 Compression
 Shear
 Torsion
24.What are the factors considered in limit state of serviceability?
 Cracking
 Deflection
 Durability
 Fire resistance
 Vibration

25.What are the factors of safety in limit state?

 Partial factor of safety for concrete 𝛾𝑐 = 1.5
 Partial factor of safety for steel 𝛾𝑠 = 1.15
 Partial factor of safety for load 𝛾𝑓

26.Write down the value of partial safety factor for concrete and steel.
 Partial factor of safety for concrete 𝛾𝑐 = 1.5
 Partial factor of safety for steel 𝛾𝑠 = 1.15

27.What is under reinforced section?

Steel reaches maximum permissible stress earlier than concrete due to
external loads is called under reinforced section.

28.What is over reinforced section?

Concrete reaches maximum permissible stress earlier than steel due to
external load is called over reinforced section.

29.What is balanced section?

Concrete and steel reaches maximum permissible stress
simultaneously due to external load is called balanced section.
30.Define singly reinforced section.
Steel reinforcements are provided only on tension zone of RC flexural
member is known as singly reinforced section.

31.Define doubly reinforced section.

Steel reinforcements are provided on both tension and compression
zone of RC flexural member is known as doubly reinforced section.
In some situations it becomes essential for a beam to carry BM more
that it can resist as a balanced section. In this case additional reinforcement
is provided in compression zone such beams reinforced in both compression
and tension zones are known as doubly reinforced section.

32.Under what circumstances doubly reinforced beams resorted to?

When,
𝑀𝑢 > 𝑀𝑢 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡. Then, doubly reinforcement is used.

33.Write down the basic values of span to effective depth ratio for the
different types of beam.
Basic values of span to effective depth ratios for spans up to 10m
Cantilever 7
Simply supported 20
Continuous 26

34.Define collapse state.

The limit state of collapse of the structure or part of the structure
could be assessed from replace of one or more critical sections and from
bulking due to elastic or plastic instability or overturning.
35.Define the terms Gross section, Transformed section, cracked section.
(Refer IS 456:2000 Page no: 35)

36.Draw the stress-strain curve for concrete, mild steel bars and HYSD
bars.

37.Define brittle and ductile failure.

Materials that fracture without any plastic deformation are called
brittle materials. Example: Glass and other ceramic materials.
Materials undergo plastic deformation before fracture is called ductile
material. Example: aluminum, copper, steel and many metals, as well as
polyethylene, nylon and many other polymers.

38.Define clear cover.

The distance between the bottom of the bars and bottom most edge of
the beam is called clear cover.

39.Define effective cover.

The distance between the centre of the reinforcement bar and the
bottom edge of the beam is called effective cover.
𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑟
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 = 𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 +
2
 UNIT – 2
1. What do you understand by development length of bar?
The reinforced bar must extend in the anchorage zone of concrete
sufficiently, to develop the required stress. The extended length of bar
inside the face of the support is known as development length. It is denoted
by the symbol, Ld.

2. Define anchorage length.

Anchorage length is defined as embedded portion of the bar in
concrete, but not subjected to any flexural bond.

3. Define anchorage bond.

All the types of reinforcement must be anchored within the concrete
section, in order that the anchorage bond should be sufficient to develop the
stress in the bar. The anchorage depends on the bond between the bar and
concrete and the area of contact.

4. Define curtailment of bars.

In flexural members, design of reinforcement is done based on
bending moment along the span. As the magnitude of bending moment on a
beam decreases along its length, that case the area of bending reinforcement
may be reduced by curtailing bars as they are no longer required.

5. What do you mean by equilibrium torsion?

Torsion induced by eccentric loading and equilibrium condition alone
sufficient to determine twisting moments is known as equilibrium torsion.
6. Define torsion.
Equal and opposite moments applied at both ends of structural
element or its part about its longitudinal axis is called torsion. It is also
called as torsional moment or twist or torque.

7. What is compatibility torsion?

Torsion induced by application of an angle of twist and the resulting
moment depends on the torsional stiffness of the member is known as
compatibility torsion.

8. How can torsional resistance of RC members be enhanced?

Increasing strength of concrete and the amount of longitudinal as well
as transverse reinforcements over and above those required for bending and
shear can enhance the torsional resistance of a member.

9. Name the locations in beam where the development lengths of torsion

bars should be checked.
At beams, development lengths should be checked at the sections
where,
 Maximum bending moment occurs
 Point of curtailment
 Point of inflation

10.Write down the effect of torsion in RC beams.

RC members may be subjected to torsion in combination with bending
and shear. Longitudinal and transverse reinforcement shall be provided for
RC beams to resist torsion.
 Torsional reinforcement is not calculated separately from that required
for bending and shear. Instead, the total longitudinal reinforcement is
determined for a fictitious bending moment which is a function of actual
bending moment and torsion.

11.Write about local bond and anchorage length.

All types of reinforcement must be anchored within the concrete
section, in order that the anchorage bond should be sufficient to develop the
stress in the bar. Anchorage length is defined as embedded portion of the
bar in concrete, but not subjected to any flexural bond.

12.Distinguish between flexural bond and development bond.

FLEXURAL BOND
It arises in flexural members on
account of shear or variations in
bending moment, which in turn
causes a variation in axial tension
along the length of a reinforcing.
DEVELOPMENT BOND
It arises over the length of anchorage
provide for a bar or near the end of a
reinforcing bar.

13.Why is bond stress more in compression bars than in tension bars?

 Deformed bars subjected to tension, 𝜏𝑏𝑑 values shall be increased by
60%.
 Deformed bars subjected to compression, 𝜏𝑏𝑑 values shall be
increased by 25%.
14.What are the types of reinforcement used to resist shear and write down
the expressions for to shear resistance offered by the type?
Shear reinforcement is necessary if the nominal shear stress (𝜏𝑣 )
exceeds the design shear stress(𝜏𝑐 ). In general, shear reinforcement is
provided in any one of the following three forms. (Refer IS 456:2000 Page
no: 72)

15.Write down the value of design bond stress for M30 grade of concrete.
Design bond stress in limit state methods for plain bars (mild steel) in
𝑁
tension is 𝜏𝑏𝑑 = 1.5
𝑚𝑚2

16.What is RC slab?
Reinforced concrete slabs are used in roofs of buildings. Slab is a
flexural member transmits imposed and dead load to the supports. Support
may be a wall, beam or column.

17.Reinforced concrete slabs are generally safe and do not require shear
reinforcement. Why?
Normally the thickness of slab is so chosen that the shear can be
resisted by concrete itself and the slab does not need extra shear
reinforcements.

18.What are the types of slab?

 One way slab
 Two way slab
19.How can be classified the slab?
𝐿𝑦
 > 2 (One way slab)
𝐿𝑥
𝐿𝑦
 < 2 (Two way slab)
𝐿𝑥

20.Define one way slab.

When the slab is supported only on two opposite sides, the slab bends
in one direction only. Hence, it is called one way slab.

21.Define two way slabs.

When the slab is supported on all four sides, the slab bends in both
directions. Hence, it is called two way slabs.

22.Name the two types of two-way slabs. Explain their difference in the
design of slabs.
 Slabs simply supported on the four edges, with corners not held down
and carrying UDL
 Slabs simply supported on the four edges, with corners held down and
carrying UDL
 Slabs with edges fixed or continuous and carrying UDL

23.Why is secondary reinforcement provided in one way RC slab?

Secondary reinforcement is provided running perpendicular to the
main reinforcement, in order to take the temperature and shrinkage stresses.
It is otherwise called as distribution or temperature reinforcement.
24.What are the codal provisions for a minimum reinforcement to be
provided as main and secondary reinforcement in slab and their
maximum spacing?
Minimum reinforcement:
0.15
𝐴𝑠𝑡 = × 𝑏 × 𝐷 (For mild steel)
100
0.15
(𝐴𝑠𝑡 )𝑚𝑖𝑛 = × 𝑏 × 𝐷 (For HYSD bars)
100

 Spacing = 3d or 300mm (horizontal distance between parallel main

reinforcement bars). Use whichever is smaller.
 Spacing = 5d or 450mm (horizontal distance between parallel
reinforcement bar provided against shrinkage and temperature). Use
whichever is smaller.

25.Explain the purposes of lintel beams in buildings.

Lintels are provided over the openings of doors, windows, etc.
Generally, they support the load of the wall over it, and sometimes also the
live loads are transferred by the sub-roof of the room. Lintel takes the
masonry load over the openings and distributes to the masonry located sides
of opening.

26.What type of slab usually used in practice, under reinforced or over

reinforced section?
The depth of slab chosen from deflection requirements will be usually
greater than the depth required for balanced design. Hence the area of steel
required will be less than the balanced amount. So, the slab is designed as
under reinforced section.
27.What do you understand by flanged beam?
The concrete in the slabs, which is on the compression side of the
beam, can be made to resist the compression forces, and the steel in the
tension side of the beam can carry the tension. These combined beam and
slab units are called flanged beam.

28.Define shear strength.

The resistance to sliding offered by the material of beam is called
shear strength.

29.What are the important factors affecting the shear resistance of a

reinforced concrete member without shear reinforcement?
 Characteristic strength of concrete
 Percentage of longitudinal steel
 Shear span to depth ratio
 Axial compressive/tensile force
 Effect of cross section
 Effect of two way action

UNIT – 3
1. Define column.
A column, in general, may be defined as a member carrying direct
axial load which causes compressive stresses of such magnitude that these
stresses largely control its design.
 It transmits load coming from beam or slab and distributes to the
foundation usually columns are square, rectangle, circular and ‘I’
shaped in cross section.
  It is reinforced with longitudinal and lateral ties.
 Load carrying capacity of column is depending upon longitudinal
steel and cross sectional size of the column.
 Lateral ties are giving lateral support to the longitudinal steel. The
columns are analyzed for axial force and moments.

2. Differentiate between long and short column.

Based on slenderness ratio (λ) columns can be classified into long and
short.
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
Slenderness ratio (λ) =
𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

Short column λ < 12

Long column λ > 12

3. Differentiate between uni-axial and bi-axial bending.

Axial load and bending moment along one direction are applied
simultaneously on the column is called uni-axial bending.
Axial load and bending moment along two direction are applied
simultaneously on the column is called bi-axial bending.

4. According to IS code all columns should be designed for minimum

eccentricity. Justify the statement.
Lateral loads such as wind and seismic loads are not considered in
design.
 Misalignment in construction
 Slenderness effects not considered in design
 Accidental lateral or eccentric loads
5. Write down the formula for calculating minimum eccentricity.
𝑙 𝐷
𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛 = + , subject to a minimum of 20mm
500 30

Where,
l = unsupported length of the column
D = lateral dimension of the column

6. What is spiral column?

For a circular column, longitudinal tied with closely spaced helix are
called as spiral column.

7. What is the minimum and maximum percentage of reinforcement can

be provided for a column?
The cross sectional area of longitudinal reinforcement shall be not less
than 0.8% not more than 6% of the gross cross sectional area of the column.

8. What are the specifications for pitch of lateral ties in columns?

The pitch of the transverse reinforcement shall be not more than the least of
the following distances:
 Least lateral dimension of the compression member
 Sixteen times the smallest diameter of the longitudinal reinforcement
bar to be tied.
 300mm

9. What is pedestal?
Pedestal is a compression member, the effective length of which does
not exceed three times the least lateral dimension.
10.Distinguish braced and un-braced column.
BRACED COLUMN
In most of the cases, columns are
subjected to horizontal loads like wind, loads have to be resisted by
earthquake, etc. If lateral supports are
provided at the ends of the column, the
lateral loads are borne entirely by the
lateral supports. Such columns are
known as braced columns.
It is not subject to side sway.
UNBRACED COLUMN
Other columns, where the lateral
them, in addition to axial loads
and end moments, are considered
as un-braced columns.
It is subject to side sway.

11.What is slender column?

If the slenderness ratio of the column about either axis is greater than
12, is classified as long column. Long column should be designed as slender
column.

12.Mention the functions of the traverse reinforcement in a RC column.

 To prevent longitudinal buckling of longitudinal reinforcement.
 To resist diagonal tension caused due to transverse shear due to
moment / transverse load.
 To hold the longitudinal reinforcement in position at the time of
concreting.
 To confine the concrete, thereby preventing its longitudinal splitting.
 To impart ductility to the column.
 To prevent sudden brittle failure of the column.
13.Classify the column according to the material.
 Pre-stressed concrete
 Reinforced cement concrete
 Stone
 Timber

14.Classify the column according to transverse reinforcement.

 Spiral or helical
 Tied

UNIT – 4
1. What are the types of foundations?
 Deep foundation
 Shallow foundation

2. What are the types of shallow foundations?

 Combined footing
 Isolated footing
 Mat or raft footing
 Spread or strip footing
 Strap or cantilever footing

3. What are the types of deep foundations?

 Pier foundation
 Pile foundation
 Well foundation
4. What are the factors governing to decide the depth of footing?
The footing is generally to resist the bending moments and shear
forces developed due to soil reactions. The main purpose of the footing is to
effectively support the super structures.

5. Define safe bearing capacity of soil.

It is the maximum intensity of load or pressure developed under the
foundation without causing failure of soil. Unit for safe bearing capacity of
𝑘𝑁
soil is . Safe bearing capacity of soil is determined by the plate load test at
𝑚2

the site.

6. What is punching or two way shear in RCC footing?

Punching shear is a type of shear failure occurs in reinforced concrete
footings due to axial load from the column and upward soil thrust from the
ground.

7. What are the advantages of providing pedestals to columns?

 Where pedestals are providing, and full force is transferred to the
footing without additional reinforcement.
 Pedestal provides a plane surface for the convenience of column
construction.

8. What is the situation in which trapezoidal shape is preferred to a

rectangular shape for a two column combined footing?
If the one column is carrying load is much larger than the other one,
trapezoidal combined footing is preferred.
9. When combined footings are adopted?
 When two or more columns/walls are located close to each other
and/or if they are relatively heavily loaded and/or rest on soil with low
safe bearing capacity.
 An exterior column located along the periphery of the building is so
close to the property line that an isolated footing cannot be
symmetrically placed without extending beyond the property line.

10.Under what circumstances rectangular shape preferred for a two-

column combined footing.
When loads are equal and no restriction on sides, the footing will be
rectangular with equal overhang on both sides.

11.Under what circumstances combined footing is preferred.

 When isolated footings for individual columns are touching or
overlapping each other.
 When the columns are located near the boundary lines or expansion
joints.

12.What is meant by eccentric loading on a footing and under what

situation does this occur?
The load P acting on a footing may act eccentrically with respect to
the centroid of the footing base. This eccentricity may result from one or
more of the following effects.
 The column transmitting a moment M in addition to the vertical load.
 The column carrying a vertical load offset with respect to the centroid
of the footing.
  The column or pedestal transmitting a lateral force located above the
foundation level, in addition to the vertical load.

13.Write down the formula for calculating maximum and minimum soil
pressures for a rectangular footing carries eccentric point load.
The structural design of the footing, which includes the design of the
depth and reinforcement, is done for factored loads using the relevant safety
factors applications for the limit state of collapse.

14.Define stair case.

Staircase flights are generally designed as slabs spanning between
wall supports or landing beams or as cantilever from a longitudinal inclined
beam. The staircase fulfills the function of access between the various floors
in the building. Generally the flight steps consist of one or more landings
between the floor levels.

15.What are the components of stairs?

The components of stairs are,
 Baluster
 Flight
 Going
 Landing
 Rise
 Riser
 Soffit
 Step
 Tread
  Winders

16.What are the normal range of tread and rise values of steps of a
staircase in residential building?
As per IS 456:2000 the normal range of tread and rise values of steps
of a staircase in residential building are,
 Rise: 150mm to 180mm
 Tread: 200mm to 250mm

17.List the various types of stair cases.

 Bifurcated stairs
 Dog-legged stairs
 Geometrical stairs such as circular, spiral stair, etc
 Multi-flight stairs
 Open newel stair with quarter space landing
 Quarter-turn stairs
 Straight stairs
 Three quarter-turn stairs

18.Define flat slab.

A flat slab is a reinforced concrete slab supported directly over
columns without beams generally used when headroom is limited such as in
cellars and warehouses.

19.Define Box Culvert.

These are provided for conveying water to serve the following requirements:
 To serve as means for a cross drainage
  To provide a supporting slab for road way under which the cross
drainage flows

20.What are cases available in Box Culvert?

 Case (I) when the top slab carries the dead and live load and culvert is
empty
 Case (II) when the top slab carries the dead and live load and culvert
is full of water
 Case (III) when the sides of culvert do not carry live load and culvert
is full of water.

21.How the effectively span of a stair is decided when the landing slab
spans in the same direction as the stair.
When the landing slab spans in the same direction as the stairs, they
should be considered as acting together to form a single slab and the span
determined at the distance centre to centre of the supporting beams or walls,
the going being measured horizontally.

22.Give the guidelines of the size of rise and tread as per IS code norms.
The following guidelines may be followed while deciding the size of
rise and tread of a stair.
 400mm < (rise + tread) < 450mm
 580mm < (rise + tread) < 630mm

23.Define depth of section.

The depth of section shall be taken as the minimum thickness
perpendicular to the soffit of the staircase.
24.How the load is distributed in the case of an open well stairs?
In the case of stairs with open wells, where spans partly crossings at
right angles occur, the load on areas common to any two such spans may be
taken as one-half in each direction.

25.How the load is distributed when flights or landings are embedded into
walls?
Where flights or landings are embedded into walls for a length not
less than 110 mm and designed to span in the direction of the flight, a 150
mm strip may be deducted from the loaded area and effective breadth of the
section increased to 75 mm for the purpose of design.

26.What are the loads acting on staircases? Explain.

DEAD LOADS:
Self-weight of stair slab which includes the waist slab, tread-rise, etc.
Self-weight of finishes (0.5 to 1 kN/m2)

LIVE LOADS:
IS 875 parts II specifies the load to be considered as UDL of intensity
5kN/m2 for public buildings and 3kN/m2 for residential building where the
specified floor do not exceed 2kN/m2 and the staircases are should not liable
for overcrowding.

27.Explain structural behaviors of stair cases.

Staircases can be grouped depending upon the support conditions and
the direction of major bending of the slab component under the following
categories.
  Staircase slab spanning horizontally (along the slope line)
 Staircase slab spanning transversely (slab width wise with central or
side supports)

UNIT – 5
1. What is masonry?
Masonry is a structure built of in individual blocks of materials such
as stone, brick, concrete, hollow blocks, etc bonded together with some form
of mortar such as lime mortar, cement mortar.

2. What is the size of bricks?

Without mortar joints:
 Size of standard brick = 190mm x 90mm x 90mm
 Size of modular type brick = 190mm x 90mm x 40mm

With mortar joints:

 Size of brick = 200mm x 100mm x 100mm
 Size of modular type brick = 200mm x 100mm x 50mm

3. List the Types of bricks.

 Common clay bricks
 Class I bricks
 Class II bricks
 Class III bricks

 Heavy duty bricks

  Class I bricks (or) A class bricks
 Class II bricks (or) B class bricks

4. Define Mortar.
Mortar is a combined material formed with intimately mixing a
binding material like lime or cement, with a fine aggregate like sand in
certain proportion and with adequate quantity of water.

5. What is the classification of Walls?

 Load bearing walls
 Cavity wall
 Faced wall
 Solid wall
 Solid wall with piers (pilaster)
 Veneered wall

 Non-load bearing walls

 Curtain wall
 Free-standing wall
 Panel wall
 Partition wall

6. What are the classifications of loads on walls?

 Axial (or) Vertical
 Lateral (or) transverse
7. Define criteria.
Design criterion is that the actual stress produced due to loads in the
structure should be within permissible limits.

8. What are the factors of permissible stress (or) allowable compressive

stress?
 Cross sectional area of the masonry
 Eccentricity of loading
 Shape and size of bricks
 Slenderness ratio
 Strength of mortar
 Type and strength of bricks

9. What is the purpose of providing a lateral support into a masonry

structure?
Masonry structures gain stability from support offered by cross walls,
floors and roofs. Lateral supports for load bearing walls or columns limit
the slenderness of the structure. Further the lateral support reduces the
possibility of buckling of member due to vertical loads and to resist
horizontal forces.

10.What is a pilaster in bricks masonry wall?

Solid walls are thickened at intervals by increasing the cross section.
The thickened portions are called as piers or pilasters. They are used for one
of the following purposes.
 To carry concentrated loads from roof or floor beams
 To provide lateral support
  To reduce the slenderness ratio by stiffening the walls.

11.What is meant by slenderness ratio of a masonry wall?

𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑆𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠

12.What is an equivalent eccentricity?

In an eccentricity loaded wall, there is an axial load and a bending
moment these two may be combined into single resultant load acting at a
distance. This is known as equivalent eccentricity.

13.List the factors which contribute for eccentricity on bricks walls.

 Geometry of the support
 Long floor edges
 Magnitude of loads
 Relative stiffness of slab or beam and the wall
 Unequal spans

14.How do you determine the average effective thickness of wall with

opening?
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝐴) = (𝐿 − 𝑎) × 𝑡
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝑡) = (𝐿 − 𝑎)
Where,
L = length between outer wall faces
a = width of spacing
t = thickness of wall
15.Define Retaining walls.
Retaining walls are structures used to provide stability of earth masses
other loose materials. That is when field conditions do not allow the earth
pressure to assume its natural shape or when abrupt changes in the ground
surface elevation are needed retaining walls are used.

16.Where are used the retaining walls?

 Basement wall
 Box culvert
 Depressed roads
 Elevated protection
 Erosion protection
 Flood wall
 For underground water tanks
 Landscaping
 Retaining a rail-road or highway in hilly area
 Used at the ends of bridges in the form of abutments

17.Types of retaining walls.

 Buttressed wall:
A buttressed wall is a modification of the counter fort retaining
wall in which the counterforts, called the buttresses, are provided to
the other side of the backfill. However the buttresses reduce the
clearance in front of the wall, and therefore these walls are not
commonly used.
 Cantilever retaining wall:
A taller wall with extended toe and heel to offset the large
lateral pressure tends to overturn the wall. A cantilever wall has part
of the base extending underneath the backfill, and the weight of the
soil above this part of the base helps prevent overturning.
 T-shaped
 L-shaped

 Counter fort retaining wall:

The vertical stem and the heel slab are strengthened by
providing counterforts at some suitable intervals. Because of
provision of counterforts, the vertical stem as well as the heel slab acts
as continuous slab, in contrast to the cantilevers of cantilever retaining
wall. The toe slab however acts as cantilever bending upwards. This
type of retaining wall is used when backfill of greater height is to be
retained.

 Gravity retaining wall:

A gravity retaining wall is the one which resists the lateral earth
pressure by its weight in contrast to the cantilever and counter fort
retaining walls in which the pressure is resisted by bending action. A
gravity retaining wall is therefore, thicker in section. They are
constructed of mass concrete, brick or stone masonry.
 Massive Gravity Wall
 Counter fort Wall
 Cantilever Gravity Wall
18.What are the assumptions for coulomb’s earth pressure theory?
The earth pressure theory proposed by coulomb is based on the following
assumptions:
 The soil or the retained material is isotropic, homogeneous and
possesses both internal friction and cohesion.
 The rupture surface is a plane surface.
 The friction forces are uniformly distributed along the plane rupture
surface.
 The failure used is a rigidly body.
 There is a wall friction.
 Failure is a Plane strain problem.

19.What is the structural action of the stem, heel and toe?

STEM:
The vertical arm or stem is subjected to lateral pressure and acts as a
cantilever. The lateral pressure causes maximum bending moment and shear
forces at junction of the stem.

HEEL:
The heel is subjected to soil pressure from the bottom acting towards
and the downward loads due to self-weight and the earth above the heel.
The downward load is more hence the heel acts like a cantilever is more
hence the heel acts like a cantilever bending downwards. Maximum
bending moment and shear force occur at the junction of the heel with stem.
 TOE:
The toe is subjected to upward pressure from the soil and the
downward pressure is due to self-weight. Hence the toe is designed as
cantilever. Maximum bending moment and shear force occur at the face of
the stem.

20.How the development of tension in a base slab is checked?

In order to avoid development of tension in the base slab, the resultant
of various forces acting on the wall should cut the base in the middle-third of
the width of the base. Further the maximum pressure on the base slab
should not exceed the allowable soil pressure.

21.Why counter forts are provided in a counter fort retaining wall?

In a cantilever retaining wall with more height, the bending moment
development in the stem, heel slab and toe slab become very large and
require thickness. The bending very large and require moments and so the
thickness. The bending moments and so the thickness of stem and slab can
be considerably reduced by introducing transverse supports called counter
forts. They are spaced at regular intervals of about 0.3 to 0.6hl where ‘h’ is
the height of the retaining wall. The counter forts are concealed within the
backfill.

22.What are the factors governing the spacing of counter forts?

Spacing of counter forts depends on various factors such as height of
retaining wall, cost of steel and concrete, allowable soil pressure and cost of
form work. Keeping the spacing of counter forts closer reduces the
thickness of vertical slab and the heel slab and cost of formwork increases.
 Thus the spacing is the one which makes the design economical. Spacing
generally varies from n0.3 to 0.6h where ‘h’ is the height of the wall.

23.Define the stability of retaining wall structure.

Retaining wall as a wholes stability the following external stability
requirements:
 Safety against bearing capacity failure
 Safety against overturning
 Safety against sliding

24.Define factor of safety against overturning.

Factor of safety against sliding along the base is defined as the ratio of
resisting moment to disturbing moment about the toe. Factor of safety
against sliding should not be less than 2.0

25.What do you mean by the backfill of retaining wall?

Loose material like soil, coal or ore piles retained on the back of a
retaining wall is called a backfill. Backfill materials for retaining structure
should be designed to minimize the lateral pressure. A good backfill
material should satisfy two important requirements via, high long – term
strength and free drainage. Granular materials make the best types of
backfill.

26.List out the various forces subjected to a cantilever retaining wall.

The forces are,
 Wc = weight of the cantilever wall
 Wa = weight of soil above the back fill
  Pa = lateral pressure from backfill
 Pp = lateral pressure at the front of the wall
 Pmax & Pmin = soil pressures beneath the retaining wall

27.What is the function of a shear key?

A retaining wall should be safe against overturning, sliding and
bearing capacity failure. The horizontal forces causing sliding forces are the
steering resistance offered at the base and the passive resistance before the
wall. A main FOS of 1.5 is generally provided. If adequate forces not
achieved, a shear key is incorporated in the base.

28.Define Active and Passive Earth Pressure.

Active Earth Pressure:
It is the pressure that at all times are tending to move or overturn the
retaining wall.

Passive Earth Pressure:

It is reactionary pressures that will react in the form of a resistance to
movement of the wall.

29.What are the Effects of Active and Passive Earth Pressure?

Active Earth Pressure:
It is composed of the earth wedge being retained together with any
hydrostatic pressure caused by the presence of groundwater. This pressure
can be reduced by:
 The use of subsoil drainage behind the wall.
  Inserting drainage openings called weep holes through the thickness
of the stem to enable the water to drain away.

Passive Earth Pressure:

It builds up in front of the toe to resist the movement of the wall if it
tries to move forward. This pressure can be increased by enlarging the depth
of the toe or by forming a rib on the underside of the base.

30.What are the factors to be considered while designing the Retaining

Walls?
 Overturning doesn’t occur
 Sliding doesn’t occur
 The soil on which the wall rests mustn’t be overloaded
 The materials used in construction are not overstressed.

31.What are the forces or pressure that has to be calculated while

designing the retaining walls?
 Height of water table
 Nature and type of soil
 Subsoil water movements
 Type of wall
 Material used in the construction of wall

32.What are the various loads considered in heel slab of Retaining Walls?
 Weight of the backing
 Dead load on heel slab
 Vertical component of lateral
  Upward soil reaction

33.What do you mean by surcharge angle?

The position of the backfill lying above the horizontal plane at the
elevation of the top of a wall is called the surcharge, and its inclination to the
horizontal is called the surcharge angle β.

34.What is angle of internal friction (Φ)?

The angle of internal friction which is equal to the ratio of the
maximum resistance to sliding on any internal plane to the normal pressure
acting on the plane

35.What are the points to be noted in the design of Cantilever Retaining

Wall?
 The thickness of the stem may be kept the same throughout the height
to provide adequate
 Dead load
 The base slab may be made about 100mm thicker than stem
 The width of the base slab may be kept about 0.7 to 0.8 times the total
height of the wall
 It may most probably require a key to be provided to have a safe
factor of safety against sliding

36.What are the loads acting on the heel slab of the Counter fort Retaining
Wall?
 Dead load of the strip
 Weight of the earth above the strip
  Vertical components of the lateral pressure in the case of the earth
surcharged at an angle.

37.What are the structural components of Retaining Walls?

Base, heel, toe, stem and backfill are the structural components of a
retaining wall.

38.What are the components of counter fort retaining wall?

Upright slab:
Its design as a continuous slab spanning horizontally on the Counter
fort subjected to lateral earth pressure

Base slab:
The width of the base slab may be taken as 0.6H to0.7H
Where,
H= overall height of the retaining wall.

Heel slab:
The Heel slab should be designed as a continuous horizontal slab with
counter fort as the supports.

39.State the advantages of pre-stressed concrete over reinforced concrete.

 Since the technique of pre-stressing eliminates cracking of concrete
under all stage of loading, the entire section of the structures takes part
in resisting the external load. In contrast to this, in the reinforced
concrete, only portion of concrete above the neutral axis is effective.
 Since concrete does not cracks, the possibility of steel to rust and
concrete to deteriorate is minimized.
 Absence of cracks results in higher capacity of the structure to bear
reversal of stresses, impact, vibration and shock.
 In pre-stressed concrete beams, dead loads are practically neutralized.
The reactions required are therefore, much smaller than required in
reinforced concrete. The reduced dead weight of structure results in
saving in the cost of foundations. The neutralization of dead weight is
of importance in large bridges.
 The use of curved tendons and the pre-composition of concrete help to
resist shear.
 The quantity of steel required for pre-stressing about 1/3 of that
required for reinforced concrete, though the steel for the former
should have high tensile strength.
 Pre-stressed concrete beams have usually low deflection.
 In pre-stressed concrete, precast blocks and elements can be assumed
and used as one unit. This saves in the cost of shuttering and centring
for large structures.
 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS – 1
UNIT – 1
1. Name any two force methods to analyze the statically indeterminate
structures.
 Column analogy method
 Flexibility matrix method
 Method of consistent deformation
 Theorem of least work

2. Write the general steps of the consistent deformation method.

 By removing the restraint in the direction of redundant forces,
released structure (which is a determinate structure) is obtained.
 In this released structure, displacements are obtained in the direction
of the redundant forces.
 Then the displacement due to each redundant force is obtained and the
conditions of displacement compatibility are imposed to get additional
equations.
 Solution for these equations gives the values of redundant forces.
 Then the released structure subjected to these known forces gives the
forces and moments in the structure.

3. Give example of beams of one degree static indeterminacy.

In general, 𝐸 = 𝑟 − 𝑒
 For this case, 𝑟 = 4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒 = 3
∴ 𝐸 = 4– 3 = 1

4. Define degree of kinematic indeterminacy (or) Degree Of Freedom.

It is defined as the least no of independent displacements required to
define the deformed shape of a structure. There are two types of DOF
 Joint type DOF
 Nodal type DOF

5. Differentiate external redundancy and internal redundancy.

In pin jointed frames, redundancy caused by too many members is
called internal redundancy. Then there is external redundancy caused by too
many supports. When we introduce additional supports/members, we
generally ensure more safety and more work (in analysis).

6. Why to provide redundant members?

 To maintain alignment of two members during construction
 To increase stability during construction
 To maintain stability during loading (Ex: to prevent buckling of
compression members)
 To provide support if the applied loading is changed
 To act as backup members in case some members fail or require
strengthening
 Analysis is difficult but possible
7. What are the different methods used to analyze indeterminate
structures?
 Finite element method
 Flexibility matrix method
 Stiffness matrix method

8. What are statically indeterminate structures? Give example.

If the conditions of statics i.e., ΣH=0, ΣV=0 and ΣM=0 alone are not
sufficient to find either external reactions or internal forces in a structure, the
structure is called a statically indeterminate structure.

9. Define consistent deformation method.

This method is used for the analysis of indeterminate structure. This
method is suitable when the number of unknown is one or two. When the
number of unknown becomes more, it is a lengthy method.

10.Define primary structure.

A structure formed by the removing the excess or redundant restraints
from an Indeterminate structure making it statically determinate is called
primary structure. This is required for solving indeterminate structures by
flexibility matrix method.
11.Write the formulae for degree of indeterminancy.
 Two dimensional in jointed truss (2D truss)
𝑖 = (𝑚 + 𝑟) − 2𝑗
 Two dimensional rigid frames/plane rigid frames (2D frame)
𝑖 = (3𝑚 + 𝑟) − 3𝑗
 Three dimensional space truss (3D truss)
𝑖 = (𝑚 + 𝑟) − 3𝑗
 Three dimensional space frame (3D frame)
𝑖 = (6𝑚 + 𝑟) − 6𝑗
Where,
m = number of members
r = number of reactions
j = number of joints

12.What is the effect of temperature on the members of a statically

determinate plane truss?
In determinate structures temperature changes do not create any
internal stresses. The changes in lengths of members may result in
displacement of joints. But these would not result in internal stresses or
changes in external reactions.

13.Define internal and external indeterminancy.

Internal indeterminacy (I.I) is the excess no of internal forces present
in a member that make a structure indeterminate.
External indeterminacy (E.I) is the excess no of external reactions in
the member that make a structure indeterminate.
Indeterminacy (i) = I.I + E.I
 E.I = r – e; I.I = i – EI
Where,
r = no of support reactions and
e = equilibrium conditions
e = 3 (plane frames) and e = 6 (space frames)

14.What are the requirements to be satisfied while analyzing a structure?

 Equilibrium condition
 Compatibility condition
 Force displacement condition

15.Define degree of indeterminacy.

The excess number of reactions take make a structure indeterminate is
called degree of indeterminancy. Indeterminancy is also called degree of
redundancy.

Indeterminancy consists of internal and external indeterminancies. It

is denoted by the symbol ‘i’.

Degree of redundancy (i) = I.I + E.I

Where,
I.I = Internal indeterminancy
E.I =External indeterminancy
16.Differentiate the statically determinate structures and statically
indeterminate structures.
STATICALLY DETERMINATE
STRUCTURES
Conditions of equilibrium are
sufficient to analyze the structure
Bending moment and shear
force is independent of material and
cross sectional area
No stresses are caused due to
temperature change and lack of fit
Extra conditions like compatibility
of displacements are not required to
analyze the structure.
STATICALLY
INDETERMINATE
STRUCTURES
Conditions of equilibrium are
insufficient to analyze the structure
Bending moment and shear force
is dependent of material and
independent of cross sectional area
Stresses are caused due to
temperature change and lack of fit
Extra conditions like compatibility
of displacements are required to
analyze the structure along with the
equilibrium equations.

UNIT – 2
1. Distinguish between plane truss and plane frame.
Plane frames are two-dimensional structures constructed with straight
elements connected together by rigid and/or hinged connections. Frames are
subjected to loads and reactions that lie in the plane of the structure.
If all the members of a truss and the applied loads lie in a single plane,
the truss is called a plane truss.
2. What is meant by cambering technique in structures?
Cambering is a technique applied on site, in which a slight upward
curve is made in the structure/beam during construction, so that it will
straighten out and attain the straight shape during loading. This will
considerably reduce the downward deflection that may occur at later stages.

3. Give the procedure for unit load method.

 Find the forces P1, P2, ……. in all the members due to external loads
 Remove the external loads and apply the unit vertical point load at
the joint if the vertical deflection is required and find the stress
 Apply the equation for vertical and horizontal deflection

4. What are the assumptions made in unit load method?

 The external & internal forces are in equilibrium
 Supports are rigid and no movement is possible
 The materials are strained well within the elastic limit

5. Why is it necessary to compute deflections in structures?

Computation of deflection of structures is necessary for the following
reasons:
 If the deflection of a structure is more than the permissible, the
structure will not look aesthetic and will cause psychological upsetting
of the occupants.
 Excessive deflection may cause cracking in the materials attached to
the structure. For example, if the deflection of a floor beam is
excessive, the floor finishes and partition walls supported on the beam
may get cracked and unserviceable.
6. Define unit load method.
The external load is removed and the unit load is applied at the point,
where the deflection or rotation is to found.

7. Distinguish between pin jointed and rigidly jointed structure.

PIN JOINTED STRUCTURE
The joints permit change of angle
Between connected members.
The joints are incapable of
transferring Any moment to the
connected members and vice-
versa.
The pins transmit forces between
Connected members by
developing shear.
RIGIDLY JOINTED
STRUCTURE
The members connected at a rigid
joint will maintain the angle
between them even under
deformation due to loads.
Members can transmit both forces
and Moments between themselves
through the joint.
Provision of rigid joints normally
increases the redundancy of the
structures.

8. What are the conditions of equilibrium?

The three conditions of equilibrium are the sum of horizontal forces,
vertical forces and moments at any joint should be equal to zero.
(i.e.) ∑H = 0; ∑V = 0; ∑M = 0

9. Define trussed beam.

A beam strengthened by providing ties and struts is known as Trussed
Beams.
10.Define ‘deck’ and ‘through’ type truss.
A deck type is truss is one in which the road is at the top chord
level of the trusses. We would not see the trusses when we ride on the
road way.
A through type truss is one in which the road is at the bottom chord
level of the trusses. When we travel on the road way, we would see the web
members of the trusses on our left and right. That gives us the impression
that we are going` through’ the bridge.

11.What is meant by lack of fit in a truss?

One or more members in a pin jointed statically indeterminate frame
may be a little shorter or longer than what is required. Such members will
have to be forced in place during the assembling. These are called members
having Lack of fit. Internal forces can develop in a redundant frame
(without external loads) due to lack of fit.

12.Give any two situations where sway will occur in portal frames.
 Eccentric or Unsymmetrical loading
 Non-uniform section of the members

13.What are the different types of forces acts on a frame?

 Dynamic load
 Static load

14.What is meant by settlement of supports?

Support sinks mostly due to soil settlement. Rotation of ‘fixed’ ends
can happen either because of soil settlement or upheaval of horizontal or
 inclined fixed ends. Fixed end moments induced in beam ends because of
settlement or rotation of supports.

15.What is a rigid joint?

The members connected at a rigid joint will maintain the angle
between them even under deformation due to loads. Members can transmit
both forces and moments between themselves through the joint. Provision
of rigid joints normally increases the redundancy of the structures.

16.Write down the assumptions made in portal method.

 The point of contra-flexure in all the members lies at their middle
points
 Horizontal shear taken by each interior column is double the
horizontal shear taken by each of exterior column

17.Write down the assumptions made in cantilever method.

 The point of contra-flexure in all the members lies at their middle
points
 The direct stress or axial stress in the columns due to horizontal
forces, are directly proportional to their distance from the centroidal
vertical axis of the frame

18.What are the methods used to analyze the beam when it settle at
supports?
 Kani’s method
 Moment distribution method
 Slope deflection method
19.Differentiate symmetry and anti-symmetry frames.
SYMMETRY FRAME ANTI-SYMMETRY FRAME
For symmetric loading, Symmetric For anti-symmetric loading,
quantities like bending moment, Symmetric quantities like bending
displacements are symmetrical moment, displacements are zero at
about the centroidal vertical axis. the point of centroidal vertical axis.
Anti-symmetric quantities like slope Anti-symmetric quantities like slope
and shear force are zero at the point and shear force are distributed about
of centroidal vertical axis. the centroidal vertical axis.

20.What is meant by thermal stress?

Thermal stresses are stresses developed in a structure/member due to
change in temperature. Normally, determinate structures do not develop
thermal stresses. They can absorb changes in lengths and consequent
displacements without developing stresses.

21.Write any two important assumptions made in the analysis of trusses?

 The frame is a perfect frame
 The frame carries load at the joints
 All the members are pin-joined

22.Differentiate perfect and imperfect trusses?

The frame which is composed of such members, which are just
sufficient to keep the frame in equilibrium, when the frame is supporting an
external load, is known as perfect frame. Hence for a perfect frame, the
number of joints and number of members are given by, 𝑛 = 2𝑗 − 3
 A frame in which number of members and number of joints are not
given by 𝑛 = 2𝑗 − 3 is known as imperfect frame. This means that number
of members in an imperfect frame will be either more or less than 2𝑗 − 3

23.Write the difference between deficient and redundant frames?

If the number of members in a frame are less than (2𝑗 − 3), then the
frame is known as deficient frame.
If the number of members in a frame are more than (2𝑗 − 3), then the
frame is known as redundant frame.

UNIT – 3
1. What are the assumptions made in slope deflection method?
This method is based on the following simplified assumptions.
 All the joints of the frame are rigid, (i.e.) the angle between the

members at the joints does not change, when the members of frame
are loaded.
 Between each pair of the supports the beam section is constant.

2. Define fixed end moment.

The moments at the fixed joints of loaded member are called fixed
end moment.

3. Write down the slope deflection equation for a fixed end support.
2𝐸𝐼 3𝛿
𝑀𝐴𝐵 = 𝑀𝐹𝐴𝐵 + [ 2𝜃𝐴 + 𝜃𝐵 + ]
𝑙 𝑙
4. What are the moments induced in a beam member, when one end is
given a unit rotation, the other end being fixed. What is the moment at
the near end called?

When 𝜃 = 1,
4 𝐸𝐼 2 𝐸𝐼
𝑀𝐴𝐵 = , 𝑀𝐵𝐴 =
𝑙 𝑙
𝑀𝐴𝐵 Is the stiffness of AB at B

5. Define the term sway.

Sway is the lateral movement of joints in a portal frame due to the
unsymmetrical in dimensions, loads, moments of inertia, end conditions, etc.
Sway can be prevented by unyielding supports provided at the beam level as
well as geometric or load symmetry about vertical axis.

6. What are the situations where in sway will occur in portal frames?
 Eccentric or unsymmetrical loading
 Unsymmetrical geometry
 Different end conditions of the column
 Non-uniform section of the members
 Unsymmetrical settlement of supports
 A combination of the above

7. What are the symmetric and anti-symmetric quantities in structural

behavior?
When a symmetrical structure is loaded with symmetrical loading, the
bending moment and deflected shape will be symmetrical about the same
axis. Bending moment and deflection are symmetrical quantities.
8. What is the ratio of sway moments at column heads when one end is
fixed and the other end hinged? Assume that the length and M.I of both
legs are equal.

Assuming the frame to sway to the right by

δ
𝑀𝐵𝐴
Ratio of sway moments = =
𝑀𝐶𝐷
6 𝐸𝐼 𝛿
−( )
𝑙2
3 𝐸𝐼 𝛿 =2
−( 2 )
𝑙

9. A beam is fixed at its left end and simply supported at right. The right
end sinks to a lower level by a distance ‘∆’ with respect to the left end.
Find the magnitude and direction of the reaction at the right end if ‘l’ is
the beam length and EI, the flexural rigidity.

3 𝐸𝐼 𝛿
𝑀𝐴 (𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝐵) =
𝑙2

10.How many slope deflection equations are available for a two span
continuous beam?
There will be 4 nos. of slope-deflection equations are available for a
two span continuous beam.
11.What are the quantities in terms of which the unknown moments are
expressed in slope-deflection method?
In slope-deflection method, unknown moments are expressed in terms
of
 Slope (θ)
 Deflection (∆)

12.The beam shown in figure is to be analyzed by slope-deflection method.

What are the unknowns and to determine them. What are the
conditions used?

Unknowns: 𝜃𝐴 , 𝜃𝐵 , 𝜃𝐶
Equilibrium equations used:
 𝑀𝐴𝐵 = 0
 𝑀𝐵𝐴 + 𝑀𝐵𝐶 = 0
 𝑀𝐶𝐵 = 0

13.How do your account for sway in slope deflection method for portal
frames?
Because of sway, there will be rotations in the vertical members of a
frame. This causes moments in the vertical members. To account for this,
besides the equilibrium, one more equation namely shear equation
connecting the joint-moments is used.
14.Write down the equation for sway correction for the portal frame
shown in figure.

𝑀𝐴𝐵 + 𝑀𝐵𝐴 𝑀𝐶𝐷 + 𝑀𝐷𝐶

𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = + = 0
𝑙1 𝑙2

15.Who introduced slope-deflection method of analysis?

Slope-deflection method was introduced by Prof. George A. Maney in
1915.

16.Write down the equilibrium equations for the frame shown in figure.
Unknowns: 𝜃𝐵 , 𝜃𝐶
Equilibrium equations used:
𝑀𝐵𝐴 + 𝑀𝐵𝐶 = 0
𝑀𝐶𝐵 + 𝑀𝐶𝐷 = 0

𝑀𝐴𝐵 + 𝑀𝐵𝐴 − 𝑃ℎ 𝑀𝐶𝐷 + 𝑀𝐷𝐶

𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = + + 𝑃 = 0
𝑙 𝑙

17.Write down the general slope-deflection equations and state what each
term represents.
 General slope deflection equations:
2𝐸𝐼 3𝛿
𝑀𝐴𝐵 = 𝑀𝐹𝐴𝐵 + [ 2𝜃𝐴 + 𝜃𝐵 + ]
𝑙 𝑙
2𝐸𝐼 3𝛿
𝑀𝐵𝐴 = 𝑀𝐹𝐵𝐴 + [ 2𝜃𝐵 + 𝜃𝐴 + ]
𝑙 𝑙

Where,
MFAB, MFBA = Fixed end moment at A and B respectively due to given
loading
𝜃𝐴 , 𝜃𝐵 = Slopes at A and B respectively
𝛿 = Sinking of support A with respect to B

18.How many slope-deflection equations are available for each span?

Two numbers of slope-deflection equations are available for each
span, describing the moment at each end of the span.

19.In a continuous beam, one of the support sinks. What will happen to
the span and support moments associated with the sinking of support.

Let support D sinks by 𝛿. This will not affect span moments. Fixed
end moments (support moments) will get developed as under
6 𝐸𝐼 𝛿
𝑀𝐹𝐶𝐷 = 𝑀𝐹𝐷𝐶 = −
𝑙12
6 𝐸𝐼 𝛿
𝑀𝐹𝐷𝐸 = 𝑀𝐹𝐸𝐷 = −
𝑙22
20.What is the basis on which the sway equation is formed for a structure?
Sway is dealt with in slope-deflection method by considering the
horizontal equilibrium of the whole frame taking into account the shears at
the base level of columns and external horizontal forces.
𝑀𝐴𝐵 + 𝑀𝐵𝐴 – 𝑃ℎ 𝑀𝐶𝐷 + 𝑀𝐷𝐶
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 + + 𝑝=0
𝑙 𝑙

21.State the limitations of slope-deflection method.

 It is not easy to account for varying member sections
 It becomes very inconvenience when the unknown displacements are
large in number
 This method is advantageous only for the structures with small
Kinematic indeterminacy
 The solution of simultaneous equation makes the method tedious for
annual computations

22.Why slope-deflection method is called a ‘displacement method’?

In slope-deflection method, displacements (like slopes and
displacements) are treated as unknowns and hence the method is a
‘displacement method’.

23.Define Flexural rigidity of beams.

The product of young’s modulus (E) and moment of inertia (I) is
called Flexural Rigidity (EI) of Beams. The unit is Nmm2.
24.Define constant strength beam.
If the flexural Rigidity (EI) is constant over the uniform section, it is
called Constant strength beam.

25.Define continuous beam.

A Continuous beam is one, which is supported on more than two
supports. For usual loading on the beam hogging (- ive) moments causing
convexity upwards at the supports and sagging (+ ive) moments causing
concavity upwards occur at mid span.

26.What are the advantages of continuous beam over simply supported

beam?
 The maximum bending moment in case of continuous beam is much
less than in case of simply supported beam of same span carrying
same loads.
 In case of continuous beam, the average bending moment is lesser and
hence lighter materials of construction can be used to resist the
bending moment.

UNIT – 4
1. Explain moment distribution method (Hardy cross method).
This method is first introduced by Professor Hardy Cross in 1932. It is
widely used for the analysis of indeterminate structures. It uses an iterative
technique. The method employs a few basic concepts and a few specialized
terms such as fixed end moments, relative stiffness, carry over, distribution
 factor. In this method, all the members of the structure are first assumed to
be fixed in position and fixed end moments due to external loads are obtained.

2. Define distribution factor.

When several members meet at a joint and a moment is applied at the
joint to produce rotation without translation of the members, the moment is
distributed among all the members meeting at that joint proportionate to their
stiffness.
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑗𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡

If there are three members,

𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑘3
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 = , ,
𝑘1 + 𝑘2 + 𝑘3 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 + 𝑘3 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 + 𝑘3

3. Define carry over factor.

A moment applied at the hinged end B “carries over” to the fixed end
A, a moment equal to half the amount of applied moment and of the same
rotational sense. C.O =0.5

4. What is the difference between absolute and relative stiffness?

Absolute stiffness is represented in terms of E, I and l, such as 4EI / l.
Relative stiffness is represented in terms of ‘I’ and ‘l’, omitting the constant
E. Relative stiffness is the ratio of stiffness to two or more members at a joint.

5. In a member AB, if a moment of -10kN.m is applied at A, what is the

moment carried over to B?
Carry over moment = Half of the applied moment
∴ Carry over moment to B = -10/2 = -5 kN.m
6. Define Stiffness factor.
It is the moment required to rotate the end while acting on it
through a unit rotation, without translation of the far end being
3 𝐸𝐼
𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦 (𝑘) =
𝑙
4 𝐸𝐼
𝐹𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦 (𝑘) =
𝑙
Where,
E = Young’s modulus of the beam material
I = Moment of inertia of the beam
L = Beam’s span length

7. Define carry over moment.

It is defined as the moment induced at the fixed end of the beam by the
action of a moment applied at the other end, which is hinged. Carry over
moment is the same nature of the applied moment.

8. What is the sum of distribution factors at a joint?

Sum of distribution factors at a joint = 1.

9. What is the moment at a hinged end of a simple beam?

Moment at the hinged end of a simple beam is zero.

10.A rigid frame is having totally 10 joints including support joints. Out of
slope-deflection and moment distribution methods, which method would
you prefer for analysis? Why?
Moment distribution method is preferable.
 If we use slope-deflection method, there would be 10 (or more)
unknown displacements and an equal number of equilibrium equations. In
addition, there would be 2 unknown support moments per span and the same
number of slope-deflection equations. Solving them is difficult.

11.What are the limitations of moment distribution method?

 This method is eminently suited to analyze continuous beams including
non-prismatic members but it presents some difficulties when applied to
rigid frames, especially when frames are subjected to side sway
 Unsymmetrical frames have to be analyzed more than once to obtain
FM (fixed moments) in the structures
 This method cannot be applied to structures with intermediate hinges

UNIT – 5
1. What is the value of rotation moment at a fixed end considered in
Kani’s method?
𝑀𝐴𝐵 = 2𝐸 𝐾𝐴𝐵 𝜃𝐴
𝑀𝐵𝐴 = 2𝐸 𝐾𝐵𝐴 𝜃𝐵

2. What are the fundamental equations of Kani’s method?

∑𝑀𝑖𝑗 = ∑𝑀𝐹𝑖𝑗 + 2 ∑𝑀𝑖𝑗′ + ∑𝑀𝑗𝑖 = 0
1
∑𝑀𝑖𝑗′ = − ( ∑𝑀𝐹𝑖𝑗 + ∑𝑀𝑗𝑖′ )
2
3. What are the limitations of Kani’s method?
 Gasper Kani of Germany gave another distribution procedure in which
instead of distributing entire moment in successive steps, only the
rotation contributions are distributed
 Basic unknown like displacements which are not found directly

4. What are the advantages of Kani’s method?

 Hardy Cross method distributed only the unbalanced moments at joints,
whereas Kani’s method distributes the total joint moment at any stage of
iteration
 The more significant feature of Kani’s method is that the process is self-
corrective. Any error at any stage of iteration is corrected in subsequent
steps
 Framed structures are rarely symmetric and subjected to side sway,
hence Kani’s method is best and much simpler than other methods like
moment distribution method and slope displacement method

5. State Miller-Breslau principle.

Miller-Breslau principle states that, if we want to sketch the influence
line for any force quantity like thrust, shear, reaction, support moment or
bending moment in a structure,
 We remove from the structure the resistant to that force quantity
 We apply on the remaining structure a unit displacement
corresponding to that force quantity.

The resulting displacements in the structure are the influence line

ordinates sought.
6. Define rotation factor.
Rotation factor in Kani’s method is akin to distribution factor in
moment distribution method.
Actually, 𝑢 = − 0.5 × 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

7. Define displacement factor.

∆𝑖𝑗 Is the “displacement factor” for each column, similar to 𝑢𝑖𝑗 we
adopted earlier for rotation factor. Actually, ∆𝑖𝑗 = −1.5 𝐷𝐹 and is
applicable to column only.

8. Brief about Kani’s method of analysis.

Kani’s method of analyzing indeterminate structures, particularly,
building frames was developed in Germany in the year 1947 by Dr. Gasper
Kani. Like moment distribution it is a method of solving slope deflection
equations by an iterative method. Hence, this will fall under the category of
stiffness method wherein the level of difficulty would be decided by the
degrees of freedom (and not the degree of redundancy).

9. What are the basic principles of compatibility?

Compatibility is defined as the continuity condition on the
displacements of the structure after external loads are applied to the
structure.

10.Define Kani’s method and how it is better than MDM.

Kani’s method is similar to the MDM in that both these methods use
Gauss Seidel iteration procedure to solve the slope deflection equations,
without explicitly writing them down. However the difference between
 Kani’s method and the MDM is that Kani’s method iterates the member end
moments themselves rather than iterating their increment Kani’s method
essentially consists of a single simple numerical operation performed
repeatedly at the joints of a structure, in a chosen sequence.

11.Write the procedure for Kani’s method.

While solving structures by this method the following steps may be
kept in mind.
 Compute all fixed end moments
 Compute and tabulate all rotation factors for all joints that would have
rotation.
 Fixed ends will not have rotation factors. Nor rotation contributions
either to the same (fixed end) or to the opposite end.
 Extreme simply supported ends will initially get a fixed end moment.
 Iterative process can be formed.
(Or)
 Fixed end moment
 Rotation factor
 Resultant restraint moment
 Iteration cycle
 Final moment

12.What are the methods of analyzing building frame?

 Cantilever method
 Factor method
 Portal method
 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS – 2
UNIT – 1
1. What is an arch? Explain.
An arch is defined as a curved girder, having convexity upwards and
supported at its ends. The supports must effectively arrest displacements in
the vertical and horizontal directions only then there will be arch action.

2. State the general cable theorem.

The general cable theorem helps us determine the shape of a cable
supported at two ends when it is acted upon by vertical forces. It can be
stated as: “At any point on a cable acted upon by vertical loads, the product
of the horizontal component of cable tension and the vertical distance from
that point to the cable chord equals the moment this would occur at that
section if the loads carried by the cable were acting on an simply-supported
beam of the same span as that of the cable.”

3. What are the various types of hinges in arch? (or) What are the types of
arches according to the support conditions?
 Three hinged arch
 Two hinged arch
 Single hinged arch
 Fixed or hinge less arch

4. What are the types of arches according to their shapes?

 Curved arch
 Parabolic arch
  Elliptical arch
 Polygonal arch

5. Define horizontal thrust.

In a 3 hinged arch, the force H is calculated by equating the bending
moment at the central hinge to zero. The horizontal thrust H reduces the
beam bending moment called µx. 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑐ℎ, 𝑀𝑥 = 𝜇𝑥 − 𝐻𝑦

6. What is a linear arch?

If an arch is to take loads, say W1, W2, and W3 and a vector diagram
and funicular polygon are plotted as shown in figure, the funicular polygon
is known as the linear arch or theoretical arch.

The polar distance ‘o t’ represents the horizontal thrust. The links

AC, CD, DE and EB will be under compression and there will be no bending
moment. If an arch of this shape ACDEB is provided, there will be no
bending moment.
For a given set of vertical loads W1, W2……etc. we can have any
number of linear arches depending on where we chose ‘O’ or how much
horizontal thrust (o t) we choose to introduce.
7. Draw the influence line for horizontal reaction, H in a three hinged
stiffening girder.

8. Why stiffening girders are necessary in the suspension bridges?

 Stiffening girders enable the suspension bridge decks to remain fairly
level
 Whatever be the live load on the deck slab, the stiffening girders will
convert and transmit the load on the deck slab as a uniformly
distributed load and thereby help the cable retain the parabolic shape
during the passage of loads
 The dead load of the girders which is a UDL is directly transmitted to
the cables and is taken up entirely by the tension in the cables
 Thus the uniformly distributed dead load will not cause any shear
force or bending moment in the stiffening girder
  The stiffening girders will have to resist the Shear force and bending
moment due to live loads

9. Write the expression for horizontal thrust in a three hinged parabolic

arch carrying UDL over entire span.
𝑤 𝑙2
𝐻=
8𝑦𝑐

10.Write the expression for horizontal thrust of a semicircular arch.

𝑊 cos 2 𝛷
𝐻=
𝜋
If the load is applied at the centre, we get
𝑊
𝐻= = 0.318 𝑊
𝜋

11.A flexible cable 20m long is supported at two ends at the same level.
The supports are 16m apart. Determine the dip of the cable.
GIVEN DATA:
S = 20m
l = 16m

TO FIND:
d =?

SOLUTION:
8 𝑑2
𝑆=𝑙+
3 𝑙
 ( 𝑆 − 𝑙 ) × 3𝑙
𝑑= √
8

d = 4.89m

12.State the “Eddy’s theorem” for an arch.

Eddy’s theorem states that the bending moment at any section of an
arch is equal to the vertical intercept between the linear arch and the center
line of the actual arch.
𝐵𝑀𝑥 = 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑂2 𝑂3 × 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

13.Explain with the aid of a sketch the normal thrust and radial shear in
an arch rib.
 Let us take a section X of an arch. Let q be the inclination of the
tangent at X. If H is the horizontal thrust and V is the vertical shear at X,
from the free body of the RHS of the arch, it is clear that V and H will have
normal and radial components given by,
𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 ( 𝑅𝑥 ) = 𝑉𝑥 cos 𝜃 − 𝐻 sin 𝜃
𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 ( 𝑁𝑥 ) = 𝑉𝑥 sin 𝜃 + 𝐻 cos 𝜃

14.What is the static indeterminacy of a three hinged parabolic arch?

For a three hinged parabolic arch, the degree of static indeterminacy is
zero. It is statically determinate.

15.Which of the two arches, viz. circular and parabolic is preferable to

carry a uniformly distributed load? Why?
Parabolic arches are preferably to carry distributed loads. Because,
both the shape of the arch and the shape of the bending moment diagram are
parabolic. Hence the vertical intercept between the theoretical arch and
actual arch is zero everywhere. Hence, the bending moment at every section
of the arch will be zero. The arch will be under pure compression which
will be economical.

16.What is the difference between the basic action of an arch and

suspension cable?
An arch is essentially a compression member which can also take
bending moments and shears. Bending moments and shears will be absent if
the arch is parabolic and the loading uniformly distributed.
 A cable can take only tension. A suspension bridge will therefore
have a cable and a stiffening girder. The girder will take the bending
moment and shears in the bridge and the cable, only tension.
Because of the thrusts in the cables and arches, the bending moments
are considerably reduced.
If the load on the girder is uniform, the bridge will have only cable
tension and no bending moment on the girder.

17.Under what conditions will the bending moment in an arch be zero

throughout?
The bending moment in an arch throughout the span will be zero, if
 The arch is parabolic
 The arch carries UDL throughout the span

18.Indicate the positions of a moving point load for maximum negative and
positive bending moments in a three hinged arch.
Considering a three hinged parabolic arch of span ‘l’ and subjected to
a moving point load W, the position of the point load for
 Maximum negative bending moment is 0.25l from end supports.
 Maximum positive bending moment is 0.211l from end supports.

19.What are cable structures?

Long span structures subjected to tension and uses suspension cables
for supports. Examples of cable structures are suspension bridges, cable
stayed roof.
20.Draw the ILD for bending moment at a section x at a distance x from
the left end of a three hinged parabolic arch of span ‘l’ and rise ‘h’.

𝑀𝑥 = 𝜇𝑥 − 𝐻𝑦

21.Distinguish between two hinged and three hinged arches.

TWO HINGED ARCHES
Statically indeterminate to first
degree
Might develop temperature stresses
Structurally more efficient
Will develop stresses due to sinking
of supports
THREE HINGED ARCHES
Statically determinate
Increase in temperature causes
increase in central rise. No stresses
Easy to analysis. But in
construction, the central hinge may
involve additional expenditure.
Since this is determinate, no stresses
due to support sinking.

22.Explain rib shortening in the case of arches.

In a two hinged arch, the normal thrust which is a compressive force
along the axis of the arch will shorten the rib of the arch. This in turn will
release part of the horizontal thrust. Normally, this effect is not considered in
the analysis (in the case of two hinged arches).
 Depending upon the importance of the work we can either take into
account or omit the effect of rib shortening. This will be done by considering
(or omitting) strain energy due to axial compression along with the strain
energy due to bending in evaluating H.

23.Explain the yielding of support in the case of an arch.

Yielding of supports has no effect in the case of a 3 hinged arch which
is determinate. These displacements must be taken into account when we
analyze 2 hinged or fixed arches under
𝜕𝑈
= ∆𝐻 Instead of zero
𝜕𝐻
𝜕𝑈
= ∆𝑉𝐴 Instead of zero
𝜕𝑉𝐴

Here U is the strain energy of the arch and ΔH and ΔVA are the
displacements due to yielding of supports.

24.Write the formula to calculate the change in rise in three hinged arch.
𝑙 2 + 4𝑦𝑐2
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 = ( ) × 𝛼𝑇
4𝑦𝑐
Where,
l = span length of the arch
yc = central rise of the arch
α = coefficient of thermal expansion
T = change in temperature
25.In a parabolic arch with two hinges how will you calculate the slope of
the arch at any point?
4𝑦𝑐
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑟𝑐ℎ ( 𝜃 ) = tan−1 ( × ( 𝑙 − 2𝑥 ))
𝑙2
Where,
θ = slope at any point x (or) inclination of tangent at x
l = span length of the arch
yc = central rise of the arch

26.How will you calculate the horizontal thrust in a two hinged parabolic
arch if there is a rise in temperature?
𝛼𝑇𝑙𝐸𝐼
𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 ( 𝐻 ) = 𝑙
∫0 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥
Where,
l = span length of the arch
y = rise of the arch at any point x
α = coefficient of thermal expansion
T = change in temperature
E = Young’s Modulus of the material of the arch
I = Moment of Inertia

27.What is the true shape of cable structures?

Cable structures especially the cable of a suspension bridge is in the
form of a catenary. Catenary is the shape assumed by a string / cable freely
suspended between two points.
28.What is the nature of force in the cables?
Cables of cable structures have only tension and no compression or
bending.

29.What is a catenary?
Catenary is the shape taken up by a cable or rope freely suspended
between two supports and under its own self weight.

30.Mention the different types of cable structures?

 Cable over a guide pulley
 Cable over a saddle

31.Briefly explain cable over a guide pulley.

Cable over a guide pulley has the following properties:
 Tension in the suspension cable = tension in the anchor cable
 The supporting tower will be subjected to vertical pressure and
bending due to net horizontal cable tension

32.Briefly explain cable over saddle.

Cable over saddle has the following properties:
 Horizontal component of tension in the cable = horizontal component
of tension in the anchor cable
 The supporting tower will be subjected to only vertical pressure due to
cable tension

33.What are the main functions of stiffening girder in suspension bridges?

 They help in keeping the cables in shape
  They resist part of the Shear force and bending moment due to live
loads

34.What is the degree of indeterminacy of a suspension bridge with two

hinged stiffening girder?
The two hinged stiffening girder has one degree of indeterminacy.

35.Give some examples of beams curved in plan.

Curved beams are found in the following structures.
 Beams in the bridge negotiating a curve
 Ring beams supporting a water tank
 Beams supporting corner lintels
 Beams in ramps

36.Differentiate between plane truss and space truss.

PLANE TRUSS SPACE TRUSS
All members lie in one plane This is a three dimensional truss
All joints are assumed to be hinged All joints are assumed to be ball and
socketed

37.Give some examples of beams curved in plan.

Curved beams are found in the following structures.
 Beams in the bridge negotiating a curve
 Ring beams supporting a water tank
 Beams supporting corner lintels
 Beams in ramps
38.What are the forces developed in beams curved in plan?
Beams curved in plan will have the following forces developed in
them.
 Bending moments
 Shear forces
 Torsional moments

39.Define tension coefficient of a truss member.

The tension coefficient for a member of a truss is defined as the pull
or tension in the member divided by its length (i.e.) the force in the member
per unit length.

40.What are the significant features of circular beams on equally spaced

supports?
 Slope on either side of any support will be zero
 Torsional moment on every support will be zero

41.Give the expression for calculating equivalent UDL on a girder.

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑔𝑖𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟
𝑊𝑒 =
𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑖𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟

42.Give the expression for determining the tension T in the cable.

The tension developed in the cable is given by,

𝑇 = √𝐻 2 + 𝑉 2
Where,
H = horizontal component
V = vertical component
43.What are cables made of?
Cables can be of mild steel, high strength steel, stainless steel, or
polyester fibres. Structural cables are made of a series of small strands
twisted or bound together to form a much larger cable. Steel cables are either
spiral strand, where circular rods are twisted together or locked coil strand,
where individual interlocking steel strands form the cable (often with a spiral
strand core).
Spiral strand is slightly weaker than locked coil strand. Steel spiral
strand cables have a Young's modulus, E of 150 ± 10 kN/mm² and come in
sizes from 3 to 90 mm diameter. Spiral strand suffers from construction
stretch, where the strands compact when the cable is loaded.

44.Give the horizontal and vertical components of a cable structure

subjected to UDL.

The horizontal and vertical reactions are given by,

𝑤 𝑆2 𝑤𝑆
𝐻= And 𝑉 =
8𝑑 2

45.What is meant by “Reaction locus” for a two hinged arch?

The Reaction locus is a line which gives the point of intersection of
the two reactions for any position of an isolated load.
46.Give the range of central dip of a cable.
The central dip of a cable ranges from 1/10 to 1/12 of the span.

47.Give the types of significant cable structures.

 Linear structure
 Suspension bridges
 Draped cables
 Cable stayed beams or trusses
 Cable trusses
 Straight tensioned cables
 Three dimensional structure
 Bicycle wheel roof
 3D cable trusses
 Tensegrity structures
 Tensairity structures

UNIT – 2 & 3
1. Where do you get the rolling loads in practice?
Shifting of load positions is common enough in buildings. But they
are more pronounced in bridges and in gantry girders over which vehicles
keep rolling.

2. List the categories of rolling loads on beams.

 Single concentrated load
 UDL longer than the beam span
 UDL shorter than the beam span
  Two wheel axles separated by a fixed distance
 Multiple wheel axles (train of loads)

3. What are the objectives of study on rolling loads?

 To find the load position and values of maximum shear force and
bending moment at a given section due to a given system of rolling
loads
 To find the location and values of the absolute maximum shear force
and bending moment that may occur on the span due to the given
system of rolling loads
 To find the equivalent UDL due to a given system of rolling loads to
make the designer’s work simple

4. Name the type of rolling loads for which the absolute bending moment
occurs at the mid span of a beam.
Single concentrated load, UDL longer than the span, UDL shorter
than the span Also when the resultant of several concentrated loads crossing
a span, coincides with a concentrated load then also the maximum bending
moment occurs at the centre of the span.

5. Where do you have the absolute maximum bending moment in a simply

supported beam when a series of wheel loads cross it?
When a series of wheel loads crosses a simply supported beam, the
absolute maximum bending moment will occur near mid span under the load
Wcr, nearest to mid span (or the heaviest load). If Wcr is placed to one side
of mid span C, the resultant of the load system R shall be on the other side of
C and Wcr and R shall be equidistant from C. Now the absolute maximum
 bending moment will occur under Wcr. If Wcr and R coincide, the absolute
maximum bending moment will occur at mid span.

6. What is the absolute maximum bending moment due to a UDL longer

than the span of a simply supported beam?
When a simply supported beam is subjected to a moving UDL longer
than the span, the absolute maximum bending moment occurs when the
whole span is loaded.
𝑤 𝑙2
𝑀max 𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
8

7. State the location of a maximum shear force in a simple beam with any
kind of loading.
In a simple beam with any kind of load, the maximum positive Shear
force occurs at the left hand support and maximum negative Shear force
occurs at right hand support.

8. What is meant by absolute maximum bending moment in a beam?

When a given load system moves from one end to the other end of a
girder, depending upon the position of the load, there will be a maximum
bending moment for every section. The maximum of these bending
moments will usually occur near or at the mid span. The maximum of
maximum bending moments is called the absolute maximum bending
moment.
9. What is meant by influence lines?
An influence line is a graph showing, for any given frame or truss, the
variation of any force or displacement quantity (such as shear force, bending
moment, tension, deflection) for all positions of a moving unit load as it
crosses the structure from one end to the other.
An influence line for any given point or section of structure is a curve
whose ordinates represent to scale the variation of a function, such as shear
force, bending moment, deflection etc. at the point or section, as the unit
load moves across the structure. ILD for determinate beam is linear and for
indeterminate structure is curvilinear.

10.What are the uses of influence diagrams?

 Influence lines are very useful in the quick determination of reactions,
shear force, bending moment or similar functions at a given section
under any given system of moving loads and
 Influence lines are useful in determining the load position to cause
maximum value of a given function in a structure on which load
positions can vary.

11.State Muller Breslau principle.

Muller-Breslau principle states that, if we want to sketch the influence
line for any force quantity (like thrust, shear, and reaction, support moment
or bending moment) in a structure,
 We remove from the structure the restraint to that force quantity and
 We apply on the remaining structure a unit displacement
corresponding to that force quantity.
 The resulting displacements in the structure are the influence line
ordinates sought.

12.Write the uses of Muller Breslau principle.

 It is the most important tool in obtaining influence lines for statically
determinate as well as statically indeterminate structures
 It is used as the straight application of Maxwell’s reciprocal theorem

13.Define the term “Equivalent uniformly distributed load”.

A given system of loading crossing a girder or structure can always be
replaced by a uniformly distributed load longer than the span. Such that the
B.M or S.F due to the static load everywhere is at least equal to the caused
by the actual system of moving loads. Such a static load is known as
Equivalent Uniformly Distributed Load.

14.What is the necessity of model analysis?

 When the mathematical analysis of problem is virtually impossible
 Mathematical analysis though possible is so complicated and time
consuming that the model analysis offers a short cut
The importance of the problem is such that verification of
mathematical analysis by an actual test is essential.

15.What do you understand by the term reversal of stresses?

In certain long trusses the web members can develop either tension or
compression depending upon the position of live loads. This tendency to
change the nature of stresses is called reversal of stresses.
16.A single load of W rolls along a girder of span ‘l’. Draw the diagrams of
maximum bending moment and shear force.

17.Draw the ILD for shear force shear force at a point x in a simply
supported beam AB of span l.
18.State Maxwell – Betti’s theorem.

In a linearly elastic structure in static equilibrium acted upon by either

of two systems of external forces, the virtual work done by the first system
of forces in undergoing the displacements caused by the second system of
forces is equal to the virtual work done by the second system of forces in
undergoing the displacements caused by the first system of forces.
Maxwell Betti’s theorem helps us to draw influence lines for structures.

19.Draw the influence line for radial shear at a section of a three hinged
arch.

𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 ( 𝑅𝑥 ) = 𝑉𝑥 cos 𝜃 − 𝐻 sin 𝜃

Where, θ is the inclination of tangent at x
20.Draw the ILD for bending moment at any section x of a simply
supported beam and mark the ordinates.

21.Sketch the ILD for the normal thrust at a section X of a symmetric

three hinged parabolic arch.

𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 ( 𝑁𝑥 ) = 𝑉𝑥 sin 𝜃 + 𝐻 cos 𝜃

Where, θ is the inclination of tangent at x

22.What is meant by maximum shear force diagram in influence line?

Due to a given system of rolling loads the maximum shear force for
every section of the girder can be worked out by placing the loads in
appropriate positions. When these are plotted for all the sections of the
 girder, the diagram that we obtain is the maximum shear force diagram. This
diagram yields the ‘design shear’ for each cross section.

23.Define Maxwell’s reciprocal theorem or Bette’s theorem.

The work done by the first system of loads due to displacements
caused by a second system of loads equals to the work done by the second
system of loads due to displacements caused by the first system of loads.

24.Define similitude.
Similitude means similarity between two objects namely the model
and the prototype with regard to their physical characteristics.
 Geometric similitude is similarity of form
 Kinematic similitude is similarity of motion
 Dynamic and / or mechanical similitude is similarity of masses and /
or forces

25.State the principle on which indirect model analysis is based.

The indirect model analysis is based on the Muller Breslau principle.
Muller Breslau principle has led to a simple method of using models
of structures to get the influence lines for force quantities like bending
moments, support moments, reactions, internal shears, thrusts, etc.
To get the influence line for any force quantity,
 Remove the restraint due to the force
 Apply a unit displacement in the direction of the force
 Plot the resulting displacement diagram
This diagram is the influence line for the force.
26.What is the principle of dimensional similarity?
Dimensional similarity means geometric similarity of form. This
means that all homologous dimensions of prototype and model must be in
some constant ratio.

27.What is Begg’s deformeter?

Begg’s deformeter is a device to carry out indirect model analysis on
structures. It has the facility to apply displacement corresponding to
moment, shear or thrust at any desired points in the model. In addition, it
provides facility to measure accurately the consequent displacements all
over the model.

28.Name any four model making materials.

Perspex, Plexiglas, acrylic, plywood, sheet araldite and Bakelite are
some of the model making materials. Micro – concrete, mortar and plaster
of Paris can also be used for models.

29.What is dummy length in models tested with Begg’s deformeter?

Dummy length is the additional length (of about 10 to 12mm) left at
the extremities of the model to enable any desired connection to be made
with the gauges.

30.What are the three types of connections possible with the model used
with Begg’s deformeter?
 Hinged connection
 Fixed connection
 Floating connection
31.What are the uses of a micrometer microscope in model analysis with
Begg’s deformeter?
Micrometer microscope is an instrument used to measure the
displacement of any point in the x and y directions of a model during tests
with Begg’s deformeter.

UNIT – 4
1. What is meant by yield stress?
Most structural materials have under gradually increasing strain an
elastic and plastic stage.
Plastic stage mark the stage at which increased strain does not produce
in stress.
The stress consequent to stretching stabilize at a value is known as
yield stress.

2. What are the basic conditions to be satisfied for plastic analysis?

 Mechanism condition
The ultimate load or collapse load is reached when a mechanism is
formed. There must, however, be just enough plastic hinges that a
mechanism is formed.

 Equilibrium condition
The summation of the forces and moments acting on a structure must
be equal to zero.
  Plastic moment condition
The bending moment anywhere must not exceed the fully plastic
moment.

3. What are the basic conditions to be satisfied for elastic analysis?

 Continuity equation
 Equilibrium condition
 Limiting stress condition

4. List out the shape factors for the rectangular, triangular, circular and
diamond section.
 Rectangular section, S = 1.5
 Triangular section, S = 2.346
 Circular section, S = 1.697
 Diamond section, S = 2

5. Mention the types of frames.

 Symmetric frames
 Un-symmetric frames

6. What are symmetric frames and how they analyzed?

Symmetric frames are frames having the same support conditions,
lengths and loading conditions on the columns and beams of the frame.
Symmetric frames can be analyzed by,
 Beam mechanism
 Column mechanism
7. What are unsymmetrical frames and how they analyzed?
Un–symmetric frames have different support conditions, lengths and
loading conditions on its columns and beams. These frames can be analyzed
by,
 Beam mechanism
 Column mechanism
 Panel or sway mechanism
 Combined mechanism

8. What is the effect of axial force on plastic moment when a section is

subjected to axial force?
Thus far the cross sections considered are only carrying moment. In
the presence of axial force, clearly some material must be given over to
carry the axial force and so is not available to carry moment, reducing the
capacity of the section. Further, it should be apparent that the moment
capacity of the section therefore depends on the amount of axial load being
carried. Considering a compression load as positive, more of the section
will be in compression and so the neutral axis will drop.

9. Draw a stress strain curve for a perfectly plastic material.

10.What is a mechanism?
When an n-degree indeterminate structure develops n plastic hinges, it
becomes determinate and the formation of an additional hinge will reduce
the structure to a mechanism. Once a structure becomes a mechanism, it will
collapse.

11.What are the different types of mechanism?

 Beam mechanism
 Column mechanism
 Panel or sway mechanism
 Gable mechanism
 Combined or composite mechanism

12.What are the methods of plastic analysis?

 Static method (Lower Bound Theorem)
 Kinematic method (Upper Bound Theorem)

13.State the lower bound theorem or static theorem of plastic collapse.

Lower bound theory states that the collapse load is determined by
assuming suitable moment distribution diagram.
The moment distribution diagram is drawn in such a way that the
conditions of equilibrium are satisfied.

14.State upper bound theorem of plasticity.

Upper bound theory states that of all the assumed mechanisms the
exact collapse mechanism is that which requires a minimum load.
15.Define shape factor.
The shape factor (S) is defined as the ration of the plastic moment of a
section to the yielded moment of the section. The shape factor is also the
ratio of plastic modulus of the section to the elastic modulus of the section.
𝑀𝑃 𝑍𝑃
𝑆= =
𝑀𝑦 𝑍

16.Define the term load factor.

Plastic analysis can tell us at what load (or load combination) a
structure will collapse. This will help us design structures for a desired
safety factor on limiting loads. This safety factor is usually termed as load
factor. It is also defined as the ratio of collapse load to the working load.
𝑊𝑐
𝜆=
𝑊

17.Define collapse load.

The load that causes the (n + 1) the hinge to form a mechanism is
called collapse load where n is the degree of statically indeterminacy. Once
the structure becomes a mechanism it will collapse.

18.What are the limitations of load factor?

 The analysis procedure does not give us any clue if at a load𝑊𝑢 ÷
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟, the structure behaves well, meaning, whether the
stresses are within limit. So we have to check the stresses at crucial
points by conventional elastic method
 The assumption of monotonic increase in loading is a simplistic,
native assumption. But it is convenient and so we stick to it.
19.Explain the term plastic hinge.
When a section attains full plastic moment Mp, it acts as hinge which
is called a plastic hinge.
It is defined as the yielded zone due to bending at which large
rotations can occur with a constant value of plastic moment Mp.

20.What is plastic moment?

When the moment is further increased, there will be a stage at which
all fibres from top to bottom of the section will completely yield and the
section would not be able to take any further moment. The resisting moment
corresponding to this fully plastic stage is called the plastic moment Mp.

21.Define plastic modulus of a section.

The plastic modulus of a section is the first moment of the area above
and below the equal area axis. It is the resisting modulus of a fully
plasticized section.
𝐴
𝑍𝑝 = ( 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 )
2

22.List the possible locations of plastic hinges in a structure.

 Plastic hinges occurs under the loads
 Plastic hinges occurs at joints

23.Define moment redistribution.

Moment redistribution refers to the behavior of statically
indeterminate structures that are not completely elastic, but have some
reserve plastic capacity.
24.How is the shape factor for a hollow circular section related to the shape
factor of an ordinary circular section?
The shape factor of the hollow circular section = a factor K * shape
factor of ordinary circular section.
𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑝𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
( 1 − 𝑐3 )
= 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑝𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ×
( 1 − 𝑐4 )

25.Give the governing equation for bending.

The governing equation for bending is given by,
𝑀 𝜎
=
𝐼 𝑦
Where,
M = bending moment
I = moment of inertia
σ = stress
y = CG distance

26.What is meant by plastic analysis of structure?

The analysis of beams and structures made of such flexural members
are called plastic analysis of structure.

27.What is the difference between plastic hinge and mechanical hinge?

Plastic hinges modify the behavior of structures in the same way as
mechanical hinges. The only difference is that plastic hinges permit rotation
with a constant resisting moment equal to the plastic moment Mp. At
mechanical hinges, the resisting moment is equal to zero.
28.List out the assumptions made for plastic analysis.
 Plane transverse sections remain plane and normal to the longitudinal
axis before and after bending
 Effect of shear is neglected
 The material is homogeneous and isotropic both in the elastic and
plastic state
 Modulus of elasticity has the same value both in tension and
compression
 There is no resultant axial force in the beam
 The cross section of the beam is symmetrical about an axis through its
centroid and parallel to the plane of bending

UNIT – 5
1. State the principle of super position of forces?
When a body is subjected to a number of external forces, the forces
are split up, and their effects are considered on individual sections. The
resulting deformation, of the body is equal to the algebraic sum of the
deformations of the individual sections. Such a principle of finding the
resultant deformation is called the principle of superposition.

2. Define statically determinate structure.

If the conditions of equilibrium (i.e.) ΣH=0, ΣV=0 and ΣM=0 alone
are sufficient to find either external reactions or internal forces in a structure,
the structure is called a statically determinate structure.
3. Define statically indeterminate structure.
If the conditions of equilibrium (i.e.) ΣH=0, ΣV=0 and ΣM=0 alone
are not sufficient to find either external reactions or internal forces in a
structure, the structure is called a statically indeterminate structure.

4. Differentiate the statically determinate structures and statically

indeterminate structures.
STATICALLY DETERMINATE
STRUCTURES
Conditions of equilibrium are
sufficient to analyze the structure
Bending moment and shear
force is independent of
material and cross sectional area
No stresses are caused due to
temperature change and lack of fit
Extra conditions like compatibility
of displacements are not required to of displacements are required to
analyze the structure.
STATICALLY
INDETERMINATE
STRUCTURES
Conditions of equilibrium are
insufficient to analyze the structure
Bending moment and shear force
is dependent of material and
independent of cross sectional
area
Stresses are caused due to
temperature change and lack of fit
Extra conditions like compatibility
analyze the structure along with
the equilibrium equations.

5. Write down the rotation matrix for 2D truss element.

In linear algebra, a rotation matrix is a matrix that is used to perform a
rotation in Euclidean space. For example the matrix
6. Define compatibility in force method of analysis.
Compatibility is defined as the continuity condition on the
displacements of the structure after external loads are applied to the
structure.

7. Write down the compatibility equation used in flexibility matrix

method.
𝑅 × ∆ = {𝐹}

8. Define force transformation matrix.

The connectivity matrix which relates the internal forces Q and the
external forces R is known as the force transformation matrix. Writing it in a
matrix form,
{Q} = [b] {R}
Where,
Q = member force matrix / vector
b = force transformation matrix
R = external force / load matrix / vector

9. What is transformation matrix?

If, A and B are the matrices of two linear transformations, then the
effect of applying first A and then B to a vector x is given by: (This is called
the associative property.) In other words, the matrix of the combined
 transformation A followed by B is simply the product of the individual
matrices.

10.Write down the stiffness matrix for 2D beam element.

The stiffness matrix for a 2 D beam element is given by,

11.Describe the uses of force method. What are the basic steps in the force
method to find internal forces in statically indeterminate structure?
With the advent of computers, matrix methods of solving structures
have become very popular. The behavior of a structure can largely be
defined by defining the force – displacement relationship in the form of a
matrix.

Steps:
 Applying a force on the structure
 Working out the internal forces and moments
 Computing displacement (and rotations) at specific locations making
use of the values in the above step.

12.What are the basic unknowns in stiffness matrix method?

In the stiffness matrix method nodal displacements are treated as the
basic unknowns for the solution of indeterminate structures.
13.Define stiffness coefficient kij.
Stiffness coefficient ‘kij’ is defined as the force developed at joint ‘i’
due to unit displacement at joint ‘j’ while all other joints are fixed.

14.What is the basic aim of the stiffness method?

The aim of the stiffness method is to evaluate the values of
generalized coordinates ‘r’ knowing the structure stiffness matrix ‘k’ and
nodal loads ‘R’ through the structure equilibrium equation.
{R} = [K] {r}

15.What is the displacement transformation matrix?

The connectivity matrix which relates the internal displacement ‘q’
and the external displacement ‘r’ is known as the displacement
transformation matrix ‘a’.
{q} = [a] {r}

16.How are the basic equations of stiffness matrix obtained?

The basic equations of stiffness matrix are obtained as:
 Equilibrium forces
 Compatibility of displacements
 Force displacement relationships

17.What is the equilibrium conditions used in the stiffness method?

The external loads and the internal member forces must be in
equilibrium at the nodal points.
18.What is meant by generalized coordinates?
For specifying a configuration of a system, a certain minimum no of
independent coordinates are necessary. The least no of independent
coordinates that are needed to specify the configuration is known as
generalized coordinates.

19.Write the element stiffness for a truss element.

The element stiffness matrix for a truss element is given by,

20.Write about the force displacement relationship.

The relationship of each element must satisfy the stress-strain
relationship of the element material.

21.What is the compatibility condition used in the flexibility method?

The deformed elements fit together at nodal points.

22.Write the element stiffness matrix for a beam element.

The element stiffness matrix for a beam element is given by,

23.Is it possible to develop the flexibility matrix for an unstable structure?

In order to develop the flexibility matrix for a structure, it has to be
stable and determinate.
24.Compare flexibility method and stiffness method.
FLEXIBILITY MATRIX
STIFFNESS MATRIX METHOD
METHOD
The redundant forces are treated The joint displacements are treated as
as basic unknowns. basic unknowns
The number of equations involved The number of displacements
is equal to the degree of static involved is equal to the no of degrees
indeterminacy of the structure. of freedom of the structure
The method is the generalization The method is the generalization of
of consistent deformation method. the slope deflection method.
Different procedures are used for The same procedure is used for both
determinate and indeterminate determinate and indeterminate
structures structures.

25.What is the relationship between flexibility and stiffness matrix?

The element stiffness matrix ‘k’ is the inverse of the element
flexibility matrix ‘f’ and is given by f = 1/k or k = 1/f.

26.What are the types of structures that can be solved using stiffness
matrix method?
Structures such as simply supported, fixed beams and portal frames
can be solved using stiffness matrix method.

27.Give the formula for the size of the global stiffness matrix.
The size of the Global Stiffness Matrix (GSM) = number of nodes *
degrees of freedom per node.
28.List the properties of the stiffness matrix.
 It is a square matrix and always it should be a square matrix.
 It is a symmetric matrix
[𝑘] = [𝑘]𝑇
 The sum of elements in any column must be equal to zero.
 It is an unstable element therefore the determinant is equal to zero.
 The order of stiffness is equal to the number of co – ordinates.

29.List the properties of flexibility matrix.

 Flexibility matrix is a square matrix of order nd nd
 Flexibility matrix is a symmetrical matrix
 Elements of flexibility matrix may be positive or negative except
leading diagonal element which is always positive
 Elements of flexibility matrix are displacements and they can be
computed only if the structure is stable. If structure is unstable
internally or externally, then displacements are indefinitely large and
flexibility matrix does not exist.

30.Why the stiffness matrix method is also called equilibrium method or

displacement method?
Stiffness method is based on the superposition of displacements and
hence is also known as the displacement method. And since it leads to the
equilibrium equations the method is also known as equilibrium method.

31.Define a primary structure.

A structure formed by the removing the excess or redundant restraints from
an indeterminate structure making it statically determinate is called primary
 structure. This is required for solving indeterminate structures by flexibility
matrix method.

𝟐 −𝟏
32.If the flexibility matrix is given as[𝑭] = [ ]. Write the
−𝟏 𝟒
corresponding stiffness matrix.
1
𝑆𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 =
𝐹𝑙𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥
(i.e.) [𝐾] = [𝐹]−1

33.Define degree of kinematic indeterminacy (or) Degree Of Freedom.

It is defined as the least no of independent displacements required to
define the deformed shape of a structure. There are two types of DOF
 Joint type DOF
 Nodal type DOF

34.Name any two force methods to analyze the statically indeterminate

structures.
 Column analogy method
 Flexibility matrix method
 Method of consistent deformation
 Theorem of least work
35.Briefly explain the two types of DOF.
 Joint type DOF
This includes the DOF at the point where moment of inertia changes,
hinge and roller support, and junction of two or more members.

 Nodal type DOF

This includes the DOF at the point of application of concentrated load
or moment, at a section where moment of inertia changes, hinge
support, roller support and junction of two or more members.

36.What are the different methods used to analyze indeterminate

structures?
 Finite element method
 Flexibility matrix method
 Stiffness matrix method

37.Write the formulae for degree of indeterminancy.

 Two dimensional in jointed truss (2D truss)
𝑖 = (𝑚 + 𝑟) − 2𝑗
 Two dimensional rigid frames/plane rigid frames (2D frame)
𝑖 = (3𝑚 + 𝑟) − 3𝑗
 Three dimensional space truss (3D truss)
𝑖 = (𝑚 + 𝑟) − 3𝑗
 Three dimensional space frame (3D frame)
𝑖 = (6𝑚 + 𝑟) − 6𝑗
Where,
m = number of members
 r = number of reactions
j = number of joints

38.Write the element flexibility matrix for a truss member.

The element flexibility matrix (f) for a truss member is given by,

39.Briefly mention the two types of matrix methods of analysis of

indeterminate structures.
 Flexibility matrix method
It is defined as the deformation produced for unit load. It is denoted
by the symbols[𝑎] 𝑜𝑟 [𝑓] 𝑜𝑟 [𝛼]. This method is also called the force
method in which the forces in the structure are treated as unknowns.
The no of equations involved is equal to the degree of static
indeterminacy of the structure.

 Stiffness matrix method

It is defined as the force required for unit deformations. It is denoted
by the symbol[𝑘]. This is also called the displacement method in
which the displacements that occur in the structure are treated as
unknowns. The no of displacements involved is equal to the no of
degrees of freedom of the structure.

40.Define flexibility influence coefficient.

Flexibility influence coefficient (fij) is defined as the displacement at
joint ‘i’ due to a unit load at joint ‘j’, while all other joints are not load.
41.Define element co – ordinates.
Each element having a displacement along two directions (x and y) is
said to be an element coordinates.

42.Define global co – ordinates.

For the whole structure having a displacement along the two
directions (x and y) is said to be a global coordinates.

43.Write the element flexibility matrix for a beam element.

The element flexibility matrix (f) for a beam element is given by,
 FAILURE ANALYSIS AND REHABILITATION OF
STRUCTURES
UNIT – 1
1. Define Maintenance.
Maintenance is the act of keeping something in good condition by
checking or repairing it regularly.

2. Define Repair.
Repair is the process of restoring something that is damaged or
deteriorated or broken, to good condition.

3. Define Rehabilitation.
Rehabilitation is the process of returning a building or an area to its
previous good conditions.

4. What are the two facets of maintenance?

The two facets of maintenance are,
 Prevention
 Repair

5. What are the causes of deterioration?

 Deterioration due to corrosion
 Environmental effects
 Poor quality material used
 Quality of supervision
 Design and construction flaws
6. How will you assess the deterioration?
 Visual inspection
 Study of available documentation
 Estimation of actual loads and environment effects
 Diagnosis

7. Define physical inspection of damaged structure.

Some of the useful information may be obtained from the physical
inspection of damaged structure, like nature of distress, type of distress,
extent damage and its classification etc. Their causes preparing and
documenting the damages, collecting the samples for laboratory testing and
analysis, planning for in situ testing, special environmental effects which
have not been considered at the design stage and information on the loads
acting on the existing structure at the time of damage may be, obtained. To
stop further damages, preventive measure necessary may be planned which
may warrent urgent execution.

8. How deterioration occurs due to corrosion?

 Spalling of concrete cover
 Cracks parallel to the reinforcement
 Spalling at edges
 Swelling of concrete
 Dislocation
 Internal cracking and reduction in area of steel reinforcement

9. What are the steps in selecting a repair procedure?

 Consider total cost
  Do repair job in time
 If defects are few & isolated repair on an individual basis. Otherwise do
in generalized manner
 Ensure the repair prevents further development of defects
 In case of lost strength, repairs should restore the strength
 If appearance is a problem, the number of applicable types of repairs
become limited & the repairs must be covered
 Repair works should not interface with facilities of the structure
 Take care in addition of section to a member and in redistributing live
loads and other live load moments. After selecting a suitable method of
repairs, and after considering all the ramifications of its application, the
last step is to prepare plans & specification and proceed with the work.

10.Discuss about the environment effects which leads to deterioration of

concrete structure.
Micro-cracks present in the concrete are the sources of ingress of
moistures, atmospheric carbon di-oxide into the concrete which attack
reinforcement and with various ingredients of concrete. In aggressive
environment concrete structure will be severely reduces.

11.What is the effect of selecting poor quality material for construction?

Quality of materials, to be used in construction, should be ensured by
means various tests as specified in the IS codes. Alkali-aggregate reaction
and sulphate attack results in early deterioration. Clayey materials in the fine
aggregates weaken the mortar aggregate bond and reduce the strength.
Salinity causes corrosion of reinforcing bars as well as deterioration of
concrete.
12.How can we determine the cause for deterioration of concrete
structure?
 Inspect & observe the structure
 Observe in bad & good weather
 Compare with other constructions on the area or elsewhere & be patient
 Study the problem & allow enough time to do the job

13.What are the factors to be considered by the designer at the

construction site?
 Minimum & maximum temperatures
 Temperature cycles
 Exposure to ultra violet radiation
 Amount of moisture
 Wet/dry cycles
 Presence of aggressive chemicals

14.What are the steps in repair aspect?

 Finding the deterioration
 Determining the cause
 Evaluating the strength of existing building or structure
 Evaluating the need of repair
 Selecting & implementing a repair procedure

15.Define the fixed percentage method of evaluating the strength of

existing structure.
It is to assume that all members which have lost less than some
predetermined % of their strength are still adequate and that all members
 which have lost more than the strength are inadequate. It is usually from
15% onwards higher values are applicable for piling & stiffness bearing
plates etc.

16.Discuss about the design and construction errors leading to

deterioration of a structure.
Design of concrete structures governs the performance of concrete
structures. Well designed and detailed concrete structure will show less
deterioration in comparison with poorly designed and detailed concrete, in
the similar condition. The beam-column joints are particularly prone to
defective concrete, if detailing and placing of reinforcement is not done
properly. Inadequate concrete cover may lead to carbonation depth reaching
up to the reinforcement, thus, increasing the risk of corrosion of the
reinforcement.

17.Discuss about the quality of supervision to be followed at a site.

Construction work should be carried out as per the laid down
specification. Adherence to specified water-cement ratio controls strength,
permeability, durability of concrete. Insufficient vibration may result in
porous and honey combined concrete, whereas excess vibration may cause
segregation.

18.What are the possible decisions that can be made after evaluating the
strength of a structure?
 To permit deterioration to continue
 To make measures to preserve the structure in its present condition
without strengthening
  To strengthen the construction
 If deterioration is exceptionally severe, to reconstruct or possibly
abandon it

19.How can we evaluate the strength of existing structure by stress

analysis?
This method is to make detailed stress analysis of the structure, as it
stands including allowances for loss of section where it has occurred. This is
more difficult & expensive. Here also the first step is to make preliminary
analysis by fixed percentage method and if it appears that major repairs will
be required, the strength is reevaluated based on detailed stress analysis,
considering all contributions to such strength.

20.Define the load test method of evaluating the strength of existing

structure.
Load tests may be required by the local building offered, but they
should only be performed where computation indicated that there is
reasonable margin of safety against collapse. Load test show strengths much
greater than computed strengths when performed on actual structures. In
repair work every little bit of strength is important.

21.What are the possible decisions after finding a structure to be

inadequate?
 If the appearance of the existing condition is objectionable – repair now
 If appearance is not a problem then put the condition under observation
to check if it is dormant or progressive
 If dormant – no repair
  If progressive – check the feasibility & relative economics of permitting
deterioration to continue and performing a repair at some later date & of
making the repair right away

22.What are the objectives of condition assessment?

The main purpose of guide is to briefly describe how to carry out the
condition assessment of buildings before taking up repair and upgrading
work. This will determine whether or not a distressed building should be
demolished to build back better or whether it will be cost effective to either
repair or retrofit it, in the context of overall safety.

23.What are the factors causing building distress?

 The reason for distress during service is the lack of maintenance of the
building which results in deterioration / aging of materials and structural
components leading to corrosion and cracking
 Buildings or structures are damaged at different grades of damage when
they experience extreme loading conditions like in severe earthquakes or
cyclonic storms for which they are not designed
 They may also fail if the building including the foundation is not
properly designed and constructed following the standard codes of
practice
 Inadequacy of design and poor quality of construction and maintenance
are therefore the main reasons for the distress seen in buildings during
service or under natural hazards
24.Explain the term crazing.
Crazing is the development of a network of fine random cracks on the
surface of concrete or mortar caused by shrinkage and is usually related to
finishing and curing procedures.

UNIT – 2
1. How can you prevent the effect of freezing and thawing in concrete?
Concrete can be restricted from frost action, damage of the structure
by the entrainment of air. This entrainment of air is distributed through the
cement paste with spacing between bubbles of no more than about 0.4mm.

2. Write any two tests for assessment of frost damage?

The frost damage can be assessed by several ways:
 Assessment of loss of weight of a sample of concrete subjected to a
certain number of cycles of freezing and thawing is one of the methods
 Measuring the change in the ultrasonic pulse velocity or the damage in
the change in the dynamic modulus of elasticity of specimen is another
method

3. How does a concrete structure get affected by heat?

Heat may affect concrete and as a result of:
 The removal of evaporable water
 The removal of combined water
 Alteration of cement paste
 Alteration of aggregate
 Change of the bond between aggregate and paste
4. How can you control cracks in a structure?
 Use of good coarse aggregates free from clay lumps
 Use of fine aggregate free from silt, mud & organic constituent
 Use of sound cement
 Provision of expansion & contraction joint
 Provide less water-cement ratio

5. Define aggregate splitting?

This phenomenon occurs most frequently when hard aggregates are
used in concrete. The thermal stresses except close to corners are
predominantly compressive near to the heated surface. This stress causes the
aggregate to split in this direction and the fractures may propagate through
the mortar matrix leading to deterioration.

6. What are the various chemical attacks of concrete?

 Acid attack
 Alkali attack
 Carbonation
 Chloride attack
 Leaching
 Salt attack
 Sulphate attack

7. What are the factors affecting chemical attack on concrete?

 High porosity
 Improper choice of cement type for the conditions of exposure
 Inadequate curing prior to exposure
  Exposure to alternate cycles of wetting and drying

8. Write the methods of corrosion protection?

 Corrosion inhibitors
 Corrosion resisting steels
 Coatings for steel
 Cathodic protection

9. List out the methods to protect steel from corrosion.

 Coating to reinforcement
 Galvanized reinforcement
 Improving metallurgically by addition of certain elements
 Using stainless steel
 Using non – ferrous reinforcement
 Using corrosion inhibitors
 Coating to concrete
 Cathodic protection, either by means of impressed unit or by sacrificial
anodes
 Electrochemical chloride removal
 Improving the cover concrete

10.List out some coating for reinforcement to prevent corrosion.

 Organic coating
 Epoxy coating
 Metallic coating
 Zinc coating
11.Define corner reparation?
This is a very common occurrence and appears to be due to a
component of tensile stress causing splitting across a corner. In fire tests,
corner separation occurs most often in beams and columns made of Quartz
aggregate and only infrequently with light weight aggregates

12.List any four causes of cracks?

 Use of unsound material
 Poor & bad workmanship
 Use of high water-cement ratio
 Freezing & thawing
 Thermal effects
 Shrinkage stresses

13.What are the types of cracks?

 Class-1: Cracks leading to structural failure
 Class-2: Cracks causing corrosion
 Class-3: Cracks affecting function
 Class-4: Cracks affecting appearance

14.What are alkali aggregate reaction cracks?

Alkali aggregate reactivity is a type of concrete deterioration that
occurs when the active mineral constituents of some aggregates react with
the alkali hydroxides in the concrete. Alkali aggregate reactivity occurs in
two forms such as Alkali Silica Reaction (ASR) and Alkali Carbonate
Reaction (ACR). Indications of the presence of alkali aggregate reactivity
 may be a network of cracks, closed or spalling joints, or displacement of
different portions of a structure.

15.What changes occur, when hot rolled steel is heated to 500oc?

At temp of 500oc-600oc the yield stress is reduced to the order of the
working stress and the elastic modulus is reduced by one-third. Bars heated
to this temp virtually recover their normal temperature.

16.List out the various types of spalling?

 General or destructive spalling
 Local spalling which is subdivided as
 Aggregate splitting
 Corner separations
 Surface spalling
 Sloughing off

17.List some faults in construction planning?

 Overloading of members by construction loads
 Loading of partially constructed members
 Differential shrinkage between sections of construction
 Omission of designed movement joints

18.Define corrosion?
The gradual deterioration of concrete by chemically aggressive agent
is called “Corrosion”.
19.Give some examples for corrosion inhibitors?
 Anodic inhibitors
 Cathodic inhibitors
 Mixed inhibitors
 Dangerous & safe inhibitors

20.Define effective cover?

The cover to reinforcement measured from centre of the main
reinforcement up to the surface of concrete in tension is called “Effective
cover”.

21.Define corrosion inhibitor?

Corrosion inhibitor is an admixture that is used in concrete to prevent
the metal embedded in concrete from corroding.

22.What are the operations in quality assurance system?

 Feedback
 Auditing
 Review line
 Organization

23.List the various components of quality control.

Five components of a quality (control) assurance system are:
 Standards
 Production control
 Compliance control
 Task and responsibilities and
  Guarantees for users

UNIT – 3
1. What is expansive cement?
A slight change in volume on drying is known as expansion with time
will prove to be advantage for grouting purpose. This type of cement which
suffers no overall change in volume on drying is known as “Expansive
cement”.

2. What is the action of shrink comb in expansive cement?

Shrink comb grout acts like a Portland cement. It (shrinks) sets and
hardens; it develops a compressive strength of about 140kg/cm2 at 7days and
210kg/cm2 at 28 days.

3. List the various types of polymer concrete.

 Polymer impregnated concrete (PIC)
 Polymer cement concrete (PCC)
 Polymer Concrete (PC)
 Partially impregnated & surface coat

4. Give the various monomers used in polymer concrete.

 Mehylmethacrylate (MINS)
 Styretoc
 Aerylonitrile
 t-butyle slynene
5. Define polymer concrete.
Polymer concrete is an aggregate bound polymer binder instead of
Portland cement as in conventional concrete polymer concrete is normally
use to minimize voids volume in aggregate mass. This can be achieve by
properly grading and mixing of aggregate to attain the maximum density and
the aggregates to attain minimum void volume. The entrapped aggregates
are prepacked and vibrated in a mould.

6. What are the uses of Polymer concrete?

During curing Portland cement form mineral voids. Water can be
entrapped in these voids which are freezing can readily attack the concrete.
Also alkaline Portland cement is easily attached by chemically aggressive
materials which results in rapid determination, there as using polymers can
compact chemical attack.

7. What is sulphur infiltrated concrete?

New types of composition have been produced by the recently
developed techniques of impregnating porous material like concrete with
sulphur. Sulphur impregnation has shown great improvement in strength.

8. What are the applications of sulphur infiltrated concrete?

Sulphur – (impregnated) infiltration can be employed in the precast
industries. Sulphur infiltration concrete should found considerable use in
industry situation where high corrosion resistant concrete is required. This
method cannot be conveniently applied to cast- in place concrete Sulphur
impregnation has shown area improvement in strength.
9. What is drying shrinkage?
Concrete made with ordinary Portland cement shrinks while setting
due to loss of water concrete also shrinks continuously for long time. This is
known as “drying shrinkage”.

10.What is Self – Stressing cement?

This cement when used in concrete with restrained expansion includes
compressive stresses which approximately offset the tensile stresses induced
by shrinkage is known as “Self-Stressing cement”

11.What is polymer impregnated concrete?

PIC is a widely used polymer composition concrete, cured and dried
in over or dielectric heating from which the air in the (pipes) open cell is
removed by vacuum. Then low density manpower is diffused through an
open cell and polymerized by using radiation, application of heat or by
chemical initiation.

12.Define polymer partially impregnated concrete.

Polymer partially impregnated or coated in dep (CID) and surface
coated (SC) control partially polymer impregnated concrete is used to
increase the strength of concrete. Partially impregnated concrete is sufficient
in situations there the major required surface persistent against chemical and
mechanical attacks.
13.How can we manufacture sulphur infiltrated concrete?
Sulphur is heated to bring it into molten condition to which coarse and
fine aggregates are poured and mixed together. On cooling, this mixture
gave fairly good strength, exhibited acid resistance and also other chemical
resistance, but it proved to be either than ordinary cement concrete.

14.What is the difference between ordinary cement and expansive cement?

Ordinary concrete shrinks while setting whereas expansive cement
expands while setting.

15.What are the uses of gas forming and expansive chemicals?

Gas formation and expansive chemicals to produce light weight
concrete as well as to cause expansion on application such as grouts for
anchor bolts. They are non-striking type. Principal chemicals used are
Hydrogen peroxide, metallic aluminium or activated carbon. Sometimes
bentonite clays and natural gum are also used.

16.What is the use of corrosion inhibiting chemicals?

They resist corrosion of reinforcement in adverse environment sodium
benzonate, calcium lingo sulphonate and sodium nitrate have good results.

17.Write the use of antifungus admixtures.

These are added to control and inhibit growth of bacteria or fungus in
surfaces expressed t moisture. Polyhalogenated phenol, Dieldrin emulsion
and copper compounds are some of the chemicals used for this.
18.What are the uses of curing compounds?
They are either wax based or resin based. When coated in freshly laid
concrete they form a temporary film over the damp surface which stops
water evaporation and allows sufficient moisture retention in concrete for
curing.

19.Define sealants.
Sealants are flexibilized polymeric materials which are used for two
purposes. They are,
 To plug irregular gap between two rigid surfaces
 To provide a dynamic bridge across the gap between two surfaces

20.What are the uses of sealants?

They are used to seal designed joints. They are formulated from
synthetic rubbers or polysulphides. The choice of a sealant depends on the
location of the joint, its movement capability and the function of the sealant
is expected to perform.

21.What are the uses of flooring?

These are usually toppings based on metallic or non-metallic
aggregates which are mixed with cement and placed over freshly laid
concrete sub floor. These compounds in high viscosity liquid, form mixed
with recommended filters at site, are based on resins and polymers such as
epoxy, acrylic, polyurethane or polysulphide.
 UNIT – 4
1. What is Vacuum concrete?
Only about half of the water added in concrete goes into chemical
combination and the remaining water is used to make concrete workable.
After laying concrete, water which was making concreting workable is
extracted by a special method known as “vacuum method”.

2. What are the equipments used in vacuum concrete?

The equipment essentially consists of:
 Vacuum pump
 Water separator
 Filtering mat

3. What is Gunite?
Gunite can be defined as mortar conveyed through a hose and
pneumatically projected at a high velocity on to a surface.

4. What are the two types of process in shotcrete?

 Wet mix process
 Dry mix process

5. What are the stages in dry mix process in shotcrete?

 In this process, the concrete is mixed with water as for ordinary concrete
before conveying through the delivery pipeline to the nozzle, at which
point it is jetted by compressed air, onto the work in the same way as that
if mix process.
  The wet process has been generally desired in favour of the dry mix
process, owing to the greater success of the latter.

6. What is shotcrete?
Shotcrete is a recent development on the similar principle of guniting
for achieving greater thickness with small coarse aggregate.

7. What are the preliminary investigations before demolition of a

structure?
The demolition contractor should have ample experience of the type
of work to be offered
 Fully comprehensive insurance against all risks must be maintained at all
times
 An experienced supervisor should be continuously in charge of the work
 The contract price should include all safety precautions included in the
relevant building regulations
 The completion date should be realistic, avoiding and need to take risks
to achieve the date

8. Write about protective clothing given before demolition.

Buildings where chemicals have been stored or where asbestos, lead
paint, dust or fumes may be present will require specialized protective
clothing.
9. Give a brief note on shoring and underpinning in demolition.
The demolition contractor has a legal obligation to show technical
competence when carrying out the work. When removing sections of the
building which could have leave other parts unsafe, adequate temporary
supports and shoring etc. must be provided.

10.What are the major factors in selecting a demolition procedure?

Major factors to be considered in selecting an appropriate technique include:
 Safety of personnel and public
 Working methods
 Legislation applicable
 Insurance cover

11.Give the categories of demolition techniques.

Demolition techniques may be categorized as:
 Piecemeal demolition, using hand-held tools or machines, to reduce the
height of the building or structure gradually
 Deliberate controlled collapse, demolition to be completed at ground
level

12.Write short notes on demolition by hand.

Demolition of buildings or structure by hand-held tools such as
electric or pneumatic breakers, sometimes as a preliminary to using other
methods, should be carried out, where practicable, in the reverse order to the
original construction sequence. Lifting appliances may be necessary to hold
 larger structural members during cutting and for lowering severed structural
members and other debris.

13.In what cases demolition by machine can be done?

Simple roof structures supported on wall plates should normally be
demolished to the level of wall plates by hand, but if this may involve unsafe
working, then demolition totally by machine may be appropriate.

14.Write short notes on balling machine.

Balling machines generally comprise a drag-line type crawler chassis
fitted with a lattice crane jib. The demolition ball, with a steel anti-spin
device, is suspended from the lifting rope and swung by the drag rope.

15.How are explosives used for demolition of a structure?

If explosives are to be used for demolition, the planning and
execution, include pre-weakening, should be under the control of a person
competent in these techniques. For large demolition, the competent person is
likely to be an experienced explosive engineer; for smaller work, a shot-firer
may be sufficient.

16.What is a hydraulic pusher arm?

Articulated, hydraulically-powered pusher-arm machines are normally
mounted on a tracked or wheeled chassis, and have a toothed plate or hook
for applying a horizontal force to a wall. The machine should stand on a firm
level base and apply force by a controlled movement of the pusher arm.
17.What is pre-weakening?
Buildings and structures normally have structural elements designed
to carry safely the loading likely to be imposed during their life.
As a preliminary to a deliberate controlled collapse, after loads such
as furnishings, plant and machinery have been removed, the demolition
contractor may be able to weaken some structural elements and remove
those new redundant. This pre - weakening is essentially a planned exercise
and must be preceded by an analysis of its possible effects on the structure
until it collapses, to ensure that the structural integrity of the building is not
geopardized accidentally. Insufficient information and planning relating to
the structure may result in dangerous and unsafe work.

18.What is deliberate collapse?

The deliberate collapse of the whole or part of a building or structure
requires particularly high standards of planning, supervisions and execution,
and careful consideration of its effect on other parts of the structure or on
adjacent buildings or structures. A surrounding clear area and exclusion zone
are required to protect both personnel and property from the fall of the
structure itself and debris which may be thrown up by the impact.

19.How can you develop a demolition strategy?

The strategy will need to take into account the method of construction
used for the original building and its proximity to other buildings, structures
and the general public. These factors, together with location, the cost and
availability of tipping and disposal and the desirability and economics of
 reuse, must be taken into account in the development of an appropriate
strategy for the demolition of a structure.

20.What are nibblers?

Nibblers use a rotating action to snap brittle materials such as concrete
or masonry. In either case, material should be removed from the top of walls
or columns in courses not greater than 600mm in depth, steel reinforcement
should be cut separately as necessary.

21.What are the considerations before demolition?

Considerations should be given to:
 Conducting a site and building survey, with a structural basis
 The examination of drawings and details of existing construction where
available
 The preparation of details and drawings from site survey activities where
no such information is available
 Establishing previous use of premises, especially with regard to
flammable substances or substances hazardous to health or safety
 Programming the sequence of demolition work
 The preparation of a Method Statement.

UNIT – 5
1. Define stitching.
The tensile strength of a cracked concrete section can be restored by
stitching in a manner similar to sewing cloth.
2. What do you mean by blanketing?
This is the simplest and most common technique for sealing cracks
and is applicable for sealing both fine pattern cracks and larger isolated. The
cracks should be dormant unless they are opened up enough to put in a
substantial pattern in which case the repair may be more properly termed as
“Blanketing”.

3. Define external stressing.

Development of cracking in concrete is due to tensile stress and can
be arrested by removing these stresses. Further the cracks can be closed by
including a compressive force sufficient to overcome the tension and
residual compression.

4. Write short notes on Autogenous healing.

The inherent ability of concrete to heal cracks within “autogenous
healing”. This is used for sealing dormant cracks such as precast units
cracked in handling of cracks developed during the precast pilling sealing of
cracks in water hands and sealing of cracks results of temporary conditions.

5. What is overlay?
Overlays may be used to restore a spelling or disintegrated surface or
to protect the existing concrete from the attack of aggressive agents.
Overlays used for this purpose include concrete or mortar, bituminous
compounds etc. Epoxies should be used to bond the overlays to the existing
concrete surface.
6. Give short note on Jacketing.
Jacketing consists of restoring or increasing the section of an existing
member by encasing it in a new concrete. This method is useful for
protection of section against further deterioration by providing additional to
in member.

7. Give an account on how metal bonding is done on concrete member.

On the tension side of the beam 2to 3mm steel plates are to the
existing beam to increase its capacity. The glue or adhesive should
compatible with the existing concrete with behavioral characteristics under
load addition to providing integrity with parent member.

8. How clamps are used to overcome low member strength?

The distress is due to inadequate stirrups either due to deficiency in
the provision of C- stamps, U-clamp fixed externally along the length of
beam to provide adequate these will be protected by covering with rich
mortar or concreting as the a later stage.

9. Define grouting.
Grouting can be performed in a similar manner as the injection of an
epoxy. However the use of an epoxy is the better solution except where
considerations for the resistance of cold weather prevent such use in which
case grouting is the comparable alternative.
10.Give a short note on epoxy coatings.
These are organic compound which when activated with suitable
hardening agents form strong chemically resistant structures having
excellent adhesive properties. They are used as binders or adhesives to bond
new concrete patches to existing surfaces or hand together cracked portions.
Once hardened, this compound will not melt, flow or bleed. Care should be
taken to place the epoxy within the pot life period after mixing.

11.What are protective surface coatings?

During of concrete can be substantially improved by preventive
maintenance in the form of weather proofing surface treatments. These
treatments are used to seal the concrete surface and to inhibit the intrusion of
moisture or chemicals.

12.List some materials used as protective surface coatings.

Materials used for this purpose include oils such as linseed oils,
petroleum etc.

13.Define dry pack.

Dry packing is the hand placement of a very dry mortar and
subsequent tamping or ramming of the mortar into place producing an
intimate contact between the old and new concrete work.

14.Give a brief account on routing and sealing.

This method involves enlarging the cracks along its exposed surface,
filling and finally sealing it with a suitable material. This is the simplest and
 most common technique for sealing cracks and is applicable for sealing both
fine pattern cracks and larger isolated.

15.What is pneumatically applied mortar?

Pneumatically applied mortar is used for the restoration of when the
location of deterioration is relatively at shallow depth. It can be used on
vertical as well as on horizontal surfaces and is particularly restoring
surfaces spalled to corrosion of the reinforcement. Damaged concrete
elements also retrofitted using this method. This also has known as gunning
or shotcreting techniques.

16.What is caging with steel?

A steel caging is prepared and made to surround the existing masonry
so that lateral expansion when it is loaded in compression. The confinement
of masonry will steel cage increases its capacity and ductility.

17.What are the techniques required for repairing cracks?

 Bonding with epoxies
 Routing and sealing
 Stitching
 Blanketing
 External stressing
 Grouting
 Autogenous healing
18.Give a brief note on dogs in stitching.
The dogs are thin and long and to cannot take much of compressive
force. The dogs must be stiffened and strengthened by encasement in an
overlay or some similar means.

19.Give some concrete materials used to overcome weathering action on

concrete.
The two concrete repair materials used were,
 A flow able concrete with 16 mm aggregate and containing a plasticizer
and a shrinkage-compensating additive, to be cast against forms in
heights up to 1.5m, and
 A patching mortar to be applied by rendering, for areas less than .01m2