SENTENCE STRUCTURE

 SENTENCE ADVERBIALS (S-ADVERBIALS): 2 kinds: DISJUNCT &

CONJUNCT ADVERBIALS

(AdvP): nevertheless, therefore, furthermore, thus, however, incidentally, admittedly,

certainly, perhaps, possibly, altogether

(PP): on the contrary, by contrast, in other words, for a start, in short, in conclusion, by the
way, on the other hand, of course

 CO-ORDINATORS: and, but, or

ADJECTIVE PHRASES & ADVERB PHRASES

 DEGREE ADVERBS (DEG): very, quite, so, too, rather, somewhat, extremely,
slightly, partially, much, fairly, terribly, hardly, highly, awfully, moderately,
reasonably, completely, increasingly, incredibly, entirely, perfectly, more, most,
less, least, very much (triangle), etc.

 GRADABLE ADJECTIVES: accept the -er/-est inflection or modification by

degree adverb

 NON-GRADABLE ADJECTIVES: atomic, dead, potential, right, main,

consummate, medical, fatal, final, second, third, supreme, unique, etc.

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES
 PREPOSITIONS: above, about, across, after, along, as, at, by, before, below, down,
during, for, from, in, like, of, off, on, onto, out, than, till, to, towards, up, with,
without, upstairs, downstairs, words ending in -ward(s): onward(s), upward(s),
downward(s), etc.
 VERB PHRASES
Complements of the verb are sisters of Verb (V)
Adjunct adverbials are sisters of Verb Phrase (VP).

Only NPs
give, send, buy, show, offer, denoting
animate
tell things

be, become, seem, appear, turn,

remain, look, taste, feel, smell, sound

The following may help in identifying the sub-categories of verb in sentences:

(to/for sb)

+ oP
  PHRASAL VERBS
TRANS: call off, look up, put down, hand down, hand over, sound out, drink up.
TRANS and INTRANS: give up, give in, throw up. (These have different
[trans] and [intran] senses.)
PREP: put up (with NP), go along (with NP), run out (of NP), sign up (for NP),
look out (over NP)
INTENS: turn out, end up, wind up.

ADJUNCT ADVERBIALS
 ADJUNCT ADVERBIALS (VP-ADVERBIALS) – sister of VP.

+ When you’ve drawn the immediate VP of S (the predicate), always ask yourself: does that
VP include an adjunct? If it does, then that VP must have another VP inside it (as sister
to the adjunct). And so on, for every VP.

+ Adverbials can move around. The adjunct which is movable is higher in the structure.
(She hardly slept last night)

+ Being adverbials, adjuncts are frequently in form of

 Adverbs (Adv) or Adverb Phrases (AdvP) : ending in –ly, again, yet, still, already,
seldom, often, always, ever, never.
 Noun Phrases (NP): last year, yesterday, tonight, tomorrow, the day before
yesterday, the day after tomorrow, this afternoon …
 Prepositional Phrases (spatial location, temporal location) (PP): now, then, there
 Infinitive Phrases (InfP)
 Participle Phrases (PartP)
 Subordinate Finite Clauses

 TYPES OF ADVERBIAL ADJUNCTS (16) (Tô Minh Thanh – English Syntax –

p.122)
 ADVERBIAL ADJUNCTS OF TIME (4)
o Point of Time (‘When?’ or ‘At what time?’): at night, at 8:30 tonight, some
time, next week, the next day,...
o Duration or Extent in Time (‘How long?’): for a week, until + clause, from
morning till night, all day long, since,...
o Frequency (‘How often?’ or ‘How many times?’): from time to time, twice
a week, every Friday evening, whenever + clause, always, usually, often,
 sometimes, rarely, never,...
o Temporal Relationship (‘When?’): after / before + clause

 ADVERBIAL ADJUNCTS OF PLACE (6)

o Location or Position (‘Where?’): upstairs, at home, in a ditch, where +

clause,...
o Distance or Extent in Space (‘How far?’): much farther, no more than two
blocks, too near/too close, for seven miles,...
o Direction (‘In what direction?’): in, out, due north, in favour of the new
scheme,...
o Terminus (‘Where?’): to the church, onto the ground, into the air,...
o Source (‘From which/where/whom?’): from Cambridge, from other writers,
off the roof, from the construction site,...
o Path (‘By/ Through/ Along/ Via/ By way of which?’): by way of London, via
New York, out of the window, over the wall, along the street, past the village,
by country roads, through the window,...

 ADVERBIAL ADJUNCTS OF MANNER (‘How?’, ‘By what way?’): very

smoothly, in a gentle way / gently, this way, on purpose,...
 ADVERBIAL ADJUNCTS OF BEHALF or GUISE (‘Who for?’, ‘Instead of
whom?’, ‘On behalf of whom?’, ‘ What as?’, or ‘What into?’): as a friend,
instead of Paul,...
 ADVERBIAL ADJUNCTS OF COMPARISON
 ADVERBIAL ADJUNCTS OF ACCOMPANIMENT (‘With/Without
whom/what?’, or ‘And who/what else?’): with, without, as well as,...
 ADVERBIAL ADJUNCTS OF MEANS (‘By what means?’): by air, on foot,
on horseback, by bus, by running all the way from home,...
 ADVERBIAL ADJUNCTS OF INSTRUMENT (‘With/Without what?’): with
a dictionary, in pencil, by artificial light,...
 ADVERBIAL ADJUNCTS OF CAUSE and OF REASON: because, since,...
 ADVERBIAL ADJUNCTS OF CONTIGENCY: for fear that, lest, in case
(of),...
 ADVERBIAL ADJUNCTS OF PURPOSE: in order to, so as to, for the sake
of,...
 ADVERBIAL ADJUNCTS OF RESULT: so...that, such...that
  ADVERBIAL ADJUNCTS OF CONCESSION: however, though, in spite of,
despite,...
 ADVERBIAL ADJUNCTS OF CONDITION: if, as long as, provided that,...
 ADVERBIAL ADJUNCTS OF DEGREE or EXTENT
 ADVERBIAL ADJUNCTS OF ADDITION or RESTRICTION (not
movable): also, too, either / only, just

AUXILIARY VPs
Be, have and do are sometimes called PRIMARY AUXILIARIES. This serves to contrast them
with the rest, which are all MODAL AUXILIARIES.

Verb forms that are tensed are traditionally called finite verb forms. All other verb forms are
non-finite (not tensed).

English has just two tenses: Present and Past. There is no future tense as such.

Only the first verb in a sequence of verbs can be finite (present or past). All verbs following an
auxiliary verb are non-finite (neither present nor past).

Complements of the lexical verb (V) form a VP constituent with that lexical V. This is the
case whether or not there happen to be auxiliaries in the sentence.

Auxiliaries take VP complements.

Each auxiliary verb is the head of its VP and takes a VP complement.

The negative particle “not” is placed immediately after the TENSED AUXILIARY.

 TENSE: do, does, did

Four kinds of AUXILIARY VERB:

MOD before PERF before PROG before PASS before Lexical V

1. MODAL AUXILIARIES (MOD)

Modals are always tensed (finite). They do not have untensed (non-finite) forms.

 PRESENT: can, will, shall, may

 PAST: could, would, should, might

The modal verbs must and need don’t even have a past tense form but just the one (present
tense) form already given.

Since modals are always tensed, they always come first in any sequence of verbs. It also
follows that, in a sequence of verbs, there can be only one modal verb. The verb that follows a
modal auxiliary always appears in its basic (nonfinite) stem form.

2. THE PERFECT AUXILIARY — HAVE (PERF)

Auxiliary have is described as the ‘perfect’ auxiliary. Perfect have is always followed by
another verb.

The verb that follows perfect have always appears in its (non-finite) perfect participle form.

PERF will only have the tense feature if it’s the first verb in the sequence. If the verb is
preceded by perfect have, then it must be the non-finite, perfect participle of the verb.

3. THE PROGRESSIVE AUXILIARY — BE (PROG)

Progressive be demands that the following verb has the (non finite) -ING form. Call this the
progressive participle.

Be can function either as an auxiliary or as a lexical verb. Lexical be is the intensive verb, the
copula.

PROG will only have the tense feature if it’s the first verb in the sequence.

4. THE PASSIVE AUXILIARY — BE (PASS)

Sentences that include the passive auxiliary verb be are said to be in the passive voice.

Following passive be, a verb adopts the passive participle form.

Auxiliary VPs and adverbials

Assumption 1. If an adverbial precedes a verb, assume it modifies the following VP.

Assumption 2. Assume that sentence-final adverbials modify (and form a VP constituent

with) the lexical VP.

If there are two sentence-final adverbials, the last of these will modify the next higher VP.
This occurs particularly with TIME ADVERBIALS.

PASSIVE SENTENCES
In passive sentences, a gap is created in the object position left by the movement of the object to
subject position.
a conspicuous blob: ●

With ditransitive verbs, it is always the first object that becomes subject in the passive.
 QUESTIONS — FRONTING THE TENSED
AUXILIARY
‘C’ is for ‘Complementiser’
The Complementiser position is: sister of S and daughter of S-bar (S′).
Auxiliary do is required to carry the tense in the absence of any auxiliary.
 NOUN PHRASES
COMPLEMENTS in NP are represented as sister-of-N (in a NOM)

ADJUNCTS in NP are represented as sister-of-NOM (in a higher NOM).

 PRONOUNS:
1. DEFINITE PRONOUNS: she/her, it, I/me, we/us, you, they/them
2. REFLEXIVE (DEFINITE) PRONOUNS: myself, itself, ourselves, etc.
3. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS: something, someone, anything, anyone
4. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS: this, that, these, those
5. INTERROGATIVE (QUESTION) PRONOUNS: who, which, what
6. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS: mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs
7. THE IMPERSONAL PRONOUN: one (One usually enjoys one’s birthday).

 DETERMINERS (DET)
ARTICLES (ART): a, an, the
DEMONSTRATIVES (DEM): this, that, these, those
QUANTIFIERS (Q): some, any, no, each, every, either, neither, most, several,
another, enough
POSSESSIVES (POSS): my, your, its, her, his, our, their, one’s, John’s
PHRASAL – DETERMINERS (use triangles): a few, a little
INTERROGATIVE DETERMINERS: what, which, whose
EXCLAMATORY DETERMINERS: what (a/an),

 PRE-DETERMINERS (PRE-DET): all, both, half, double, twice, treble, number +

times, such, rather, what, quite, ...

 RESTRICTERS (RESTRIC): just, even, especially, particularly,...

 PRE-MODIFIERS IN NOM
 ADJUNCT APs: a sister-of-NOM

 RESTRICTED ADJECTIVES (modify N, not NOM) (ATTRIBUTIVE

ADJECTIVES)
[47a] an absolute hero. [47a] a total disaster. [48d] a heavy smoker.
[48a] a hard worker. [48c] an occasional [49d] an
visitor. environmental advisor
[49a] a structural engineer.
[49c] a nuclear
[47b] a complete beginner. scientist. [50] two criminal lawyers
[48b] a slow reader.
[47d] a true/real
[49b] a personal sistant. friend. [51] two atomic scientist

 QUANTIFYING ADJECTIVES (QA): much, many, few, little, cardinal numerals (one, two,
three,...), ordinal numerals (first, second, third,...), a word-group QA (plenty of, a lot of, lots of, a
great deal of, a/an (small, large, great, considerable, etc.), amount of, considerable number of,
etc.)(use triangle), fractional numerals (one-third of, two-thirds of, three-fifths of, etc.)( use
triangle)...
Quantifying adjectives (QAs) are head-of-AP. APs with a QA as head always precede other APs
in NOM.

 PARTICIPLES PHRASES (PART P): ing1, d2,

Note:

ing
D 1 weeping
1
(verb present
(verb past simple)
participle)
D2
ing 2
broken,
closing, boiled
sleeping, dancing
(verb past
(noun)(function)
participle)
ing
D 3 entertaining, dying (a) hấpnaked,
celebrated, distinguished, hối rugged, beloved
3
(adj)(characteristic)
(adj)(characteristic)

 POST-MODIFIERS IN NOM
Two of the categories that follow the head noun in NOM: PPs and a certain type of AP.
 COMPLEX SENTENCE
S’ = C + S
C: that, whether, if

S’ đóng vai trò là S, dO -> NP

Cách làm ACA

B1: Xác định tất cả các động từ

B2: Đánh số các động từ (trong đó cái chính đánh số trước)

S1 = main clause

Subject

Extraposed subject (3 nhánh) (đảo mệnh đề lên làm subject được)

There’s a handful of special verbs – including seem, appear, transpire, and happen – that can’t
have clauses in the normal subject position. (không phải là extraposed subject -> trans).

Seem, appear -> Trong trường hợp extraposed subject thì sẽ là intrans.

The generalisation seems to be that extraposition of a clausal subject is OBLIGATORY when

the verb is [intransitive].

COMPLEMENT TO V
Transitive verb: think, say, notice, admit, deny, claim, believe
Ditransitive verb: remind, mean, ask, know, tell, convince, warn, persuade, promise, inform

COMPLEMENT TO A

COMPLEMENT TO N (cung cấp thêm thông tin)

Only complement abstract nouns like fact, rumour, idea, news, claim, suggestion, rule, message,
indication, contention, etc.
Nếu chủ ngữ là it, phải test xem có phải là extraposed subject hay không.
COMPLEMENT TO P

* after, until, before, and since

ABVERBIAL CLAUSES (sister of VP)

C: although, unless, if, because, once, as, now, so, while, since, provided that, providing that
Phrasal complementisers (C)(use triangle): now that, so that, except that, as if, in case, in
order that, as soon as
Examples of adverbial clauses functioning as S-adverbials
S = S’ + S

C2: wh-words – who (NP), what (NP), which (NP), whose (NP), why (AdvP), when, where, how
(AP, AdvP)

Cách vẽ WH-question (xuất hiện 2 gap) -> B1: Trả lời câu hỏi
B2: Áp công thức

Relative clauses are non-interrogative whclauses. Relative clauses function as modifiers.

* NP WITH NOUN-COMPLEMENT CLAUSE

* NP WITH RELATIVE CLAUSE (relative clauses can be thought of as ADJUNCTS in NP)

Restrictive relative clauses specify more exactly which of the things picked out by the head
noun are being mentioned.

* NP with RESTRICTIVE relative clause:

 Non-restrictive relative clauses serve to add extra – parenthetical – information,
without restricting the set of things (triangles, dogs, books, etc.) being mentioned.

* NP with NON-RESTRICTIVE relative clause:

Noun-complement clause: sister of N (within NOM).

Restrictive relative clause: sister of NOM (within NOM).
Non-restrictive relative clause: sister of NP (within NP).
 PHRASE STRUCTURE RULES
 SENTENCE (3)

 ADJECTIVE PHRASE (AP -> A, QA) (AP can be modified by DEG – AP is the sister
of DEG) (4)

 ADVERB PHRASE (AdvP) (2)

 PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE (PP) (2)

 PARTICIPLE PHRASES (PartP) (2)

  NOUN PHRASE (NP)

+ Non-branching (2)

+ Branching (3)

+ Compound nouns (1)

* one can be determined by covert DET.

[42a] one from Poland.

[43a] one (as in I’ve just eaten one).

* MODIFICATION OF PRONOUNS
 VERB PHRASE (VP)

+ Transitive (1)

+ Intransitive (1)

+ Ditransitive (2)

+ Intensive (3)

+ Complex (3)
+ Prepositional (1)

+ Phrasal Verb (2)

+ MOD before PERF before PROG before PASS before Lexical V + aA

+ Questions – fronting the tensed auxiliary (3: lexical verb, auxiliary verb, tensed verb)
 ADDITONAL EXERCISE
1. Identify the sub-category of the V and the functions of the major elements (9) in the following
sentences in terms of S, V, dO, iO, sP, oP, PC, aA, and sA. ( Burton-Roberts, N. (2021).
Analysing Sentences: An Introduction to English Syntax. Routledge. p.102)

2. Construct a sentence in which Prepositional Phrases function as

[A] subject-predicative in [intens] VPs
_______________________________________________________________________________

[B] object-predicative in [complex] VPs

_______________________________________________________________________________

[C] indirect-object in [ditrans] VPs

_______________________________________________________________________________

[D] prepositional complement in [prep] VPs

_______________________________________________________________________________

[E] modifiers within the structure of NP (e.g. the book in your pocket)
_______________________________________________________________________________

[F] modifiers within the structure of VP (e.g. sunbathed beside a stream)

_______________________________________________________________________________

3. Construct a sentence in which

 Smelt is used as:

+ Intransitive verb: _______________________________________________________________

+ Transitive verb: ________________________________________________________________

+ Intensive verb: _________________________________________________________________

 Make is used as:

+ Transitive verb: ________________________________________________________________

+ Complex verb: _________________________________________________________________

+ Ditransitive verb: ______________________________________________________________

+ Prepositional verb: _____________________________________________________________

  Leave is used as:

+ Transitive verb: ________________________________________________________________

+ Complex verb: _________________________________________________________________

+ Ditransitive verb: ______________________________________________________________