GROUP WORK SECTION: The Social Group Work Process

Author(s): CLARA A. KAISER

Source: Social Work , APRIL 1958, Vol. 3, No. 2 (APRIL 1958), pp. 67-75
Published by: Oxford University Press

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/23707535

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Social Work

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BY CLARA A. KAISER

The Social Group Work Process

The actual birthdate of social group work principles which had been derived f
has never been certainly determined, nor is perience. Group work evolved fro
there full agreement on its progenitors. In recognition by a number of persons e
attempting to delineate social group work in a variety of educational, recrea
as a purposive and disciplined way of affect- and social service activities that they
ing group process it seems to me important common interests and concerns b
to look back into the ideas, movements, and they were all, to some extent, workin
activities which played a part in bringing it groups of people. They were not
into being. In doing so we must distinguish concerned with sharing their knowle
between those which had an influence on what group process and group be
the ideas and purposes of social group work consisted, but with ways in which th
and those which acted to bring it into being of the programs and services of their
as distinct from other forms of endeavors to tive agencies could be more effectiv
influence group life. Group work neither achieved. These agencies included s
emerged full blown from the minds of one social settlements, youth-serving age
or more individuals, nor did it just grow recreational centers, and camps. In
like Topsy. In contrast to the Elder Sister words, it was to improve services a
discipline of social casework, group work quality of leadership offered to groups
had no Mary Richmond to systematize the motivated the early efforts to for
principles which could guide agencies in
■ developing their programs and in training
CLARA A. KAISER is professor of social work at the ^ workers wh
New York School of Social Work, Columbia Uni- The history of th
versity. This paper was originally prepared as ^ common body of
one of the four position statements requested for practice in a variety
the group work project of the Curriculum study of cies mainly concer
die Council on Social Work Education. grams for children a

EDITOR'S NOTE: This article and those following it were cho

Committees of the indicated Sections of NASW in accordance wi
the National Board of Directors.

APRIL 1958 67

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 KAISER:

been fully compiled, but it is not within5. Recent basic research in small group
the scope of this paper to do so. Two theory by social scientists, such as Kurt
articles contained in Group Work—Foun Lewin, Moreno, Elton Mayo, and Merton.
dations and Frontiers 1 give some historical 6. The democratic ethic not only as it
perspective of the developments in the forapplies to a political system, but as it per
mulation of group work as a professional meates all forms of social relationships, and
discipline in social work. More recently, as expressed in the writings of such authors
Charles Levy has provided a well-docu as Mary Follett and Eduard C. Lindeman.
mented historical summary of the main or 7. The psychoanalytic school of psychi
ganized efforts to delineate the objectives, atry.
forms, and methods of social group work8. The values, principles, and methods
as an aspect of social work practice and the of social work as the profession within
body of knowledge and skill forming the which social group work has developed.
basis for professional education.2 I shall not attempt to trace what and
The ideological forebears of group workhow each of these ideological systems con
as a distinctive process in work with groups tributed to the philosophy and methodol
are numerous and their influence on its ogy of social group work, but in delineating
value system and methodology are some what seems to me specific and, to some ex
times more implicit than explicit. I tent, shall distinctive to this process, I shall indi
attempt, however, to identify what seem cate to
what bearing they seem to have had on
be the most significant systems of thought its theory and practice.
which have given direction and content Social to group work is not a separate pro
the conceptual framework of social group fession, but a discipline within the profes
work.
sion of social work. Its major distinctiveness
1. The ethical, social, and theistic beliefs from the other methods in social work prac
embodied in the Judeo-Christian religions. tice lies in the fact that its unit of service
2. The humanitarian movement of the to people is the group. This has a different
late nineteenth century which found expres connotation than if we were to designate the
sion in the social settlement movement in unit of service as the individual in the
England and later in the United States. group. Both social casework and commu
3. The educational philosophy of John nity organization are concerned with group
Dewey and his followers who formulated relations, but their units of service are re
the theories of progressive education. spectively the individual and the commu
nity. This does not mean that the values
4. The theories of certain early sociolo
gists who saw in the small group the key to to be derived from any helping process must
studying the relation of the individual not be measured in terms of the impact it
to society, especially Durkheim, Simmel, has on the well-being of the individual hu
Cooley, Mead. man being, which is the ultimate goal in a
democratic society. It does mean that group
1 Grace L. Coyle, "On Becoming Professional," pp. work is a means for serving the individual
328-342; and Clara A. Kaiser, "Group Work Educa through the medium of the group. An
tion in the Last Decade," pp. 353-369, in Harleigh
B. Trecker, ed.. Group Work—Foundations and
understanding of and the ability to work
Frontiers (New York: Whiteside Inc. and William purposively with groups are at the core of
Morrow & Co., Inc., 1953). the social group work process.
2 Charles S. Levy, "From Education to Practice Social work is not by any means the only
in Social Group Work." Unpublished doctoral dis
sertation, New York School of Social Work, Colum
professional service concerned with a pur
bia University. See also "Is Social Group Work posive method of working with groups.
Practice Standing Still?," Social Work, Vol. 3, No. 1 Educators, clergy, physicians, industrial
(January 1958), pp. 50-54. managers, social science researchers, among

¿8 Social Work

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 Social Group Work Process
others, make conscious use of the group 1. Any ability to help others effectively
process as a means for achieving the ends rests on respect for the human personality
of their professional disciplines. The ele —on the person's right to make his own
ments which distinguish the social group life, to enjoy personal and civil liberties,
work process from those pertinent to other and to pursue happiness and spiritual
goals in his own way.
disciplines will not be discussed in this
2. Help is most effective if the recipi
paper, since consideration has been given ent participates actively and responsibly
to this question in other papers.8 in the process.
The conceptual framework of social 3. Respect for others, acceptance of
group work as a means for affecting the others as they are, and as potentially they
group process must be examined in rela can be, tends to induce between worker
tion to three major categories of concepts. and client, between the one who seeks
These categories are concepts pertaining to: and the one who offers help, a relation
(1) the basic values underlying practice and ship which is not only the medium for
the goals sought by the social group worker; educational counseling, but for a thera
(2) the nature of the group process and its peutic process.
4. Respect for others includes respect
significance for the individual and for so for their difference.
ciety; (3) the methodology of the social 5. Self-awareness is essential in under
group work process. standing others.
VALUES AND GOAL CONCEPTS 6. The individual has responsibility
not only for himself but toward the so
The value system on which social group ciety in which he lives.
work rests is fundamentally that on which
all social work endeavor is based. This is These concepts are as pertinent to the help
attested to very generally in the literature
ing process when afforded to groups of peo
of social group work. The definition ofple theas they are in casework. In them we find
function of die group worker formulated explicit expression of the beliefs implicit
in 1949 by a committee of the American in the Judeo-Christian religions and in the
Association of Group Workers embodies democratic
in ethos.
it this value system.4 These basic value con Concepts with respect to the goals and
cepts have been admirably stated byobjectives
Gor of the social group worker as he
don Hamilton in a paper entitled "Help relates himself purposively to groups fall
ing People—The Growth of a Profession." 5 a realm in which there is less agree
within
She enumerates the following as the "key ment than in that of the value system. The
concepts of social casework today": goals of the group worker must be related
s Harry H. Lerner and Herbert C. Kelman,to the many variables present in every
eds.,
"Group Method in Psychotherapy, Social Work and situation. The specific needs of in
group
Adult Education," The Journal of Social Issues, Vol.
8, No. 2 (1952).
dividual members, the purpose for which
Harris B. Peck and others, "The Group in Edu the group exists, the purposes and policies
cation, Group Work and Psychotherapy," American of the agency, the social sanctions of the
community, all are factors which must af
Journal of Orthopsychiatry, Vol. 24, Ño. 1 (January
1954), pp. 128-152. fect the objectives of the social group
Clara A. Kaiser, "Characteristics of Social Group
Work," The Social Welfare Forum, 1957 (New York: worker with respect to his function as a
Columbia University Press, 1957), p. 158. helping person. However, there are at least
* Grace L. Coyle, chairman, "Definition of the
three issues with regard to the goals of the
Function of the Group Worker," The Group, Vol.worker seeking to meet needs of human
11, No. 3 (May 1949), pp. 11-13.
s In Cora Kasius, ed., Social Work as Human Re beings through group experience which
lations (New York: Columbia University Press, 1949), pertain generally to the social group work
pp. 8-14. process in distinction to other purposive
APRIL 1958 69

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 KAISER:

ways of working with groups. The first nificance

of of the quality of the social
these concerns whether the objectives of the
processes engendered in group life and the
worker are directed primarily to contrib
intrinsic values of the group's activities,
there has been some tendency to subordi
uting to the adjustment and growth of the
individual member or whether they are also
nate the latter to the former ingredient in
directed toward the development of the pursuing the objectives of the social group
group as an instrument for achieving com
work process. Perhaps it is necessary to re
mon goals consonant with the values of think the concept of program activities as
human relations discussed above. If the tools or media rather than as ends in the
objectives of the social group worker are of developing the intellectual, so
process
equally directed toward individual and
cial, and emotional potentials of the indi
vidual
group movement, it profoundly affects the and the effectiveness of the group
basis on which the group worker usesinhim
accomplishing a progressively more
self and his knowledge and skill in meaningful
deter and significant task. These tasks
mining his goals with respect to a specific
should include the development of socially
aware
social situation. In my opinion this dualand effective citizens and the achieve
concern for the individual's needs and those
ment of socially useful group actions if
of the group as a network of interrelationgroup work is to fulfill its stated objectives.
ships is a concept which differentiates social
This focus in the objectives of social group
group work from other helping disciplines. work was ably set forth by Grace Coyle
The second issue related to goal conceptswhen she says:
in social group work has to do with the One of the primary functions of group
relative importance to be attached to the work is the attempt to build on the in
quality of the content of group program evitably social interests both of children
and the quality of the social interaction and adults a type of group experience
processes in group life. John Dewey's defi which will be individually developing
nition of education as "any change wrought and socially useful. By providing within
in an individual as a result of experience" 6 the group work agency for experience in
has often been interpreted to mean that group management, in cooperation for a
common interest, in collective behavior,
substantive knowledge is less important in
the agency can help its members to dis
the educational process than the feelings cover how to take their place in this or
resulting from a learning experience. The ganizational life of the community.8
psychological and emotional factors in the
With respect to this aspect of the objectives
growth process are also emphasized in psy
of social group work, we can trace the in
choanalytical theory. The definition of the
fluence of the social settlement movement
function of the group worker begins with
with its strong emphasis on the need for
the following sentence: "The group worker concerted action to eliminate and alleviate
enables various types of groups to function
the social conditions which were causing
in such a way that both group interaction
human deprivation and suffering.
and program activities contribute to the
The third issue with respect to goal or
growth of the individual and the achieve
objective concepts in social group work has
ment of desirable goals." 7 In spite of this
been sharpened by the increasing use of
affirmation of the indivisibility of the sig
social group work in medical, psychiatric,
and rehabilitation services. Are the goals
•John Lawrence Childs, "Educational Philosophy
of John Dewey," in John Lawrence Childs and Wil
of social group work oriented to therapy or
liam H. Kilpatrick, John Dewey as Educator (New 8 In "Group Work and Social Change," Proceed
York: Progressive Education Association, 1939), pp.ings of the National Conference of Social Work,
419-443. 19)5 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1935),
i Coyle, op. cit. pp. 395-6.

70 Social Work

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 Social Group Work Process
treatment of dysfunctioning of individuals clear. Is the answer to this problem that
or groups or to the development of poten the social scientist researcher on small
tials for growth, or are both within the groups is oriented to examining the group
sphere of this discipline? My answer to this process as it functions, and the social group
question is that social group work has both worker on methods to bring about change
therapeutic and developmental goals, but in group values and behavior? This differ
its processes are educative rather than clin ence in purpose of the social scientist and
ical in nature. Saul Scheidlinger has de the social group worker has served as a bar
fined this distinction as follows: rier in communication between them. There
It is useful to differentiate between are signs that this barrier is less formidable
than it was and that we can look forward
therapeutic effects accruing from a variety
to greater demonstration research that can
of mental hygiene-based group meas
be used for action purposes.
ures, and therapy in the sense of a psycho
In the development of principles and
logical process where specific techniques
are applied by trained practitioners to
methods of guiding and enabling groups to
deal with recognized areas of pathology.9
achieve the objectives discussed above, it
has been recognized that the social group
Not all members of our professional family
would make this distinction so sharp. work
Myprocess is not applicable to all forms
of group life. There was a tendency in the
reason for doing so is not for the purpose
earlier stages of the development of the
of drawing fine lines between group therapy
and group work, but because I feeltheoretical
that framework of group work to de
limit
social group work has its major contribu its application to groups with very
specific
tion to make in focusing on building on the attributes and purposes. More re
cently
ego strengths of individuals and on the the scope of social group work with
social health of groups. respect to the kinds of groups it serves has
been greatly expanded. On die other hand,
CONCEPTS WITH RESPECT TO in defining the role of the professional
GROUP PROCESSES group worker a distinction is now being
drawn between "working with groups" and
Since we have defined the social group work
engaging in the "process of social group
process as a purposive and disciplined way This distinction seems to me to be
work."
of affecting the group process, theresound
must provided that it is based on the
be some conceptual framework as methodology
to the of the worker and not on the
nature and forms of group life to characteristics
which of the group.
this process is pertinent. The small To face
be sure, social group work, like the
to-face group is increasingly becoming otherthesocial work methods, is practiced
subject of study and research by both the the institutional context of social
within
applied and the theoretical social sciences.
welfare, health, and educational agencies.
We can know much more about the socio
The number and variety of agencies which
logical and psychological properties and now
be afford group work services is increas
havior of groups than we could have ten ing rapidly. Many types of groups are
years ago. How fully or meaningfully thisserved in these agencies and by no means
new knowledge about the dynamics of all of them are served through the medium
group life has been incorporated into of thesocial group work. The reasons for this
concepts about how social group work aimsfact are manifold and they lie to a large
can be more effectively attained is far from
extent in the still uncharted realm of de

8 In "Social Group Work and Group Psycho

termining what kinds of individual and
group needs can best be met through the
therapy," Social Work, Vol. 1, No. 3 (July 1956),
p. 37. use of the professional disciplines of the

APRIL 1958 71

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 KAISER:

social group worker. They also lie in instiwith an agency. The groups within this
tutional conditions which sharply limit the structure will take many different forms,
availability of trained social group workers as to their specific purposes, as to their struc
for direct service to groups. This is an area ture, and as to the meaning they have for
in which there is an urgent need for re their members. Helen Phillips has defined
search as was evidenced in the pilot study the agency's function with regard to the
of social group work practice undertaken by groups within it clearly:
the Group Work Section of the National
Association of Social Workers in 1956.10 The function of the group work agency
is to provide group experiences—the kind
The concepts of social group work re of experience that, through appropriate
garding the meaning of group life for the structures and enabling leadership, will
individual and for society are to some ex contribute to the agency's purposes of
tent implicit in its objectives. Since the effecting the social growth of the group's
group is the unit of service, there is an participants and the development of
assumption that groups provide a medium group units in the direction of social use
for the satisfaction of basic needs of the fulness. The constant demand on the
individual and as a channel for affecting worker as he helps the members to de
velop both themselves as individuals and
the social structure. Group life is a perva
their groups is that he focus his attention
sive aspect of all human experience. The
on the group relations which the agency
individual personality is an abstraction out provides by its very function. The group
side of the social groups to which he be unit is the primary working base for the
longs; society does not exist apart from the worker's contribution to the fulfillment
groups which compose it. Any deliberate of agency purpose.11
effort to influence group life must of neces
sity be limited to those groups which accept The concepts of social group work re
and utilize the role and function of a help garding the nature of the group process are
ing person. The agency is the social strucderived both from the accumulated expe
ture within which such groups are formedrience in practice and from the social and
and function. behavioral sciences. Some principles or
In recent years emphasis has been placed assumptions with respect to group process
and behavior have been formulated and in
on servicing groups not affiliated with
agencies. The workers with such groups corporated into the body of knowledge un
have been designated "detached workers." derlying practice. These have to do with
This is probably a misnomer since the attributes of groups which seem most con
worker is not detached from the purpose of ducive to achieving the goals of the group
the agency in affording services to these work process. These attributes include how
groups but only from the physical or oper groups are formed, size of groups, degree of
ational aspects of the agency. In general, homogeneity with respect to age, sex, inter
social group work is a process which is ap ests, cultural background, expressed or im
plied in agency practice. The purposes andplicit purposes the group has for its mem
structure of the agency are therefore major bers, nature of interests for group activity,
factors in determining the kinds of groups group structure and controls, quality of in
with which social group work is employed. terpersonal relations, esprit de corps or
But individuals and groups have many difgroup feeling. Although social group work
has become much more aware of the essen
ferent purposes in identifying themselves
tial elements in group life, little or no
Gertrude Wilson, The Practice of Social Group
Work (New York: Practice Committee, Group Work 11 Helen U. Phillips, Essentials of Social Group
Section, National Association of Social Workers, Work Skill (New York: Association Press, 1957), pp.
1957). (Mimeographed.) 51-52.

72 Social Work

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 Social Group Work Process
empirical research has been undertaken to 1. The function of the social group
test our assumptions or predilections for worker is a helping or enabling function:
certain qualities of groups in relation to This means that his goal is to help the
goals which have been fairly clearly de members of the group and the group as a
lineated. That the need for such research whole to move toward greater independ
is clearly indicated may be seen in the inence and capacity for self-help.
creasing concern which practitioners, agen 2. In determining his way of helping,
the group worker uses the scientific
cies, and professional educators have with
method; factfinding (observation), ana
what seems to be the gap between theorylyzing, diagnosis in relation to the indi
and practice in social group work. Could
viduad, the group and the social environ
this gap be bridged by closer and more ef
ment.
fective collaboration between the social sci
3. The group work method includes
entists and social group workers in not onlythe worker forming purposeful relation
increasing knowledge of group phenomenaships to group members and the group:
but in improving our methods for enrichingThis includes a conscious focusing on
and repairing individual and group life?the needs of the members, on the purpose
We have already taken much from the so of the group as expressed by the members,
ciologists, psychiatrists, and social psycholoas expected by the sponsoring agency and
as implied in the members' behavior. It
gists. Perhaps it is time to give as well as is differentiated from a casual unfocused
take in this vital task of advancing the art
of human relations.
relationship.
4. One of the main tools in achieving
such a relationship is the conscious use of
METHODOLOGY self. This includes self-knowledge and
discipline in relationships without the
It is beyond the scope of this paperloss
to of warmth and spontaneity.
examine fully the concepts which underlie
5. There should be acceptance of peo
the methods and techniques of the social
ple without accepting all their behavior:
group work process. Within the last This
few involves the capacity for "empathy"
years a substantial number of books as well as the incorporation of societal
and
demands. It is the part of the method
articles dealing with social group work
that is most closely intertwined with a
theory and practice have contributed richly
high flexibility and abundance of warmth
to the methodological basis for practice.
in the social group worker as well as
This fact is especially remarkable since
identification with values and knowledge.
prior to the 1930's there was scarcely any
literature in the field and it testifies to the 6. Starting where the group is: The
capacity to let groups develop from their
vitality of this professional discipline. own point of departure, of capacity, with
Concepts pertinent to the methodology of out immediately imposing outside de
the social group work process have been mands.
succinctly and usefully set forth by Gisela 7. The constructive use of limitations:
Konopka in a paper presented at the Insti Limitations must be used judiciously in
tute on Group Work in the Psychiatric relation to individual and group needs
Setting in July 1955 as follows by what she and agency function. The forms will
describes as "guidelines and essential parts vary greatly. The group worker will
of the generic group work method." 12 mainly use himself, program materials,
interaction of the group and awakening
12 Gisela Konopka, "The Generic and the Specific
of insight in the group members.
8. Individualization: It is one of the
in Group Work Practice in the Psychiatric Setting,"
in Harleigh B. Trecker, ed., Group Work in the Psy specifics of the group work method that
chiatric Setting (New York: Whiteside Inc. and the individual is not lost in the whole,
William Morrow fe Company, 1956), pp. 21-22. but that he is helped to feel as a unique
APRIL 1958 73

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 KAISER:

person who can contribute to the whole. group work methodology which need
further formulation and scientific valida
9. Use of the interacting process: The
capacity to help balance the group, to tion, this is not the most urgent problem
allow for conflict when necessary and toconfronting the field. The chief problem
prevent it when harmful; the help given lies in bringing about a closer integration
to the isolate not only through individual
of the avowed goals of social group work
attention by the group worker alone but
also by relating him to other members.process with the scientific knowledge now
10. The understanding and conscious available about group life, and the formu
use of nonverbal as well as verbal mate lated methods and techniques for the pur
posive development of group processes and
rial: I especially put nonverbal material
relationships in practice in the ever ex
first, since the group worker deals a great
deal with this, especially in work with panding number and types of settings in
children. His capacity to use program which groups of people are being served.
materials, which do not demand verbalGroup life has potentialities for stultifying
expression and yet are helpful, should and
be restricting individual growth into pat
very wide. terns of rigid conformity or dependence as
well as for releasing and strengthening the
This delineation of principles guiding capacities of individuals. Group life may
social group work practice indicates how have a regressive and even destructive ef
deeply they are imbedded in the principles fect in our societal structure. In furthering
guiding all social work practice. It also social and mental health, we must become
reflects the body of knowledge which is es as knowledgeable and concerned with the
sential for the social worker who seeks to
causes of dysfunctioning of groups as we are
serve needs of people through group expe
with those of individuals and of our basic
rience. That group life can only be institutions.
in The increase in the number
fluenced by an understanding of the
of antisocial groups among youth and adults
psychosocial factors which affect it is a witness to this fact. The protest of
bears
fundamental principle in social group
such writers as William H. Whyte,13 against
work. The diagnostic process so basic the
to trend toward subordinating individual
all social work methods must in group work
creativity and initiative to group thinking
encompass the group as a unit of socialand re action in an increasingly bureaucra
lationships within the context of its social
tized society must be scrutinized by the
environment as well as the individuals who
social group workers as well as by the so
compose its membership. This involves forcial psychologists. More than any other
the group worker basic knowledge of the
applied social science, social group work
psychodynamics of both individual and has a responsibility to afford demonstrable
group behavior and of social processes and and discriminating evidence of how human
institutions. This knowledge must be in society can be bettered through services
corporated into the worker's use of himself
which enhance the meaning of group ex
as a helping person. Self-awareness andperience
a to individuals and which contrib
clear conception of his role in dealing with
ute to the achievement of the goals of a
group and individual needs are essential indemocratic society.
gredients in social group work practice. Social group work is still a new and
Understanding of educational theories andevolving discipline. Professional education
methods are also important elements in the for this area of social work practice has
group work process particularly with existed
re for barely three decades. The re
spect to the selection and development of
program content.
i3 The Organization Man (New York: Simon and
Although there are many areas of social Schuster, 1956).

74 Social Work

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Social Group Work Process
sponsibility for preparing creative and ef- professional education should be more fully
fective practitioners for professional service and effectively developed,
rests not only with the schools of social 5. The impact of differentials in agency
work but also with the agencies and the settings on practice should be analyzed so
bodies of professional workers. In sum- that both generic and specific elements in
marizing, I would like to suggest the fol- professional education may be incorporated
lowing tasks which these groups must un- into the curriculum.
dertake if social group work practice and 6. The content and emphasis in profes
professional education for it are to attain sional education curricula should be exam
the stature necessary to achieve their avowed ined in view of the preponderance of
goals. supervisory and administrative functions
1. There must be a clearer delineation carried by the great
of the focus of social group work objectives, social group worker
Is it a process directed to working with in- 7. Relationships
dividuals in groups or one working with with other professi
groups of individuals? social work and in related fields should be
2. The scientific basis of practice must more clearly defined and developed.
be broadened and deepened through better Social group work as a purposive process
integration of relevant knowledge from the for influencing the group process derives
social and behavorial sciences. its body of knowledge from multiple
3. Research techniques should be ap- sources. The most important responsibil
plied to the problems encountered in prac- ity practitioners and educators have is to
tice and to the measurement of movement integrate and synthesize this knowledge as
toward goals for groups and individuals. a means for effective service to human
4. Recording as a tool in practice and for beings.

APRIL 1958 75

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