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orPar
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MAEngl
i
shLi
ter
atur
e-UoS
TheAs
simi
l
at sbyAs
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mranShah

Subj
ect
sIncl
uded
 Moder
nDr
ama

 Moder
nPoet
ry

 Moder
nNovel

 Li
ter
aryCr
it
ici
sm

 Li
ter
aryEs
says
 Moder
nDr
ama
MAEngl
i
shLi
ter
atur
e-UoS
TheAs
simi
l
at sbyAs
or adI
mranShah

Wor
ksI
ncl
uded
HeddaGabl
er

Wai
ti
ngf
orGodot

Ar
msandTheMan

Cher
ryOr
char
d

TheSea

Cont
actt
heAut
hor
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ps:
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ite:
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50
Modern Drama – An Introduction
By Asad Imran
February 17, 2021
Categories: Modern Drama
Characteristics of Modern
Drama
To simply put, the modern drama is
the rejection of the already
established Elizabethan and
Greecian standards. Ibsen is the
father of modern drama.
Modern drama introduces the
themes of its own. Unlike classical
dramas that promoted the themes of
fate, it made the role of fate
irrelevant.
Modern drama gives a huge chunk
of significance to the people of the
lower class, working on wages.
While the older dramas showed the
characters belonging to the class of
nobility.
Influences Which Affected
Modern Dramatists
Industrialization was a minor factor
that propelled the writers’ shift from
classical dramas to form the modern
ones.
First World War proved the most
important factor behind the
establishment of modern dramas.
Common people and writers had
never experienced such bloodshed
at a mass scale. They started to
question the role of politics,
economics and religion on their
social as well as personal lives.
Auch behaviour can be easily traced
in the writings of these modern
dramatists.
The 3rd influence behind writing
modern dramas is considered to be
the psychological complex that was
introduced by Sigmund Freud. This
psychological complex deals with
the role of subconscious instinct in
making decisions at the conscious
level. He argues that Oedipus had
married his mother unknowingly but
at the subconscious level, he may
have shown the desire to marry his
mother at sone point. As life has
grown from simple to complex, so
do the modern dramatists. The
influence of subconscious instinct
can be easily traced in their modern
genius.
Literary Movements of
Modern Drama
Realism: In this literary movement,
writers wrote about the common-day
people but they accepted the role of
God and religion in their characters’
lives.
Naturalism: Just like Realists, their
setting showcased ordinary
environments with contemporary
whereabouts. But they challenged
religion and replaced it with politics
Henric Ibsen – An Introduction
and economics. They were in the
view of:
Your fate does not punish you.
Our new institutions are new gods.
Surrealism: This literary movement
was rin against the first world war.
They believed that political and
economical instability was not solely
responsible for the war. Our
subconscious desires were equally
behind it. They expressed their views
through painting surrealistic
objects.
Dadaism: This literary movement
came as an aftermath of surrealism
but Dadaists expressed themselves
through their literary work instead of
painting.
Source
Lecture of Sir Hassan Akbar
By Asad Imran
February 18, 2021
Categories: Modern Drama
He was born in Norway at 1824.
He is considered a realist, naturalist
and existentialist (the one who
explores the origins of everything).
His writings also deal with the social
issues of his time.
He gave the idea that a theatre can
be more than just a place for
entertainment.
Influences behind his dramas:
His Marriage
His Leaving Norway
His Love Affair at the age of sixty
Isben’s writing career spans from
1850 to 1899. He wrote a significant
amount of plays. His dramatic career Hedda Gabler
is divided into these phases:
The first phase: In the first phase, he
wrote plays in verse.
Plays: Brand and Peer Gint
The Second Phase: Isben’s second
phase was centred around
highlighting social issues of his
society. A Doll’s House is one of the
most prominent plays of this phase.
Ghosts, Enemy of The People are
also some honourable mentions for
this dramatic period.
The Third Phase: In hia third literary
phase: he wrote in response to the
criticism he received. A high
emphasis on symbolism is present
in this phase.
Notable Dramas of This Phase:
Lady from the Sea
When We Dead Awaken
Just like Shakespeare, Ibsen also
portrays the good and the bad about
a particular society.

GB Shaw – An Introduction

By Asad Imran
April 10, 2021
Categories: Modern Drama

critic of music anr literature,

dramatist, an actor and a socialist.
GB Shaw did not like to be called
Through his pen, he tried to make
George. He, rather wrote his name as
Man capable of putting the myths of
Bernard Shaw.
his forefathers to an intellectual
He was an Irish just like Jonathan
test.
Swift.
He was born in July 26th, 1856 and
Shaw is best known for his plays. In
he died in November 2nd, 1950.
fact, he is known as the second-best
dramatist after Shakespeare. His Life
His plays were controversial since
Shaw did not enjoy a happy
these plays dealt with untalked
childhood because of financial
realities of life. That is why, Oscar
problems.
Wilde had said,
He was taught by his mother and his
“He had no enemies but none of his
uncle. His mother taught him music
friends liked him. “
and she was taught by her friend
He was a multi-dimensional who lived with them.
personality for he was a novelist, a
He worked in a land office for some
time.
His liking of literature, arts and
music was influenced by his mother.
He was a critic first. Then, he tried to
fasten his footsteps as a novelist but
his novels were not an instant
success.
In 1884, he joined a Fabian Society
to promote Socialism through his
pen without any violent revolutions.
It brought his identity as a good
orator.
Writing Career
Shaw divides his plays into two
kinds,
Pleasant Plays: The plays that dealt
with unpleasant ideas or topics in a
pleasant or a humorous way.
Examples:
1. Arms and The Man
2. The Man of Destiny
3. You never Can Tell
Unpleasant Plays: These plays were
criticized by the society because
tbese plays discussed the prohibited
topics of that time in public like
prostitution and charity.
Examples of Unpleasant Plays
1. Widower’s Houses
2. Flatterer
3. Mrs. Warren’s Professions
Shaw states his notion of moving to
present “pleasant” plays as thus,
“If you want people to tell the truth,
make them laugh or else they will kill
you. “
Most Popular Plays
1. Man and Superman
2. St. John (a historical play)
3. Doctor’s Dilemma
4. Barbara
5. Caesar and Cleopatra (a different
representation of a
Shakespearean play in which
Shaw gives a true-to-life account
of s romantic girl).
GB Shaw is the only literary figure in
the history of English Literature who
won Oscar and Nobel Prize in
literature.
Symbols of Pistols, Manuscript and Vine Leaves in
Hedda Gabler
By Asad Imran
May 1, 2021
Categories: Modern Drama
Introductory
Hedda Gabler is one of the finest
creations of Henrik Ibsen, the one
who laid down the foundation of
modern drama. The play was first
published in the 1890 while it was
first performed on January 31, 1891
in Germany. Hedda Gabler is a story
of a woman who feels insecure in
her conventional society. Hedda
seems encaged in her society while
the men like Judge Brack and
Loevborg are free enough to form a
triangular relationship with her. The
effect of the story is magnified
through the use of symbols. This
play is repeated with symbols:
symbols from Hedda’s pistols to
Loevborg’s Crown of Wine Leaves
and to the “child” of both Loevborg
and Thea. Let’s explore each symbol
one by one in detail.
Gabler’s Pistols
Anton Chekhov, a contemporary to
Ibsen once stated that,
One must not put a loaded rifle on
the stage if no one is thinking of
firing it.
And the play features the very
maxim justly and appropriately.
Hedda has inherited a pair of the
exactly looking pistols, that she calls
her “Hero Props”, from her father
General Gabler. She uses her
handguns as a means to keep men
at arm’s length both figuratively and
in her real life. Her husband, who is
not aware about the life of Hedda,
feels worried about Hedda playing
with her firearms because she is left
with no other activity to amuse
herself. She shows her desire for a
horse which Tesman denies due to
his obvious financial uncertainty,
HEDDA.
And the saddle-horse I was to
have had—
TESMAN.
The saddle-horse!
HEDDA.
—I suppose I must not think of
that now.
TESMAN.
Good heavens, no!—that’s as
clear as daylight!
And when Hedda reveals her source
of amazement to Tasman, he rushes
towards Hedda in anxiety,
No, for heaven’s sake, Hedda
darling—don’t touch those
dangerous things! For my sake
Hedda! Eh?
In the second act, we see Hedda
pointing one of her pistols at Judge
Brack. That is how we learn that how
Hedda used to keep her “admirers”
away. Once, Loevborg tried to have a
sexual dominance over her but she
threatened him to shoot due to his
misconduct. Also, we see how
Hedda’s pistols become a source for
Judge Brack to blackmail Hedda to
submit to his illicit desires when he
finds out that it was Hedda’s pistol
that took the life of Loevborg. But
Hedda could not afford to be
dependent upon a man of shady
character, she said in a triumphant
way,
I am in your power none the less.
Subject to your will and your
demands. A slave, a slave then!
No, I cannot endure the thought
of that! Never!
To prove her stance, Hedda uses her
pistols as a defence to free herself
from the dirty hands of Brack. Her
self-killing is a symbol of retaining
her independence.
Loevborg’s Manuscript
Loevborg’s manuscript holds a
different meaning for different
characters in the play. First of all, the brings Thea and Tesman more
manuscript is a sequel to his History closer to each other. Thus, putting
of Civilization in which he asserts his her own marriage at stake.
predictions for the future and how
societies will change over time. For Tesman’s Stove and Fire
Elnert, his manuscript is a gateway
In the play, Hedda is profoundly
to the acceptance of himself in his
associated with fire which mostly
society and a new start of his social
comes as a result of her jealousy or
life after so many misadventures in
her insecurity. For instance, she
his past. Thea sees the manuscript
rushes towards the stove in Act 1 to
as a result of their joint venture and
protect herself from the slippers of
her victory of reforming Loevborg
Tesman (speaking of Tesman’s old
successfully. She even calls the
slippers, they have been used as a
manuscript their “child” . Which
symbol of Tesman’s past memories
again infuriates Hedda who is
with Aunt Juju and Aunt Rina).
jealous of Thea’s screaming
Hedda is also depicted using the
success. In order to destroy their
stove to burn the manuscript out of
peace, Hedda decides to burn the
her jealousy with Thea. In fact, in her
manuscript in a very spooky
past school days, she used to
dialogue:
threaten Thea to burn her abundant

Now I am burning your child, locks:

Thea!—Burning it, curly-locks!
once you said you would burn it

The manuscript also serves as a off my head.

symbol to acquire a foster father in

So, Hedda’s inner fire of jealousy
the form of Tesman who strives to
gives vent to many mishappenings
reconstruct the burnt manuscript
in the play.
through the help of Thea.
Resultantly, Hedda’s own decision Vine Leaves
Vine leaves are symbolized for the
mis-adventures of Loevborg in his
past life of drunkenness, his
relationship with Diana and of
course the parties. Vine leaves has
been borrowed from a Greek
mythology linked to Dionysus, a god
of wine and fertility who was
depicted wearing a crown of vine
leaves on his head. Hedda uses the
very phrase off and on during her
private conversations with Loevborg.
In this context, we can say that
Hedda’s advice of wearing a crown
of vine leaves means that Loevborg
should return to his rough past so
that she should be able to fulfil her
dream of “shaping a man’s destiny”.
Manifestly, symbolism plays a key
role in highlighting Hedda’s inner
melancholy as well as duality found
within the men of Norwegian society
of that time in the particular play.
The classical references add up to
the figurative beauty of the play.
Sources and Suggested
Readings
1. Lectures of Sir Hassan Akbar
2. https://www.shmoop.com/study-
guides/literature/hedda-
gabler/analysis/symbolism-
imagery-allegory
3. https://www.coursehero.com/lit/H
Gabler/symbols/
4. https://www.litcharts.com/lit/hedd

Conclusion gabler/symbols

Character Sketch of Hedda Tesman Gabler

By Asad Imran
May 2, 2021
Categories: Modern Drama

Who is Hedda Tesman?

The character of Hedda Gabler or led to many mishaps happening in
Hedda Tesman has always been a the play.
topic of heated discussion among
scholars and literary critics. Some Is Hedda, Tesman or Gabler?
regard her as a neurotic figure while
Hedda is both known as Hedda
others try to justify her boredom.
Gabler and Hedda Tesman in the
Hedda is a complex character with a
play but the prominence lies in the
complex state of mind. Driven by the
first name. The name Hedda Gabler
closely-knit morality of the Victorian
hints at Hedda’s being the daughter
Society. Before discussing at length
of General Gabler. But it also hints at
about her character, first, we have to
her insecure past. That is why, she
trace down who Hedda Tesman or
commands Loevborg to call her
Hedda Gabler actually is?
Hedda Tesman, not Hedda Gabler:

Hedda Gabler is the only daughter of
General Gabler. After the death of
her father, she is left alone and
subjected to the hearsays of her
society. She could have married a
miss-adventurous person like
Loevborg but her society did not
LOVBORG.
And I must teach myself never to
say Hedda Gabler again—never,
as long as I live.
HEDDA.
Yes, you must. And I think you

permit her to do so. She married ought to practise in time. The

sooner the better, I should say.
Tesman because of acclaiming
social protection. Hedda is
Thus, it is clear that Hedda does not
manipulative in many ways but her
want to reopen a closed chapter of
manipulation only centres around
her past. But it is noteworthy that the
relieving her boredom. But
married women were not expected
objectively speaking, Hedda’s
to be called by their original names.
attempts of attaining amazement
There was always a reference added
to the names of their husbands. That
is why, calling Hedda, Hedda
Tesman was more appropriate as a
married woman instead of calling
her Hedda Gabler.
Her Physical Charm
Hedda Tesman boasts some serious
physical beauty that sets her apart
from the rest of the crowd. Aunt Juju
and Bartha are the first ones in the
play to be marvelled by her striking
beauty,
Hedda Gabler — the beautiful
Hedda Gabler! Only think of it—
she, that was so beset with
admirers! (Aunt Juju)
It is through Aunt Juju we learn that
Hedda’s majestic posture during
horse riding amassed a lot of
admirers for her. If Hedda had been
a man of the Late-Victorian Era, wise, precious house for Hedda but she
charming, bold and of noble-birth, he
would have led a boredom-free life.
But still, her attractive personality
compels Loevborg to complain
about Hedda’s choice of marrying
George Tesman.
Dark Side of Hedda Gabler
On the surface, Hedda Gabler looks
exactly like a vicious character. She
is manipulative, dishonest, hypocrite,
stern-mouthed and jealous. She is
jealous of the success of others. For
instance, when Thea is successful
enough in reforming Loevborg from
his drinking, Hedda, in a fit of
jealousy, proclaims:
I will burn your hair after all.
Hedda is dishonest in what she says
and what she actually does. For
instance, she asks Tesman to go
and write a long letter to Loevborg.
But she opens up her heart to Thea
by telling her that she did so to keep
her husband away from her. Tesman
has bought an expensive and
does not care much about it. She
keeps on persuading Tesman that
the house is good but in her private
conversations, we learn that she
does not pay a heed to what her
husband has purchased out of his
financial limitations.
Hedda is stern-mouthed. She does
not have any regards for the feelings
of the older people and things
belonging to them. When she sees
Aunt Juju’s bonnet, Hedda remarks
sternly:
Look there! She (the servant) has
left her old bonnet lying about on
a chair.
Hedda is utterly manipulative and
that adds up to the dark side of her
character. As stated before, Hedda is
not particularly happy about
Loevborg’s reforms. She knowingly
provokes Loevborg to go in
Bachelors Party and to wear a crown
of vine leaves. But he fails miserably.
After his failure, Hedda lulls him to
commit suicide; gives him her pistol
and commands him that he should
“do it beautifully”. How to do it
beautifully, you may ask: by simply
firing a bullet at his temple (head).
But she is disillusioned when her
pistol goes off accidentally and kills
Loevborf in the scaffold. Thus,
Hedda Gabler does look like an
antagonist but every coin has
another side of it as well.
Her Fear of Scandals
Hedda is reasonably fearful of
scandals. Why? Simply because she
wants to retain her good name in the
Victorian society which was
ridiculously conscious of morality.
Hedda married Tesman to avoid
scandals that are usually associated
with an unmarried girl even in our
society. Similarly, when Brack finds
out about the pistol that was given
to Loevborg belonged to Hedda.
Brack sought an opportunity to
manipulate Hedda through her fear
of scandals,
BRACK.
Well, Hedda—then comes the
scandal!
HEDDA.
The scandal!
BRACK.
 Yes, the scandal—of which you
are so mortally afraid.
Hedda’s fear of scandals was a
normal act of any woman who
belonged to the Victorian Era (or our
society).
In Defence of Hedda Gabler
Before announcing Hedda Gabler as
an apostle of evil, we have to see her
human side first. Her major problem
is her boredom. She herself claims
that she is bored to death. The
women of the Victorian Era were
granted little to no freedom as
compared to men of that era.
Women were not allowed to take
part in politics. They were not
permitted to go into bachelor’s
parties like men. Travelling alone
was not considered suitable for
them. Their duty was to be a
subordinate to their husbands. A
woman like Hedda would usually
feel bored of her household life. That
is why, she tried to know about the
misadventures of men through
Loevborg in the past. But she
remained fearful of society that what
will the society think when they learn
about the relationship between
Hedda and Loevborg? It was her fear
of scandal that provoked her to
threaten Loevborg due to his sexual
advancements.
This fear is still a ruling factor in the
play for Hedda. She points one of
her armguns at Brack to keep him
away from her. She gives Loevborg
her pistols after he loses the
manuscript in his intoxicated
condition only for a reason to put an
end on the chapter of Loevborg’s
past life and his link with Hedda.
Critics on Hedda Gabler
The character of Hedda has been a
subject of controversy since its
creation. Some critics come in
favour of Hedda while others do not
even hesitate to call her a neurotic
figure. A review in The Ledger reads
as thus:
What a hopeless specimen of
degeneracy is Hedda Gabler! A
 vicious, heartless, cowardly,
unmoral, mischief-making vixen.
Another review in New York Suns
ridicules the play as below:
What a marvel of stupidity and
nonsense the author did produce
in this play!
A review in London Sunday Times
favours the play and character of
Hedda as follows:
Hedda Gabler appears a
wonderful work of art, one that
must produce a profound
impression upon those who will
accustom themselves to regard a
stage-play from the point of view
of real, living character in actual
contact with the facts and
sensations and possibilities of
human experience, instead of
gauging it by the conventional
standard of playmaking, or the
superficial observation of
ordinary social intercourse. Ibsen
has a way of going to the root of
the matter, and exposing the
skeleton in the cupboard, which is
certainly not always a pleasant
sight. But life, with its infinite
subtleties and inconsistencies, is
always interesting, and Ibsen
shows the wonder and the pity of
it, while perhaps he only infers its
loveliness by contrast. But therein
he proves himself a master artist,
for his point of view is definite,
and the impression he produces
is complete and final. In Hedda
Gabler he gives us a typical
tragedy of modern life, and in the
strange, sensitive, selfish heroine,
he presents one of the most
wonderful and subtle
conceptions of woman in the
whole range of dramatic
literature.
That long slab of text surely justifies
the legitimacy of this play and
Hedda’s character.
Is Hedda’s Suicide Tragic?
The play ends with Hedda
committing suicide by shooting
herself in the temple. There can be
numerous reasons behind her
commitment. One can be to prove
her courage; to put an end to her
boredom; to not to be “plagued with
any responsibilities” (children in this
case) and to silence Judge Brack
and his blackmailing. But the
question arises, is Hedda’s
committing suicide makes her a
tragic character? The answer is as
complex as her character. Her
suicide is tragic in the sense that her
limited exposure in society compels
her to do questionable deeds. If her
society was lenient towards women,
such things would not have
happened. And she could have
accepted her limitations and lived
peacefully but this would drop her
rank as the Hedda Gabler.
Conclusion
Hedda is a character of great
complexity. Despite her inhumane
characteristics, she shows some
human side of it. Let’s sum it up in
Ibsen’s own words for Hedda:
What I principally wanted to do
was to depict human beings,
human emotions, and human
destinies, upon groundwork of
certain of the social conditions
and principles of the present day.
Sources and Suggested
Readings
1. Lectures of Sir Hassan Akbar
2. https://www.shmoop.com/study-
guides/literature/hedda-
gabler/hedda-tesman
3. http://myenglish62.blogspot.com/
sketch-of-hedda-gabler.html
4. https://www.wikiwand.com/en/He
5. Literary Criticism – KM Literary
Series – Hedda Gabler – Page
366

Significance of the Title in Hedda Gabler

By Asad Imran
May 3, 2021
Categories: Modern Drama

has some positive hidden in her.

Introductory Firstly, she does not fake her
feelings. Hedda says it directly to the
Ibsen’s Hedda Gabler is a play that
characters whom she (hardly) trusts.
hides many meanings as well as a
We have seen in old plays how a
historical context. The title of Hedda
character reveals his inner self
Gabler holds both a reference to
through soliloquies and monologue
Hedda’s personality, her individuality
but Hedda is bold enough to let her
and the social background in which
surroundings know about her true
Hedda was living. The story in
intentions. For instance, she burns
Hedda Gabler is centred around a
the manuscript in isolation but she
Norwegian woman Hedda Gabler
does not hesitate to reveal it to her
who is “bored to death” because she
husband on the pretext of her care
has nothing left to do that would
for him,
make her equal to men.

Tesman.

But how could you do anything so

Hedda’s Personality
The name Hedda Gabler primarily
hints at the protagonist of the play
and her personality. Hedda as a
character is an embodiment of both
good as well as bad qualities. She is
unheard-of? What put it into your
head? What possessed you?
Answer me that—eh?
HEDDA.
I did it for your sake, George.

utterly manipulative; jealous of

So, it is evident that Hedda does not
other’s success as well as hypocrite.
hide her actions but she can fake her
We have talked about her dark side
intentions behind it.
in detail in her character sketch that
you can see here. But Hedda also Hedda’s Individuality
When Ibsen was asked that why did
he choose Hedda Gabler as a title
for his play, he responded in these
words:
My intention in giving it this name
was to indicate that Hedda as a
personality is to be regarded
rather as her father’s daughter
than as her husband’s wife.
But the debate is not limited to the
“regard” but to Hedda’s Individuality.
Hedda is miles apart from George
Tesman in regard to her interests.
Speaking of interests, Hedda does
not take into consideration the
things that are of great importance
in the eyes of Tesman. That is why
Hedda abhors Tesman’s slippers.
Hedda even dislikes the idea of Aunt
Juju that Hedda belongs to the
Tesmans. Thus, the play showcases
the constant struggle of Hedda
Gabler to separate herself from the
rest of the crowd.
Social Background
“Hedda Gabler” is a title that is a
stout reference to the social and
historical background of the era of
which the play is a representative of.
Yes, we are alluding to the infamous
Victorian Era and its dual standards
of morality. Hedda’s problem is her
boredom because she is deemed
unsuitable for the fulfilment of her
“manly” desires. The character and
the title of Hedda Gabler indicates at
the horrible outcome of the
limitations that are inflicted upon the
women of higher class. Freedom is
usually their main concern and when
it is not fulfilled, unfortunate events
are bound to take place.
Conclusion
Consequently, the title of this play
hints directly at the main dramatic
personage, her individuality and
most importantly, the final social
message of this play and the final
message is obvious, freedom of
occupation and life is essential to
run the business of life with ensured
smoothness.
Sources and Suggested
Readings
1. Lecture of Sir Hassan Akbar
2. https://www.shmoop.com/study-
guides/literature/hedda-
Role of Female Characters in Hedda Gabler
By Asad Imran
May 5, 2021
Categories: Modern Drama
Introductory
Hedda Gabler, a play most renowned
for its character Hedda and her
quest to end her boredom is often
associated with feminism by many
critics as well as literary scholars.
Although Ibsen did not want to get
this play labelled as a feminist play,
yet there are certain elements that
hint at the feminist outlook but
certain elements defy its feministic
outlook altogether. To understand
whether this play is an outcome of
the feminist thoughts or not, we will
have to look at the role of female
characters that are present in the
gabler/analysis/title
play and the historical context
behind it.
Context
During the 1870s different
movements caught fire in Europe,
demanding basic rights. For
instance, in 1871, Denmark led the
Scandinavian countries to establish
an organization for the improvement
of the status of women in their
respective societies. Even Norway
had a working organization for
women in the 1880s. It is said that
Ibsen himself contributed to the
movement. However, he denied any
charge of being a feminist, said he,
 A woman cannot be herself in the
society of the present day, which
is an exclusively a mescaline
society, with laws framed by men
and with judicial system that
judges feminine conduct from a
mescaline point of view.
This statement by Ibsen clearly
demonstrates his not-so-feminist
outlook.
Feminism means demanding of
equal rights like those of men and
such scenarios are somewhat
present in the play, not in
characters.
Role of Aunt Jullia (a.k.a Aunt
Juju)
Aunt Juju lead a single life. But with
a purpose in mind. Her purpose is
vividly presented before us in the
form of taking care of the invalids.
Before the marriage of her nephew,
Aunt Juju took care of her sister,
Rina. After the death of Aunt Rina in
the play, Aunt Juju decides to look
after another will-be invalid,
indicating indirectly at Hedda’s
present pregnancy. Juju’s decision of
taking care of invalids may or can
directly hint at the possibility of
Juju’s intention of creating a good
name in the eyes of others. Because
taking care of the invalids hold a
significant social boost as compared
to her decision of living a life of
isolation. Or Juju just accepted the
limitations imposed by her society to
do what her society permitted.
Role of Thea
The role of Thea Elvested as a
woman both represents the
acceptance of the boundaries
formulated by society and breaking
them for the sake of Man in Miss-
adventures. Thea marries an elder
man because the choices provided
through her society are limited. But
Thea is couragous enough to break
the bond of marriage to become a
source of inspiration for a man of
stained personality in his
corresponding society to give up his
meetings with prostitutes and
drinking and to rise back in his
society as an author and a prophecy
maker. Thea Elvested also does not
feel shy to work with a married
person like Tesman to reconstruct
the burnt book.
Role of Hedda Gabler
The role of Hedda Gabler as a
woman is not easy. The problem
with Hedda is she does not like the
conventions set by her society but
she is not courageous enough to
break them because she is afraid of
the fear of scandals and society
taking her name in a negative sense.
When Loevborg titles her as “a
coward at heart”, Hedda replies that
she is not a coward at heart but she
feared society before taking a
stance to kill him. Similarly, Hedda’s
decision to get married to a “rake”
like Tesman was not governed by
her personal liking of him, but of her
society that made it mandatory for a
girl of her age to get married. Hedda
herself alluded that her time was up.
She could not remain independent
for long. But her forced marriage
turned out to be the biggest reason
for her boredom.
Hedda revolted sternly against the
concept of being a housewife after
marriage. She rejected every single
idea that indicated her as her being a
housewife. For instance, she did not
like to stay awakened late at night
for her husband’s return from
Bachelor’s Party. There is no stouter
evidence than Hedda’s disdainment
with her pregnancy. She openly
rejected the idea of being a mother:
I don’t want any —-
responsibilities.
Here, Responsibilities is used both
literally for her upcoming child as
well as her domestic duties.
Hedda wanted to do the work that
was dedicated only to men, for
instance, being a horse rider or
taking part in politics. Hedda is the
character that gave the play a semi-
feminist outlook. But her chief desire
to “shape a Man’s destiny” did not
work out well for her and after being
caught in her own trap, she ended
her life, thus setting her role as a
courageous woman, defying Brack’s
maxim that “they don’t do such 1. https://persestudio.org/2018/01/2
things”. what-extent-is-ibsens-hedda-
gabler-a-feminist-play/
Conclusion 2. https://www.shmoop.com/study-
guides/literature/hedda-
The role of female characters in
gabler/themes/women-and-
Hedda Gabler or in any other play of
femininity
Ibsen shows a clear struggle of
3. Gender in Hedda Gabler – KM
women to get abreast of men; to get
Literary Series – Hedda Gabler –
social acceptace in their society and
Page 306
to acquire freedom like men.
4. Lectures of Sir Hassan Akbar
Sources and Suggested
Readings

Hedda Gabler as a (Liberal) Tragedy

By Asad Imran
May 6, 2021
Categories: Modern Drama

Gabler is a tragedy but of a different

Introduction kind. It is sometimes referred as a
liberal tragedy. Liberal tragedy is a
Hedda Gabler as a dramatic
kind of tragedy in which the
personage has many things in
protagonist is depicted to fight
common to that of a tragic hero.
against the set rules of a society.
From her social responsibility to her
Hedda, in this regard, is a liberal
mortal boredom to her manipulative
tragic heroine because she may not
tactics and to her suicide. Hedda
be acceptable in her society due to
her masculine traits. Like many other
tragic characters, Hedda suffers
from internal as well as external
conflicts. Internal conflicts in the
sense of her boredom and the
mental agony of being unable to
perform the deeds that Hedds
herself desired while the external
conflicts are the limitations of her
rigid society upon women of her
age.
Hedda’s Noble Birth
Just like classical tragedies, Hedda
Gabler belongs to a noble family or
the family of the upper class. To
simply put, Hedda is the daughter of
a reverential general known as
General Gabler. He leaves behind a
pair of pistols, a writing desk and a
piano that are also seen in Tesman’s
house when Hedda is married to
George Tesman. These left-outs
serve as a decent symbol to carry
out different meanings of the play.
For instance, in the setting of Act 1,
we see Hedda’s piano placed in the
drawing-room but in Act 2, we are
made noticed about the change that
the piano has been changed by a
small writing table, that might be
possibly dedicated for Tesman, thus
putting the importance of Hedda
Gabler at the side and we practically
see this in action in Act 4 when
Tesman and Thea are reconstructing
the burnt book of Loevborg. Tesman
bluntly says to Hedda that she is no
more useful to them:
HEDDA.
Is there nothing I can do to help
you two?
TESMAN.
No, nothing in the world.
Peripetia in Hedda Gabler
A tragedy is incomplete without the
element of Peripeteia in it. Peripeteia
means the sudden reversal of a
situation that brings about the tragic
ending of the play or the character.
Hedda Gabler is no exception in
regard to Peripeteia. We see in the
play that Hedda wants to shape a
man’s destiny. She cannot exert it questions but for your ease, it is given
upon her husband because she tried below:
and failed. So, Hedda shifts her
The play ends with Hedda
expectations and manipulative
committing suicide by shooting
tactics to newly reformed Loevborg.
herself in the temple. There can be
At first, she coaxes him to go into
numerous reasons behind her
the Bachelor’s party and to have a
commitment. One can be to prove
crown of vine leaves. But in return,
her courage; to put an end on her
he lost the manuscript during the
boredom; to not to be “plagued with
process of excessive drinking. This
any responsibilities” (children in this
distains Hedda but she gives him
case) and to silence Judge Brack
one pistol to die “beautifully”. But the
and his blackmailing. But the
situation changes and the one who
question arises, is Hedda’s
was trying to shape the destiny of a
committing suicide makes her a
person, is herself caught in the trap
tragic character? The answer is as
of dominance. She becomes fully in
complex as her character. Her
control of Judge Brack after he
suicide is tragic in the sense that her
reveals that the pistol that
limited exposure in society compels
accidentally went off, killing
her to do questionable deeds. If her
Loevborg, belonged to her. Hedda
society was lenient towards women,
realized that she could do nothing to
such things would not have
escape from his grip but she found a
happened. And she could have
way to get out of the Peripeteia and
accepted her limitations and lived
it was the suicide.
peacefully but this would drop her
rank as the Hedda Gabler.
Hedda’s Suicide
Conclusion
So far, this topic has already been
discussed in one of the previous The manifestation of the discussion
stated above marks Hedda Gabler as
a tragic play but in the modern 2. https://www.facebook.com/32536
sense. Through the tragic character gabler-a-modern-tragedyhenrik-
of Hedda Gabler, Ibsen wants to ibsens-hedda-gabler-is-a-
emphasize that the female definitive-look-
characters or protagonists can be at-/707404356732005/
equally tragic as men. 3. https://www.shmoop.com/study-
guides/literature/hedda-
Sources and Suggested gabler/analysis/genre
Readings 4. Lectures of Sir Hassan Akbar
5. Hedda Gabler as a Tragedy – KM
1. http://www.askliterature.com/drama/henrik-
Literary Series – Hedda Gabler –
ibsen/hedda-gabler/hedda-gabler-
Page 302
as-tragedy/

Shaw’s Anti-Romantic Ideas about War and Love in

Arms and the Man

By Asad Imran
May 8, 2021
Categories: Modern Drama

at Avenue Theatre. The story of this

Introductory play revolves around an unmarried
lady, Raina, a Serbian fugitive
Arms and the Man by George
Bluntschli, Raina’s fiance Sergius and
Bernard Shaw is a well-renowned
Raina’s maidservant, Luka. Each
play for its eye-opening ideas
character represents a different view
debunking traditional viewpoint
on love and war. But Bluntschli and
concerning war and love. The play
appeared in a performance in 1894
Luka are the mouthpiece of Bernard
Shaw’s socialist ideas.
Romantic Ideas about War
The play opens with Raina and her
mother, Catherine rejoicing over the
victory of Bulgarian soldiers through
the means of Sergius. Their
conversation is marked with an
intense feeling of patriotism and
enthusiasm for their country and
Raina regrets that her gender does
not allow her to do the deeds of
valour on the battlefield like Sergius,
whom her mother terms as the “idol
of the regiment”:
Our ideas of what Sergius would
do—our patriotism—our heroic
ideals. Oh, what faithless little
creatures girls are!—I sometimes
used to doubt whether they were
anything but dreams. When I
buckled on Sergius’s sword he
looked so noble: it was treason to
think of disillusion or humiliation
or failure. (Raina)
Raina also has her romantic notion
regarding the role and
characteristics of a soldier.
According to her, a soldier of their
country is brave, courageous and is
not afraid of death while the soldiers
on the opposite line are coward as
well as afraid of death:
Some soldiers, I know, are afraid
of death. (Raina)
Bluntschli comes up as a
mouthpiece of Shaw to make us, the
readers acquainted with Shaw’s anti-
romantic ideas about war and to
make Raina realize the true nature of
war. Bluntschli is a Serbian fugitive
who takes shelter in Raina’s room
after the cavalry charge. Bluntschli is
an old but experienced soldier. He
reflects the true picture of Sergius
and his rash cavalry charge before
Raina as thus:
Ah, perhaps not—of course. Well,
it’s a funny sight. It’s like slinging
a handful of peas against a
windowpane: first one comes;
then two or three close behind
 him; and then all the rest in a
lump. (Bluntschli)
He, then demonstrates that it was
Sergius’ luck that made their cavalry
charge a success as the Serbian
soldiers had run out of ammunition.
Bluntschli’s views on war are
realistic and bitter. He asserts that
all soldiers are afraid to die because
they are human beings and fear is
equally present in everyone.
Secondly, he proves that even a
cloak can be a formidable weapon to
control an opponent like Raina to
prevent her from shouting lest she
should be seen in her nightdress.
Bluntschli also highlights two kinds
of soldiers: Old Soldiers and new
soldiers. Young soldiers are brave,
rash and fond of ammunition while
the old ones are mature and take
food along with them because food
is far essential in war than
weapons.
Romantic Ideas about Love
The second most prominent theme
of this play is love or more
specifically, “higher love”. Raina also
exhibits her usual romantic or
remote-to-life perception of love.
What is higher love? According to
Raina, it is to remember her loved
one all the time and to be devoted:
And you have never been absent
from my thoughts for a moment.
(Very solemnly.) Sergius: I think
we two have found the higher
love.
But, love as a passion is ridiculed by
the main protagonists of the play.
Both Raina and Sergius are paying
only a lip service. Raina is seen
shifting her attention from the first
act when she calls Bluntschli her
“Chocolate Cream Soldier”. While
Sergius is seen flirting with Luka, the
maidservant of Raina in the back of
Raina. In the company of Louka,
Sergius admits that he is sick of the
concept of higher love:
Very fatiguing thing to keep up for
any length of time, Louka. One
feels the need of some relief after
it.
It is obvious that both Raina and I would dare to be the equal of my
Sergius are toying with the very inferior.
concept of love.
Louka clearly mocks the mentality of
Love, in this play, is perceived
queens as their option to love
differently through different
someone is limited to princes only.
characters. For Raina, it is a
But she is directly hitting at Sergius
romantic bliss; for Sergius, it is a
for being utterly class conscious in
fatiguing passion; for Luka, it is an
the matters of love. Her single
act of bravery as well as a mean to
dialogue is the soul of the theme of
reduce class distinction while for
love in this play.
Bluntschli, we don’t know for sure
but he surely has a mature opinion Conclusion
on love.
Manifestly, the play Arms and the
Also, we learn from the play that love
Man is a show of Shaw’s anti-
is not limited to the people of the
romantic ideas of war and socialist
higher class. Love is equally
ideas of love. This play is ruled by
appreciated among the people of the
the soul of equality for the theme of
working class. But through the
love and the soul of the reason for
character of Louka, we grasp the
the theme of war.
idea that love can be a binding force
for the upper and lower class. She Sources and Suggested
courageously announces before Readings
Sergius:
1. https://tanvirdhaka.blogspot.com/
I would marry the man I loved, treatment-of-love-and-war-in-
which no other queen in Europe arms.html
has the courage to do. If I loved
2. https://literaryocean.com/g-b-
you, though you would be as far
shaws-attitude-to-war-love-
beneath me as I am beneath you,
 marriage-and-money-in-arms-and-
the-man/
3. https://www.litcharts.com/lit/arms-
and-the-man/themes/youth-vs-
Shaw as a Socialist in Arms and the Man
By Asad Imran
May 11, 2021
Categories: Modern Drama
Introductory
Socialism, in this play, means
equality among the people of the
higher class as well as the people of
the lower class. Shaw himself had
been an active member of the
Fabian Society, a society dedicated
to the promotion of socialism. Shaw
used his pen and speeches as a
medium to encourage people to
accept socialism. So, this play is an
extension to Shaw’s very cause. The
play exhibits the division of upper
and working class through the likes
of Raina-Sergius and Louka-
Bluntschli pair respectively. The play
maturity
4. Lectures of Sir Hassan Akbar
demonstrates the rise of the
working-class as well as the
hypocrisy of the upper class. Let’s
discuss them in detail:
Hypocrisy of Upper Class
Arms and the Man is the play that
particularly shows how the people of
the upper class can be hypocrite
even to the ones close to them. The
prime example of hypocrisy can be
cited from the relationship of “higher
love” that is observed between Raina
and Sergius is merely an eyewash.
Both of them are trying to dupe each
other. Raina, who claims that the
thought of Sergius had never been
absent from her mind for a moment,
forgets about him abruptly when a
fugitive enters into their house
threatening her to keep silent. If we
flip the picture to Sergius, the one
who also claims “If you are away five
minutes, it will seem five hours. “, it
takes him one minute to start his
flirtation with Louka and to proclaim
that the concept of higher love was
fatiguing. Thus, the duality of faces
found among the people of the
upper class has been revealed by
Bernard Shaw.
Rise of Working Class
The hypocritic behaviour is not
limited to the aristocratic class only.
In fact, it is equally present among
the people of the lower class.
Realistically speaking, it is through
the means of hypocrisy towards the
upper class of the working class to
climb the ladder of society. For
instance, Nikola advises Louka to
stay calm because, through the
money, they have been getting from
the Petkoffs, they will open up their
own business,
I shall always be dependent on
the good will of the family. When I
leave their service and start a
shop in Sofia, their custom will be
half my capital: their bad word
would ruin me. (Nikola)
It is obvious that Nikola’s muffled
hypocrisy is looking ahead for a
bright future. But through the
character of Louka, Shaw wants to
demonstrate that the feelings and
emotions of the people of the
working-class are as important and
magnificent as those of the people
of the elite class. That is why, we
find Shaw, giving an equal spotlight
to the people serving people as
compared to the playwrights of
previous times.
As mentioned before, Louka is a
dramatic personage (character) who
has been used as a symbol of
dignity and independence. Louka’s
advanced hand is rejected to be
kissed by Sergius at first but she
withdraws it with dignity. As for
seeking independence and climbing stuffed in the Shawian Socialist
the social ladder, Louka does her Equality that is not “Romantic”.
best to impress Sergius through her
glorified but courageous remarks on Sources and Suggested
love. Her proclamation of loving Readings
someone out of social divisions
1. https://www.litcharts.com/lit/arms
boldly helps her maintain a good
and-the-man/themes/class-
image in the heart of Sergius, a
divisions
person of the higher class.
2. https://www.coursehero.com/lit/A
Similarly, we see Bluntschli, a soldier and-the-Man/context/
of the working-class, holding 3. https://www.coursehero.com/lit/A
practical views on war, love and the and-the-Man/themes/
art of soldiership. His apt remarks 4. Lectures of Sir Hassan Akbar
bring home Raina the true nature of
life out of her romantic outlook and
is thus, greatly impressed by his
wisdom and entitles him as her
“Chocolate Cream Hero”.

Conclusion

Manifestly, Shaw wants to

demonstrate the fact that the people
of the lower class are as equal or
more equal in wisdom and courage
as those of the people of the upper
class to wisely love someone and to
have enough courage to marry the
person of the opposite class. Thus,
the play, Arms and The Man is
Modern Drama – Short Questions and Their Answers
(From Sargodha University Past Papers) MA English
Literature Part 2

By Asad Imran
May 24, 2021
Categories: Modern Drama, Short Questions

Tragi-comedy is a play in which the

comic and tragic elements are
2021
woven in the play.
Q1: Describe the physical
Examples:
personality of Hedda Gabler?
Hedda has pale eyes while she lacks Waiting for Godot by Samuel

an abundance of hair. Beckett

Q2: What is the attitude of Hedda Cherry Orchard by Anton Chekhov

Ciabler towards other female Q5: What is the relation of Varya to

characters in the play “Hedda
Gabler”?
Already answered below
Q3: What changes take place in the
physical personalities of Pozzo and
Lucky in Act-II?
Pozzo turns blind and Lucky loses
speech in Act II.
Q4: Define tragi-comedy giving two
examples of this particular genre?
Mrs. Ranevsky?
Already answered below
Q6: What is the opinion of Sergius
about the art of soldiering?
According to Sergius, soldiering is a
coward’s art of “attacking
mercilessly” when an army is at an
advantageous place while hiding for
life when the other army is powerful.
Q7: Where does Bluntschli hide
himself?

Bluntschli hides himself in the room
of Raina who is the daughter of his
enemy’s major.
Q8: Why do Vladimir and Estragon
want to commit suicide?
The tramps want to commit suicide
in order to “pass the time”.
Q9: What is the setting of the play
“The Sea”?
The Sea takes place in the year of
1907 on an unknown village coast,
near East Anglia.
Q10: Who is Mr. Evans?
Evans is the philosophical voice of
“The Sea”. At the end of the play,
Evans suggests that suffering is the
only language to exist as a human.
2020
Q1: In what two ways the theme of motherhood
is introduced in Hedda Gabler?
The theme of motherhood is signified through
the characters of Thea and Hedda. Thea has
been presented as a mother who can reconstruct
her burnt child while Hedda has been depicted
as a force to destroy children of others
(manuscript) and of her own. Because she does
not want any responsibilities. View Source
Q2: Why is Hedda so cruel towards other female
characters in the play?
Hedda is cruel towards other female characters
because of her inability to do man like activities
and she is jealous at the success accomplished
by other female characters, especially Thea for
successfully shaping a man’s destiny. View
Source
Q3: From what class struggle does Louka pass?
The problem of Louka is that she wants to climb
the social ladder from the working class to the
elite class. Louka does not want to remain a
servant throughout her life. Thus her struggle is
to get out of the servant class into the
respectable upper class. View Source
Q4: What is primarily anti-romantic in “Arms
and the Man”?
War is primarily an anti-romantic theme in “Arms
and the Man”. Shaw debunks the romantic ideas
about war through the mouthpiece of Bluntschli
that every soldier is afraid of death and he can
go to extremes to save his life.
Q5: Compare the thematic and structural unity
in “Waiting for Godot”.
Thematic unity in “Waiting for Godot”, well, lies in
waiting for Godot. While the structural unity of
this play has been demonstrated through the pair
of characters and the choices they have been
given. For instance, the pair of Tramps is given
the choice to eat a turnip or a carrot. View
Source
Q6: How is a carrot used as a symbol in “Waiting
for Godot”?
Carrot has been used as a symbol of life as
Estragon puts it: “The more you eat the more
worse it gets. ” View Source
Q7: What does falling of axe signify in Cherry
Orchard?
Striking of the axe in Act IV serves as a symbolic
significance for the fall of aristocratic class in
Russia and an end of the Cherry Orchard in literal
sense. More Short Questions
Q8: Define Naturalism
Naturalism is a literary movement that sprang
out of another literary movement, realism.
Naturalists believed that humans were fighting a
constant battle of survival against their social
customs, society and the environment in which
they had been living. View Source
Q9: Briefly introduce Epic Theatre.
Epic Theatre was also a dramatic movement that
took place in the 20th century. Epic Theatre does
not relate to the scale of a play but it rather
emphasizes the presentation of a world that is
identical to the actual political and social world
of the audience.
Q10: Mention the major fears of Mrs. Rafi.
The major fear of Mrs. Rafi is losing
her authority as soon as she grows
old.
2019
Q1: What is the importance of home in Hedda
Gabler?
The importance of home in “Hedda Gabler” is felt
differently by different characters. Hedda feels
as if she is trapped forever and she does not like
the house Tesman has bought for her. While
Tesman thinks that it is their “dream
house”. View Source
Q2: Why does Judge Brack never marry?
Judge Brack does not marry in the play because
he does not want to encage himself in
responsibilities that would eliminate his
freedom. The second reason might be his
inclination to be a good “trusted friend” of the
ones who are married. View Source
Q3: What is Naturalism?
Already answered in 2020.
Q4: Why does Raina prefer Bluntschli over
Sergius?
Raina prefers Bluntschli over Sergius because of
his practical thoughts about war and love. Unlike
Sergius, Bluntschli does not change his centre of
love. That is what impresses Raina regarding
Bluntschli.
Q5: What is the importance of tree in “Waiting
for Godot”?
The importance of the tree in this play may vary
from person to person. The tree serves as an
identification mark for Estragon and Viladmir to
wait for Godot. While the tree also serves as a
symbol of peace but its growth is not noticed by
the tramps so it is difficult to interpret tree as a
symbol of hope in this play. Source1 Source2
Q6: Why is there no climax in “Waiting for
Godot”?
There is no climax in Waiting for Godot because
the main action is yet to be performed by Godot
who does not arrive. Another reason behind this
might be Beckett’s intention to assert that life
has no climax. Source
Q7: Who can be called the spokesman of
Chekov in “Cherry Orchard” and why?
Trofimov is the spokesman of Chekov in his
“Cherry Orchard” because he alludes to the
significance of the changes taking place in the
Cherry Orchard or in Russia symbolically. Source
Q8: What is the main character flaw in Trofimov
in “Cherry Orchard”?
Trofimov’s noticeable flaw in his personality is
his lack of sensitive feelings. Under the strong
intoxication of new ideology emerging in Russia,
he cannot sense from what grief Madame
Ranevsky will go through after losing access to
her orchard. Source
Q9: How do Willy and Rose create their personal
maturity?
Both the couple create their personal maturity by
learning solutions to the problems that are being
faced by their society. Recommended Reading
Q10: Briefly describe Bond’s concept of
violence.
Bond suggests that violence is
necessary for humans to shape their
society. Without violence, they have
no future. Source
2018
Q1: Describe the physical features of Hedda
Gabler.
The physical appearance of Hedda Gabler adds
up to her personality as a cold-hearted woman.
Hedda is a woman of “face and figure show
refinement and distinction. Her complexion is
pale and opaque. Her steel-grey eyes express a
cold, unruffled repose. Her hair is of an
agreeable brown, but not particularly
abundant”. View Other Short Questions regarding
Hedda Gabler
Q2: From where do Hedda and George return
when the play opens?
Hedda and George return from their six months
long but boring honeymoon when the play
opens.
Q3: Why is G. B. Shaw call an iconoclast?
Bernard Shaw is called an iconoclast because he
questioned old set traditions and customs and
criticized certain beliefs.
Q4: Who says this dialogue in Arms and the
Man? “Soldiering, my dear madam, is the
coward’s art of attacking mercilessly when you
are strong, and keeping out of harm’s way when
you are weak. “
Sergius in Act II
Q5: Why is “Waiting for Godot” written in only
two acts?
“Waiting for Godot” is only written in two acts
because everything in this play is divided into
two: Two tramps, a pair of Lucky and Pozzo,
arrival of Messenger boy for two times. Source
Q6: Why do Viladmir and Estragon want to
commit suicide?
Estragon and Viladmir want to commit suicide in
order to “pass the time” and as a means of
recreation.
Q7: What are the major themes of Bond’s
plays?
The major themes in Bond’s plays are man’s
ability to survive the worst as well as the uphill
task of changing the world. Source
Q8: What does sea in “The Sea” symbolize?
Already answered in 2015.
Q9: Give a brief estimate of Yasha.
Yasha is the male servant of Madame Ranevsky
and grandson of Firs. He travels to France but
returns back to Russia with Madame Ranevsky.
He is drawn towards physical pleasures and
cigar. View Source
Q10: Who does purchase “Cherry Orchard”?
What does it signify?
Lopakhin purchases the “Cherry Orchard”. His
purchasing signifies the rise of middle-class
workers after the revolution while the fall of the
aristocratic class. Source
2017
Q1: Mention Hedda’s life before and after
marriage.
Hedda’s life before marriage was an
adventurous affair of time. She and Loevborg
used to chat with each other when General
Gabler was reading a newspaper. Her life after
marriage was marked with boredom as she
could not enjoy the bookish company of her
husband.
Q2: Why is Hedda called “a female Hamlet” in
‘Hedda Gabler’?
Hedda Gabler is called the “Female Hamlet”
because she is caught in almost the same
circumstances as the Danish Prince. She cannot
lead a life of independence because her society
prohibits doing manly work. She is forced to
marry a person out of her own necessity. Source
Q3: How does Act 1 of ‘Arms and the Man’
introduce the themes of the play?
Act 1 of ‘Arms and the Man’ mainly introduces us
to the theme of war and its true nature through
the defeat of the Serbian army and a fugitive
hurling in Raina’s bedroom to save his life.
Q4: Who says in ‘Arms and the Man’: “Act as if
you expected to have your own way, not as if
you expected to be ordered about”?
Nikola.
Q5: What does Lucky’s “Dance in a Net’
symbolize?
When Lucky dances on the command of his
master Pozzo in Act 1, Pozzo says that Lucky
dances as “if he is entangled in a net”. Thus,
Lucky’s dance symbolizes the entanglement in
life caused by some circumstances. View
Source
Q6: What benefit does Pozzo get from his
blindness?
Pozzo hears life from a new angle and sees how
meaningless life repeats its cycle every
day. Source
Q7: Who says in “The Cherry Orchard”: “Well,
good-bye, old man. It’s time to get. Here we
stand pulling one another’s noses, but life goes
its own way all the time”.
LOPAKHIN
Q8: What did Anya do in Paris?
This question shall be answered after a thorough
reading of the play.
Q9: Differentiate between theme and motif.
A theme is the prominent message of a literary
piece of writing while a motif is the idea or a
repeating pattern of certain ideas or images to
illustrate the certain theme. Source
Q10: Give a pen-picture of Rose with reference
to ‘The Sea’.
In the play, Rose is “pale and tired”.
2016
Q1: Describe the physical appearance of Hedda
Already answered in 2018
Q2: Why is Hedda so cruel to other females in
“Hedda Gabler”?
Already answered in 2020
Q3: What is Raina’s nickname for Bluntschli?
Raina calls Bluntschli with the nickname of
“Chocolate Cream Soldier”.
Q4: In what ways is Captain Bluntschli an Anti-
hero?
Bluntschli is an anti-hero because of his anti-
heroic traits in his character. Typical heroes are
usually portrayed as brave, courageous and of
higher rank. But Captain Bluntschli is an
outwardly coward person and belongs to a
noticeably lower class.
Q5: Discuss Beckett’s attitude toward hope in
“Waiting for Godot”.
Beckett’s attitude towards hope is like hope
against hope. To simply put, he is not hoping for
hope. This play is about consistent waiting,
waiting for someone who will not come.
Q6: What is the function of the boy in “Waiting
for Godot”?
The function of the boy in “Waiting for Godot” is
to give a glimpse of hope for Estragon and
Viladmir concerning the arrival of Godot. The boy
serves as a messenger in between Godot and
the pair of tramps.
Q7: What is Varya’s relation to Mrs. Ranavksy?
Varya is the adopted daughter of Mrs.
Ranavksy. Source
Q8: Why does Trophimov not accept Lopakhin’s
money?
Trophimov does not accept money
from Lopakhin to retain his freedom
as according to him, it is money that
enslaves people to people.
Q9: What are the Vicar’s views about Colin?
Vicar thought that he was being summoned by
Gabriel.
Q10: How does Bond criticize religion with
regard to the aristocratic class?
Bond criticises religion through the
character of Mrs. Rafi who attache
an ostentative importance to
religious rites but does not care
about the ones who are in need (of
money like Mr. Hatch).
2015
Q1: For what physical feature does Hedda not
like Thea?
Hedda does not like Thea because of her
abundant hair. Hedda often shows her desire to
burn Thea’s hair.
Q2: In what extraordinary way does Hedda greet
Judge Brack. When he comes to tell about the
purchase of a villa?
Hedda points her pistol at Brack and shoots at
the sky, scaring Brack.
Q3: How does Shaw employ irony in the opening
lines of “Arms and The Man’?
Shaw opens the play with a line from Virgil’s epic
“The Aeneid.”, “Of Arms and Man I Sing”. While
Virgil is glorifying war, Shaw is using this mono-
stich to ridicule romantic ideas about war in his
“pleasant play. ” Source
Q4: How did Petkoff become a major?
Petkoff became major on account of the wealth
he possessed. Not because he was good at
warfare. Source
Q5: Why is “Waiting for Godot” in two acts?
Already answered.
Q6: Explain the idea of pairing throughout
“Waiting for Godot’.
Already answered in 2020.
Q7: What is the metaphoric significance of sea
in “The Sea”?
Sea in “The Sea” has been used as a metaphor of
destruction and as a challenge of human survival
in the very play. Source
Q8: Why does Mrs. Rafi arrange a play?
Mrs. Rafi arranges a play in order to satisfy her
aristocratic feeling as well as to collect charity
The Cherry Orchard as a Naturalistic Play
By Asad Imran
July 7, 2021
Categories: Modern Drama
General Introduction
Cherry Orchard is a play by Anton
Chekhov which is featuring the
effects of the revolution that was
taking place in Russia. The play was
first performed in 1904. Chekhov is
considered to be a realistic as well
as a naturalistic playwright. Before
discussing about this play as a
naturalistic play, first, we have to
make it clear what is naturalism.
for the coast guards.
Q9: What does Charlotta’s character represent
in “The Cherry Orchard”?
The character of Charlotta represents the free
thinking of common people who holds a firm
belief in “the whole Russia is our
orchard”. Source
Q10: How is Dunyasha an especially Ironic
Character?
Dunyasha is ironic in a way she longs for
becoming a member of an aristocratic class and
the way she powders herself to look alike an
aristocratic lady.
Naturalism is an advance form of
realism that depicts a realistic story
that is an outcome of the past of the
characters or the environment in
which they grew. Naturalists believe
that social conditions, family system
and environment help a person in
shaping his or her character.
Although both realism and
naturalism are interlinked with each
other, yet there are some differences
between the two. Realism only
paints a realistic picture of the
present life in keeping with the
literary requirements and techniques
while naturalism gives a
philosophical pessimism. Realistic
literature gives an outward glance on Past
the outward life of the characters
while naturalism gives an overview
of the domestic life of the
characters.
Characters are Lifelike
A Naturalistic Play is rather
incomplete without characters that
represent the actuality of life. Cherry
Orchard is no exception. The
characters in Cherry Orchard can be
divided into two kinds, each
representing his or her own sphere
of life. But their dependency
changes as time changes. For
instance, The Loupov family
represents the declining model of
the aristocratic class who once ruled
the forefathers of the serfs like
Lopakhin. The character of Lopakhin, spendings in the past made their
on the other hand, shows the surge
of the working class and their
independence from the masters
once they used to obey. So, the
characters in this play are exactly
like the people of that era.
Importance of the Characters’
This is the central point that
distinguishes a Naturalistic play
from a realistic play. In a naturalistic
play, the presence of the dramatic
personages is determined and
governed by the events taking place
in the past. In Cherry Orchard, past is
vividly portrayed as a governing
force for the present of the
characters despite their class
differences. For example, the Loupov
family is running out of money
because they spent lavishly on minor
occasions and consequently, they
ran in debt. On the other hand,
Lopakhin amassed wealth through
the means of hard work and
business mind. So, Lopakhin’s
dedication and Lyobov’s unchecked
present pleasant and miserable
respectively.
References to Off-Stage
Events
Since events in a naturalistic play is
governed by the past, there are many
references to many off-stage events
that have either taken place in the
past or in the present. In Cherry
Orchard, we see the references to
many off-stage events like the
Russian revolution, Lyobov’s
kindheartedness to Lopakhin when
he was scolded by his father;
Lyobov’s lavish spendings for her
‘lover’ and her taking care of him
during his illness in France; serfs
working in fields in past. But the
significant event that is referred in
this play is the auctioning of the
Cherry Orchard that is announced by
Lopakhin.
Naturalistic Plays are set in
Domestic Setting
Realistic literature portrays a picture
that usually involves the setting of
an outer place, like A Tale of Two
Cities that gives almost a coherent
view of the French Revolution from
the perspective of an outer world.
But a naturalistic play gives the inner
picture of the outcomes and
aftermaths of a happening. Being a
naturalistic play, Cherry Orchard
exhibits a domestic output of the
Russian Revolution. We see its
influence in the form of how the
dismal financial conditions of
Lyobov compelled her to sell her
cherished Cherry Orchard that
distinguished her family from the
rest of the aristocratic people in
Russia. Also, the setting of the play
is domestic because the events in
this play take place in the domestic
background.
The Play ends Upon Some
Problems Unsolved
Cherry Orchard ends on the
auctioning of, well, the Cherry
Orchard. The Lyobov family
successfully acclaims enough
money for their debts to be cleared.
However, some problems remain
unsolved like what will the Lyubov
family do when the money received
in exchange of the Cherry Orchard
runs out. Will Lopakhin ever propose Sources and Suggested
Anya. Readings

Conclusion 1. Lecture of Sir Hassan

2. https://www.coursehero.com/lit/T
Conclusively, the Cherry Orchard by
Cherry-Orchard/context/
Anton Chekhov gives an advanced
3. https://www.enotes.com/homewo
version of realism that depicts the
help/can-we-consider-cherry-
inner consequences of a happening
orchard-work-presents-231771
that is worth shaking the set routine
4. https://literarydevices.net/naturalis
of life. So, this play is rightfully a
naturalistic play.

The Cherry Orchard – A Tragedy or a Comedy

By Asad Imran
July 13, 2021
Categories: Modern Drama

comedy or a tragedy due to its style

Introduction and comedy. But what makes a play
a tragedy or a comedy. The general
The Cherry Orchard, the play about
concept of a play being a tragedy or
the Russian revolution is confused
a comedy is linked to the modes a
between being a tragedy or a
play exhibits. If a play retains a
comedy. The play is marked with
happy and jolly tone, it will be
both tears of biding a farewell as
vaguely termed as a comedy while a
well as begining of a new and
play manifested in suffering, plight
optimistic beginning. The play has
and sombre tone can be regarded as
been heavily debated for being a
a tragedy. Let’s discuss what
Chekhov himself considered.
Controversy between the
Author and the Producer
The problem of tragedy and comedy
was produced from the difference
between the writer’s and producer’s
concept of play.
In his letter, Shekhov said;
“Not a drama,but a comedy has
emerged from me, in places even a
farce”.
Chekhov, the one who formulated
the particular play conceived it as
neither a tragedy nor a comedy but
rather a farce. But the producer of
the play,
Stanislavski disagreed with Chekhov
and called it a tragedy.
He said in response to Shekhov:
This is not a comedy or a farce,
as you wrote, it is a
tragedy,whatever way out you
may have found for better life in
the last act
Because according to Stanislavski
the play featured a tragic
atmosphere where people had gone
bankrupt and they were about to
lose their lodgings. Stanislavski even
delayed the performance of the
fourth act in order to sustain the
prevailing suspense. But Anton was
not pleased by the producer’s
conduct. Let’s discuss why
Stanislavski deemed the play as a
tragedy?
What is tragic in the Play?
As mentioned above, Stanislavski
and many critics consider The
Cherry Orchard a tragedy because of
the sound reasons on which the play
is based. It is the dismal condition of
the aristocratic class that makes the
atmosphere of the play tragic.
Aristocrats, the ones who used to
rule over the serfs have been
reduced to the people suffering
under the growing pain of debt. We
see the Lyobov family selling their
villa in Mentone to clear their debts
but this does not work out well for
them. Their tragic hamartia is their
lack of control over their spendings
and lack of business mindset.
During a conversation with Lopakhin,
Lyobov admits,
I’ve always scattered money
about without holding myself in,
like a madwoman, and I married a
man who made nothing but
debts.
Although Lyubov openly admits her
tragic flaw, but she fails to act upon
the advice of Lopakhin to lease the
land of the Cherry Orchard for a
sustainable source of income.
Consequently, she auctions her
ancestral pride in exchange for
money to clear her debts. Her
inability to act upon Lopakhin’s
sincere advice is what establishes a
tragic departure with the land she
could transform it to a moneymaking
machine.
What is Comic in the Play?
The moments of tragedy, as well as
comedy, are sequentially present in
the play. Although Anton has tried to
add farcical effect by mingling of
absurd action right after a serious
happening. For instance, when Varya
and Anya are discussing about their
deplorable financial condition,
Lopakhin moos to add laughter
among the audience of the play as a
temporal comic relief.
This play is also a comedy in a
sense due to its display of the
financial victory of the serfs who
once worked under their masters.
Lopakhin, who has come out of the
background of the serfs have used
his brain in a way that has made him
capable of purchasing the Cherry
Orchard. Lopakhin does not forget
about his past and feels proud of his
financial as well as social freedom.
Conclusion
So, it is evident that the situational
complexity of this play makes us
harder to decide about its genre. But
one thing is certain, this I. play is not
entirely a tragedy for the aristocratic
class. There is a hidden message of
hope for them. They can start a
business with the money they have
accumulated through the process of
auctioning. In fact, Gaev (brother of Sources and Suggested
Lyubov) has bid a farewell to sloth as Readings
he has been selected for a job in the
bank. Manifestly, the play is neither 1. Lecture of Sir Hassan

an absolute tragedy, nor an absolute 2. https://www.enotes.com/homewo

comedy but a combination of both help/cherry-orchard-by-anton-

that signals at the optimistic vision chekhov-comedy-tragedy-560554

of the writer, 3. http://www.askliterature.com/dram

cherry-orchard-as-a-comedy/
The human race progresses, 4. A portion of this answer was
perfecting its powers. contributed by Muhammad Awais
(My Classmate)

Significance of the Title of The Cherry Orchard

By Asad Imran
July 16, 2021
Categories: Modern Drama

play holds its importance differently

Introduction among different characters that we’ll
discuss in detail below. But first, let’s
The play’s entirety is amassed and
make it clear how is the Cherry
centred around the title it posses
Orchard in the play.
both figuratively and in literal sense.
The title of the play is significant in a
sense because it helps a reader to
A Brief Overview of the Cherry
get a slight idea of what the play is
all about. The Cherry Orchard in the
Orchard
As the name of this play suggests,
the setting of this play mostly
revolves around The Cherry Orchard
that is vaguely present in the play. In
fact, it does not even take place in
the said orchard. As for its size,
Lopakhin gives us the hint that it
might be 2,500 acres long. A railway
line runs by it. It boasts a large
cluster of Cherry trees. Due to its
massive size, it serves as a defining
factor for the Lyobov family in
Russia. Despite its notable
importance, it does not exist
concretely in the play. Yet its
integrity is asserted by many
characters.
Importance of The Cherry
Orchard for Lyubov Family
The Cherry Garden is of great
significance for the Lyobov family in
particular. It is regarded as a symbol
of their memories of the past.
Lyubov recalls her days of the past
as thus,
Oh, my childhood, days of my
innocence! In this nursery I used
to sleep; I used to look out from
here into the orchard.
But the Cherry Orchard could also
serve as financial support to clear
out their debts as advised by
Lopakhin but Lyubov could not see
the permanent financial value of it.
The Cherry Orchard for the
Serf Class
The symbol of the Cherry Orchard is
also a symbol of memory for the
working class. It is a cold
recollection of their slavery. In fact,
the orchard grew its trees through
the continuous hard work of the
serfs who could not go against the
will of their masters. Trofimov shows
his disdain for the Orchard as below,
Think, Anya, your grandfather,
your great-grandfather, and all
your ancestors were serf-owners,
they owned living souls; and now,
doesn’t something human look at
you from every cherry in the
orchard, every leaf and every
stalk? Don’t you hear voices…?
 Oh, it’s awful, your orchard is agent of change which does not side
terrible. with its owner but with the flow of
time. The Cherry Orchard is not
Trofimov, the teacher claims that the
limited to the estate once Lyubov
whole Russia is their orchard. Thus
and then Lopakhin owned, but as
proclaiming the financial
Trofimov puts it, “The whole Russia
independence of the serfs from the
is our Orchard”. Thus signalling at
hands of their ruling class. The
the socialist growth of humanity.
cutting of the Cherry trees also
denotes a farewell to the old system Sources and Suggested
of slavery and a new begining of Readings
opportunities.
https://www.shmoop.com/study-
Conclusion guides/literature/cherry-
orchard/analysis/title
The Cherry Orchard can be a symbol
of oppression or of sweet memories.
But it is a striking symbol and an

Character Sketch of Lyubov in the Cherry Orchard

By Asad Imran
July 18, 2021
Categories: Modern Drama

Cherry Orchard. Anton Chekhov calls

Who is Lyubov?
Lyubov is the most important as well
as the central character of the play
this play a play of action so actions
are to be performed by characters.
Therefore, we see slight magic of
characterization going on in this
play. Every character in this play
works as a symbol for the play itself.
The character of Lyubov has been
utilized as a symbol of the fall of the
aristocratic class. Her character is a
blend of both good as well as bad
qualities. Let’s discuss about her
character in detail.
A Kind Hearted Woman
Lyubov is generally a kind-hearted
lady, despite belonging to the
aristocratic class. Her kind-
heartedness is equally bestowed
upon her servants in the pat as well
as her “supposed” lover in Paris.
Lopakhin gives an account of her
meek but generous heart as below:
I remember when I was a boy of
fifteen, my father, who is dead–he
used to keep a shop in the village
here–hit me on the face with his fist,
and my nose bled. …We had gone
into the yard together for something
or other, and he was a little drunk.
Lubov Andreyevna, as I remember
her now, was still young, and very
thin, and she took me to the
washstand here in this very room,
the nursery. She said, “Don’t cry, little
man, it’ll be all right in time for your
wedding.”
Thus, tending the wound of Lopakhin
shows her kind-heartedness in a
positive manner.
Her Blind Faith in Love
Lyubov’s kind-heartedness gives way
to her blind faith in love. When she
leaves Russia for France, she falls in
love with a person who ultimately
becomes unfaithful to her. She sells
almost everything for her “lover”. She
takes a great fancy to assist him
during his illness before her return to
Russia. When she receives a
telegram of the supposed lover,
begging her to return and to nurse
him due to the second attack of
illness, she is profoundly compelled
to help him,
That wild man is ill again, he’s
bad again. … He begs for
forgiveness, and implores me to
 come, and I really ought to go to
Paris to be near him.
It’s vividly clear that Lyubov is unable
to understand the grave reality of her
love that her lover is only using her
as an ATM machine. She is
emotionally attached to him. That is
why, she is unable to withhold the
caveats of Trofimov.
Her Habit of Spending
Lavishly
Lyubov does not realize the
importance of money and wealth.
Because of her aristocratic nature,
she considers it a duty to spend
lavishly. Lopakhin is amazed by her
generous spendings:
I’ve never met such frivolous
people as you before, or anybody
so unbusinesslike and peculiar.
She has sold her villa in Manton for
her lover. She has spent every penny
on him. During the play, in Act 1, she
loans money to Pischik. In Act 2, she
gives a homeless man a piece of
gold. In the beginning of Act 4, Gaev
scolds her for giving away her whole
purse to peasants. Her actions in
and out of the play clearly show that
she does not care about the value of
money and she cannot help reject
the face of the needy.
Her Inability to Accept the
Change
Lyubov loves to live in the past. She
is deeply fond of recalling her
childhood memories in the orchard,
Oh, my childhood, days of my
innocence! In this nursery I used
to sleep; I used to look out from
here into the orchard. Happiness
used to wake with me every
morning.
Her love of the past does not permit
her to see the gradual weathering of
the class to which she belonged. She
likes to live in her own world
inhabited by the past. Yet some
argue that her selling of the Cherry
Orchard can be an allusion to her
bidding a farewell to the old order.
Is Lyubov a Tragic Character?
Lyubov’s main flaw in her character
is the lack of practical mindedness.
She is not entirely a tragic character
because we do not witness her
death. Yet losing the Cherry Orchard
is a significant event that can be
considered within the limits of a
tragedy. A tragedy usually happens
due to the flaw of a character and he
is sometimes given a chance or
advice to redeem himself from the
dark hands of time. Lyubov was
given a golden piece of advice by
Lopakhin to lease the land of her
estate that would have enabled her
to pay off her debts. But she was not
ready to listen to his words of
sincerity and warded off the “absurd”
idea and did not even try to save her
property from being auctioned. That
almost brought about her tragedy.
Conclusion
Character Analysis of Lopakhin in The Cherry
Orchard
By Asad Imran
Lyubov is not a stupid character as
the world calls her. She is the voice
of innocence that lacks experience.
Despite her flaws, she is the major
character of the play that controls,
for the most part, the flow of the
play. The character of Lyubov has a
universal appeal. Her story of
‘departure’ is the tale of every
Russian Aristocratic during the time
of revolution.
Sources and Suggested
Readings
1. https://www.shmoop.com/study-
guides/literature/cherry-
orchard/lubov-andreyevna-
ranevskaya
2. http://www.askliterature.com/dram
of-mrs-ranevsky-lyubov-in-the-
cherry-orchard/
3. Lectures of Sir Hassan Akbar
July 21, 2021
Categories: Modern Drama

A Genius Businessman
Who is Lopakhin?
Lopakhin does not hesitate in
The complete name of Lopakhin in
accepting the change that shook the
the play is Ermolai Lopakhin. He is a
upper strata living in Russia. The
successful businessman whose
change that gives him a right to be a
forefathers were once slaves or
master of his roubles enables him to
commonly referred to as serfs who
perform wonderfully in the field of
worked in the estate of Lyubov. Just
business. Due to his thorough
like his drunk father, Lopakhin is an
indulgence in business, he develops
uneducated person who himself
the cynical mind of a businessman
admits,
who sees nothing but his profit. But
we can look at Lopakhin through a
Here I’ve been reading this book,
lens of kindness because despite
but I understood nothing. I read
and fell asleep. having the mind of a businessman,
Lopakhin remains faithful to Lyubov.
Basically, the character of Lopakhin He could have bought the Cherry
is a representative of the rise of Orchard in the first place but he gave
middle class due to their dedication Lyubov a chance to redeem herself,
as well as their use of business
Here’s my plan. Please attend
mind. Just like the Character of
carefully! Your estate is only
Lyubov, the character of Lopakhin is
thirteen miles from the town, the
also a blend of both good qualities
railway runs by, and if the cherry
and some shortcomings as well.
orchard and the land by the river
Let’s explore:
are broken up into building lots
and are then leased off for villas
you’ll get at least twenty-five
 thousand roubles a year profit out
of it.
So, it is evident that Lopakhin is a
genius businessman who also sees
profit as well as remains faithful to
Lyubov simultaneously.
He does not Hide his Past
As mentioned before, Lopakhin
belongs to the rising working class
who was once under the influence of
their masters. Even after becoming a
successful businessman, he does
not feel shy of concealing his past
just like we find in our surroundings.
He does not forget about the (minor)
atrocities that were inflicted on the
serfs by their masters.
I’ve bought the estate where my
grandfather and my father were
slaves, where they weren’t even
allowed into the kitchen.
He wears a simple dress just like in
his old past days. He is aware of the
fact that the fall of the aristocratic
class is their habit of spending
lavishly on normal articles of life like
expensive clothes and furniture etc.
Lopakhin and Love
Love is a difficult passion for a
businessman like Lopakhin to
practice. From Act 1 to 4, the topic of
marriage between Lopakhin and
Varya is discussed. Lopakhin does
not seem to dislike the idea of love.
But he does not seem to show
interest in the idea of marriage.
Shmoop suggests four reasons why
Lopakhin didn’t bother to propose
Varya.
He wants to break from his past
of being a serf. How shall he
marry a girl that belonged to the
family that enslaved his
forefathers.
He wants to focus more on his
business.
He might be in love with Lyubov.
He does not want to get married
at all.
The second point is also validated by
Varya herself in the text:
 I can’t propose to him myself,
little mother. People have been
talking about him to me for two
years now, but he either says
nothing, or jokes about it. I
understand. He’s getting rich, he’s
busy, he can’t bother about me.
So, it’s clear that Lopakhin does not
take marriage seriously.
His Lack of the Appreciation
of Beauty and Feelings
Lopakhin is a cynical businessman.
He only seems to see the
materialistic value from the articles
of life. When Lopakhin gives the idea
to cut down the Cherry trees, Lyubov
seriously replies,
Cut it down? My dear man, you
must excuse me, but you don’t
understand anything at all. If
there’s anything interesting or
remarkable in the whole province,
it’s this cherry orchard of ours.
But this isn’t true. Lopakhin is, after
all, a human being. He has a slight
tendency to be fascinated by the
natural beauty. He remarks:
In the spring I sowed three
thousand acres of poppies, and
now I’ve made forty thousand
roubles net profit. And when my
poppies were in flower, what a
picture it was! So I, as I was
saying, made forty thousand
roubles.
So, Lopakhin does appreciate beauty
but his sense of being a
businessman dominates him to a
great extent.
Another shortcoming in the
character of Lopakhin is his lack of
feelings. He does seem to be
feelingless when he orders to cut the
Cherry trees in front of Lyubov. But
the most brutal of all is his soliloquy
of victory:
The cherry orchard is mine now,
mine! My God, my God, the cherry
orchard’s mine! Tell me I’m drunk,
or mad, or dreaming…. Don’t
laugh at me! If my father and
grandfather rose from their
 graves and looked at the whole
affair, and saw how their Ermolai,
their beaten and uneducated
Ermolai, who used to run barefoot
in the winter, how that very
Ermolai has bought an estate,
which is the most beautiful thing
in the world!
His speech is equally fascinating as
well as ugly. But to call him a
feelingless shall be an injustice to
him. Because when he meets Lyubov
after the auction, he cries before her,
Why then, why didn’t you take my
advice? My poor, dear woman,
you can’t go back now.
This clearly shows how meek his
uncivilized heart can get.
Samuel Beckett as a Dramatist
By Asad Imran
July 24, 2021
Categories: Modern Drama
Introduction
Conclusion
Conclusively, Lopakhin is a major
character with whom a great deal of
symbolism is associated. He is a
prime example of the success that
he achieved by accepting the
change.
Sources and Suggested
Readings
1. https://www.shmoop.com/study-
guides/literature/cherry-
orchard/ermolai-lopakhin
2. http://www.askliterature.com/dram
of-lopakhin-in-the-cherry-orchard/
3. Lectures of Sir Hassan
Samuel Beckett wrote at the time
when the world was suffering from a
lot of modern problems that it did
not see before like the horror of the
Great World Wars. Beckett is said to
have revolutionized the theatre
through his innovative dramas. His
innovative dramas extended the
scope of already established theatre.
His plays are not meant to be read,
but to be performed so that the
ideas within a play can be
transmitted nicely to the intended
audience. Beckett used the essential
dramatic machinery to establish a
modern and complex unity that
could not be found in the plays
written before him. Such a
tremendous use of dramatic
machinery can be called a “Total
Theatre” that involves the ears, eyes,
emotions and Intellect
simultaneously. Let’s discuss the
chief features of Beckett’s plays:
An Exhibition of Beckett’s Art
The plays sketched by Beckett show
his distinct art. For instance, the
characters drawn in his plays do not
indulge in philosophical discourse.
Neither they use elevated diction to
heighten the effect. His characters
use simple and colloquial language
that can be easily understood by a
layman. They are seldom noticed
soliloquizing. They do not preach
something. Their action may not be
elegant but it is a part of the
experience of the whole play. For
instance, in Act 2, we see Pozzo
turned blind and is begging for help.
The same Pozzo that was the
master of (the unfortunate) Lucky
and the one who gave Estragon a
bone to “relish” is unrecognizable by
one tramp. Thus, the present
condition of a character like Pozzo
can be linked to his personality in
Act 1 to get the most out of the
symbolic significance of the play.
This is the art of Beckett that is
spell-bounding.
Minimal Characterization and
Plot
A striking but different feature of
Beckett’s plays is the occurrence of
plot and characterization to a
minimum. It is not suitable for a
reader or the audience to look for a
story in his plays. The time, as well
as characters, are static. They do not
move from one place to the other.
So, the setting is almost static. The
time does seem moving but it is
static. The plays end at their
beginning. Of course, there are
problems in his plays but those
problems remain unsolved in the end
as if they were in the beginning.
Winnie, a character from Happy Days
asserts the concept of plots in
Beckett’s plays as thus,
Yes, something seems to be
occurred, something has seemed
to occur, and nothing occurred,
nothing at all.
We see the same phenomenon in
Waiting for Godot in which two
tramps wait for a mystical figure,
Godot to solve their problems but he
does not arrive. In Endgame, a blind
tyrant tells a story to “wait” for his
servant to leave or for death. So, the
plot (and characterization) in
Beckett’s Plays is non-existent.
Speaking of characterization, the
characters in Beckett’s plays are
presented without their past. It will
be correct to say that the characters
live as long as the play is performed.
Although they may tell the audience
bits and pieces of their past. Their
future is uncertain. They remain
unchanged throughout the play. For
instance, the stage direction of
Waiting for Godot during its ending
reads as thus,
Viladmir: Well, shall we go?
Estragon: Yes, let’s go.
(They do not move)
Chief Topics of his Plays
Beckett’s plays centre around Man.
While the topics revolve around the
role of man in the universe, his
limitations and his identity. In
Waiting for Godot, we find the pair of
tramps as well as Pozzo, Lucky pair,
suffering from an identity crisis.
Estragon and Vladimir are uncertain
about the identity of Godot. Lucky
has lost his identity completely.
Through Beckett’s plays, we assume
that the role of man in the universe
can be as insignificant as it can get.
For example, in the same play, we
see tramps associating their hopes
to a being they are not acquainted
with, instead of doing work on their
own.
Beckett as an Absurdist
Beckett is misleadingly compared
with Ionesco for being a dramatist of
the Absurd. Ionesco is the Romanian
champion of the Absurd Plays which
are farcical in nature, only meant for
spreading laughter. But Beckett is an
Absurdist through the declaration of
what Camus had said. By “Absurd”,
Camus meant a life spent
completely for its own sake in a
universe that made no sense
because there was no God to resolve
the contradictions. The waiting is
also absurd in the sense the tramps’
expectations make no sense unless
they begin searching for Godot.
Another thing that separates
Beckett’s absurdism from Ionesco’s
is his rational world as compared to
the abrupt and unpredictable world
of Ionesco. A fine example can be
given from Waiting for Godot in
which a tramp questions that why
can they throw the idea of waiting?
Estragon: Let’s go.
VLADIMIR: We can’t.
ESTRAGON: Why not?
VLADIMIR: We’re waiting for
Godot.
This is a rational questioning and a
rational answer that is in accordance
with the title as well as the
expectations of the readers
Conclusion
Conclusively speaking, Samuel
Beckett, as a playwright, has
introduced plenty of themes as well
as concepts to inspire more writers
through his minimal caricaturing of
meaninglessness and
meaningfulness of life.
Sources and Suggested
Readings
1. Waiting for Godot – Critical
Studies by Famous Products –
 Page 29 4. https://neoenglish.wordpress.com
2. Lectures of Sir Hassan Akbar as-a-playwright/
3. http://www.askliterature.com/drama/samuel-
beckett-as-dramatist-playwright/

Waiting for Godot – a Comedy or a Tragedy

By Asad Imran
July 25, 2021
Categories: Modern Drama

latter is controlled by the former.

Introduction
Samuel Beckett himself subtitled
Waiting for Godot as a Tragicomedy
in Two Acts. While some critics
argue that the play is entirely a
tragedy or a comedy. Before
discussing at length whether this
play is a tragedy or a comedy, first,
we have to introduce ourselves with
the story of this play. The story of
this play revolves around two tramps
who are, well, waiting for a
mysterious being called Godot. The
play begins on waiting, ends on
waiting. We also see another pair
comprising of Pozzo and Lucky. The
Let’s dive deeper into the comic and
tragic elements in Waiting for
Godot.
Comic Elements in the Play
Comedy, in general, refers to
something that arouses laughter
among the audience. However,
Comedy in literature means a tale
that ends happily. Waiting for Godot
seems to fulfil the first and general
condition of comedy due to some
pure comic as well as farcical
elements:
Cross-Talk of Music-Hall
Waiting for Godot follows the Cross-
talk tradition commonly observed in
music-halls. Music-halls are a source place when the answer or response
of public entertainment that use
music, comedic acts and dancing to
amuse the masses. In Cross-talk, a
pair of two comedians involves in a
rapid exchange of small dialogues.
Those are often reminiscent of the
ones found in circuses. Even
Estragon and Vladimir confirm the
parallel:
Vladimir. It’s worse than being at
the theatre.
Estragon. The circus.
Vladimir. The music-hall.
Estragon. The circus.
But physical humour is a noticeable
program in a circus. And Waiting for
Godot is not exempted from it. There
are many examples of physical
humour like the shuffling of hats, the
dance of Lucky, Estragon losing his
trousers and their abrupt falling.
These elements are enough for the
audience to laugh loudly.
Comic Misunderstandings
Comic misunderstanding is that type
of misunderstanding that takes
to a statement or question is not
what is expected from the situation.
The same technique is also utilized
in Waiting for Godot. For instance,
when Pozzo intends to give Estragon
a reward of ten francs for the
monologue of Lucky, Vladimir’s
response “We are not beggars” adds
a burst of slight laughter. Another
occasion can be quoted as below:
Vladimir. Where are your boots?
Estragon. I must have thrown
them away.
Vladimir. When?
Estragon I don’t know.
Vladimir. Why?
Estragon (Exasperated). I don’t
know why I don’t know!
Vladimir. No, I mean why did you
throw them away?
Thus, such an unexpected response
adds a comic pleasure to the play.
Tragic Elements in the Play
Waiting for Godot surely has some
comic elements but it is a serious
and even a tragic play. The play is
certainly far from the Aristotelian
and Shakespearean concept of
tragedy. We find no direct catharsis
of the emotions of pity and fear.
However, the play is rightfully tragic
because it shows human suffering
and sheer despair. Let’s discuss
some of the tragic elements found
within the play:
The Agony of Waiting
Waiting is a chief motif of the play.
But the uncertain duration of waiting
is tragic in itself. In the beginning,
Tramps try to see a rewarding
promise in the ordeal of waiting. But
soon, Estragon gets fed up with the
idea of waiting and implores
Vladimir that why do not they give up
the waiting. The only answer that
comes in refrain scattered
throughout the text is,
We can’t. We are waiting for
Godot.
Neither tramps, nor the Pozzo Lucky
pair, nor the audience and nor the
author are aware about the true
identity of Godot. The agony of
waiting can also be felt by the
audience as well as the readers. The
tramps are promised of their
redemption on the arrival of Godot
and Godot does not arrive and there
is no hope of his arrival. Such futile
waiting creates a true tragic effect
for the dismal fate of the tramps.
Tragic Dialogues
A tragedy is almost incomplete
without tragic dialogues in it. We find
them in Oedipus, Othello, Tess and
even in this play. Such serious
dialogues leave an immense tragic
impression upon the audience. The
first utterance that leaves a tragic
effect on us when Estragon
complains about futile waiting:
Nothing happens. Nobody
comes. Nobody goes. It’s awful.
At another point, his tone grows
more serious:
 All my lousy life I’ve crawled
about in the mud! And you talk to
me about scenery! You and your
landscapes! Tell me about the
worms!
But the most tragic line of the bunch
is uttered by Pozzo:
One day like any other day, one
day he (Lucky) went dumb, one
day I went blind, one day we’ll go
deaf, one day we were born and
one day we shall die.
Thus, through such hopeless
remarks, the play achieves its tragic
quality.
Other elements
Pozzo Luchy Relationship is a minor
yet a significant example of tragedy
in the play. Pozzo treats Lucky below
the level of humanity: as merely a
beast of burden. Pozzo has no
regard for the feelings of Lucky as
he considers that such creatures
should be killed. Another tragic
keynote in this play is the rule of
despair which is vividly portrayed
through the characters of tramps,
especially Estragon. They repeatedly
say, “Nothing to be done” a staple
sentence of this play. The
suggestion of Estragon to hang
themselves is an intense show of
their despair. Thus, adding a tragic
flavour to the particular play.
Final Thoughts
Consequently, it is difficult to
consider this play a tragedy or a
comedy as a whole. As Beckett has
himself chosen the genre of
tragicomedy for this play, Waiting for
Godot is rightfully a tragicomedy, a
mixture of both.
Sources and Suggested
Readings
1. Waiting for Godot – Critical
Studies by Famous Products –
Page 364 and 420
2. Lectures of Sir Hassan Akbar
3. http://www.askliterature.com/dram
for-godot-as-a-tragicomedy/
4. https://literaturetimes.com/waiting
for-godot-as-tragicomedy/
5. http://www.cssforum.com.pk/css- 6. http://englishhonoursguide.blogsp
optional-subjects/group- for-godot-as-tragicomedy_90.html
v/english-literature/7163-waiting-
godot-tragi-comedy.html

The Mysterious Identity of Godot in Waiting for

Godot

By Asad Imran
July 27, 2021
Categories: Modern Drama

Who is Godot?
What do we know about
No one on Earth knows the answer
Godot?
to this question. Neither tramps, nor
readers and not even the author Through the conversations of
himself. It is true that Beckett Estragon and Vladimir, we come
himself was asked the same across the importance of Godot for
question about the identity of Godot the tramps. Godot has promised
and he himself replied that if he had them of something they are not
known who Godot was, he would certain about.
have told us in the play. It is clear
ESTRAGON: What exactly did we
that Godot is a mysterious figure
ask him for?
who is yet “undiscovered” by men
VLADIMIR: Were you not there?
like Vladimir and Estragon. Yet there
ESTRAGON: I can’t have been
are some minor details in the play
listening.
hinting at the “personality” of Godot.
 VLADIMIR: Oh . . . Nothing very
definite.
ESTRAGON: A kind of prayer.
VLADIMIR: Precisely.
ESTRAGON: A vague
supplication.
So, it is certain that they have met
Godot at some point. The tramps
know one certain thing about Godot
that they have to wait for him.
The Messenger boy also reveals
significantly about Godot. According
to the boy, Godot has a white beard.
He does nothing and he beats his
brother.
VLADIMIR: What does he do, Mr.
Godot? ( Silence. ) Do you hear
me?
BOY: Yes Sir.
VLADIMIR: Well?
BOY: He does nothing, Sir.
So, this is what we know about
Godot so far.
Confusion about the Identity
Godot
Godot does not exist as concretely
as other characters do in this play.
Yet tramps talk about him and
accept his influence upon them. The
identity of Godot is mostly shrouded
in confusion. Many critics derive a
different Godot. Some say Godot is
God while others say he is a normal
human being. The play has no
inherent meaning. So is Godot. One
can make as many interpretations of
Godot as possible. Godot can be
one’s unfulfilled desire that has a
chance to become true in near
future. Godot can be a promise that
is yet to be fulfilled. Godot can be
the suffering of mankind that may or
may not come to an end. Such a
level of freedom of interpretation
can lead to confusion.
Speaking of suffering, the character
of Pozzo is also confused with
Godot. At first, he is initially taken for
Godot by the tramps. But secondly,
his name also rhymes with the word
Godot. Pozzo’s mistreatment of
Lucky also adds him to the hostility
that is observed in Godot. But those
are merely speculations and we ESTRAGON: And if we dropped
cannot consider Pozzo as Godot. him? ( Pause. ) If we dropped
him?
Godot’s Hostility VLADIMIR: He’d punish us.

Keeping in view the details given Thus, the nature of Godot is

about Godot in the play, he seems to mysteriously a blend of both
be a hostile figure. For instance, kindness and hostility.
Godot is kind towards the
Messenger boy but he beats the Godot’s Divine Attributes
brother of the Messenger boy who
There is a significant material in the
guards the sheep. But this can be a
play that hints at Godot for being
similar case with the pair of tramps.
God. The first and most obvious hint
Vladimir gets the carrot and turnips
is the word God connected to it.
while Estragon gets beaten in the
Secondly, the word Godo in the Irish
night. Maybe it is Godot that gives
language is commonly used for God.
Vladimir turnips and carrots and
Thirdly, the boy’s description of
beats Estragon (like Messenger
Godot having a white beard also
boy’s brother). But a significant
gives the impression of the old
hostility can be seen through the
father aspect of Him. Fourthly, the
vague or even empty promise that
name of Godot exists but he does
Godot has made to the tramps. They
not arrive in the play just like God
keep waiting for him from dawn to
Who exists but does not appear
dusk. But we do not find a definitive
before us. We shall find this play a
time for his arrival or the fulfilment
Christian or even a Morality Play if
of the promise that he made a while
we associate Godot to the God in the
back. But tramps are equally free to
Old Testament.
“take it or leave it” yet they equally
become fearful of the sense of But there are opinions of critics who
punishment: do not accept the (fractured)
religious interpretation. Martin Esslin
asserts that the play is mainly about
the ultimate realities of life and
suffering is one of them. Since
Godot is also attributed to human
suffering that may never end,
because, according to him, the
problem of Death and Life is
concerned with the Drama of the
Absurd.
our own interpretation of Godot.
What do you think who Godot is?
Comment your answer below.
Sources and Suggested
Readings
1. Waiting for Godot – Critical
Studies by Famous Products –
Page 315
2. Lectures of Sir Hassan

Conclusion
So, it is difficult to trace out the true
identity of Godot in the sea of
interpretations. As the play is
inherently meaningless, Becket’s
answer to Alan Schneider”s question
indirectly encourages us to develop
3. https://www.eng-
literature.com/2020/05/who-is-
godot-waiting-for-godot.html
4. https://www.shmoop.com/study-
guides/literature/waiting-for-
godot/godot-character

Themes of Uncertainty, Meaninglessness and

Absurdity in Waiting for Godot

By Asad Imran
July 27, 2021
Categories: Modern Drama

Waiting for Godot is outwardly

Introduction simple but inwardly a complex play.
The play has one of the most
minimal setting as well as dramatic
personages. Yet the play
successfully exhibits some themes
closely associated with uncertainty
as well as the meaninglessness of
life. Characters are representatives
of humanity; setting, human
existence and their actions show the
ultimate truth about the human
condition. Let’s discuss the core
themes of this play in detail:
Uncertainty of Time
One of the most obvious themes of
Waiting for Godot is the uncertainty
of time. The play is replete with
examples in which time looks
relatively uncertain. For example,
when Act 2 is proceeded by Act 1,
we as the audience think that only a
day is passed but looking at the
growth of the leafless tree (in Act 1)
it is difficult to deny that a significant
amount of days have gone by. And
also, Estragon fails to recognize
Pozzo may be due to his weak
memory as well as the passing of an
uncertain amount of days. Also, both
Estragon and Vladimir fail to gauge
the exact time of their
companionship. Other than this, the
time in the first act seems to move
naturally because we (vaguely)
witness the shift of time from the
sunset to the moonrise. But time is
mostly uncertain and unpredictable
in Waiting for Godot.
Meaninglessness
Meaninglessness is an important
theme of this play. Both Estragon
and Vladimir try to seek meaning out
of their existence by waiting for the
mysterious Godot about whom no
one knows exactly. Speaking about
meaninglessness, the play is also
inherently meaningless. The
playwright wants us to convey that
there is no inherent purpose to life in
general. We are sent into and sent
out of this world without us doing
anything significant. Much like the
protagonists of the play who are
waiting for a pointless and even
empty promise. The play generally
wants to capture the mode of the
people who think that they are acted
upon the world where they “exist”.
So, Godot can be interpreted as a
name for pointlessness (in life).
Absurdity
Waiting for Godot is chiefly about
the absurdity of existence both in
this play as well as in normal life as
well. We see Estragon and Vladimir
dressed in shabby clothes, indulging
in physical activities as well as in
cross-talk in music-hall only to pass
the time and to wait for a
meaningless promise to fulfil that is
likely not to get fulfilled. The play
likely hints that doing nothing is the
only way to avoid being criticized but
as Anwar Ahmad puts it in his post
that it is much difficult to get through
life without doing nothing. When one
does nothing, one achieves nothing.
Other Minor Themes
There are other minor themes that
are scattered here and there in the
play. One of them is the theme of
religion. It is difficult to interpret this
play as a religious one because of
the views of the author that are
contrary to religion. Critics argue this
play because of Vladimir raising the
issue of salvation (nijjat) and
damnation. Another theme, yet an
allegorical one is attributed to the
German Occupation of France. The
allegorical representation of the play
is credible in the sense of Beckett’s
stay in the first occupied zone during
World War Second when France was
occupied by the Germans. The
waiting of the tramps looks exactly
like the waiting of the Frenchmen
who lived underground to organize
the resistance against the Germans.
Conclusion
Conclusively, the play incorporates
various themes to add to the
meaningful meaninglessness of the
play. Waiting for Godot has no
definite theme to work on with.
Beckett himself asserts that it is
upon the readers to find meaning in
the play. He states,
If I could tell you in a sentence,
I wouldn’t have written the
 play. 1. http://www.askliterature.com/dram
beckett/waiting-for-
Waiting for Godot has distinctive
godot/themes-of-waiting-for-
themes for distinctive people. Only
godot/
the discovery of the readers grants a
2. http://www.literary-
new life to a new theme.
articles.com/2021/04/samuel-
becketts-waiting-for-godot-
Sources and Suggested
major.html
Readings
3. https://www.coursehero.com/lit/W
for-Godot/themes/

Existentialism and Absurdism in Waiting for Godot

By Asad Imran
July 30, 2021
Categories: Modern Drama

work is classified as an existential or

Introduction absurd play by the people who tried
to make a meaning out of the play.
Waiting for Godot is said to have
Let’s dive deeper into the absurd and
both absurd as well as existentialist
existential crisis in Waiting for
traits at its disposal. Samuel Beckett
Godot.
himself did not belong to any of the
previously said “schools” of
thoughts. Because there was no
Traits of Absurdism in the
obvious movement behind
Play
absurdism and existentialism. The
l Beckett is said to have the most
influence in the so-called Theatre of
the Absurd, notes Martin Esslin in
his book also titled “Theatre of the
Absurd” which was published in
1961. There is no direct definition for
the factors that can contribute in the
construction of the absurd theatre.
However, Martin Esslin clearly hints
at the chief characteristics of an
absurd play as thus,
If a good play must have a
cleverly constructed story, these
have no story or plot to speak of;
a good play is judged by the
subtlety of characterization and
motivation, these are often
without recognizable characters
and present the audience with
almost mechanical puppets; a
good play has to have a fully
explained theme, which is neatly
exposed and finally solved, these
often have neither a beginning
nor an end; if a good play is to
hold the mirror up to nature and
portray the manners and
mannerisms of the age in finely
observed sketches, these seem
often to be reflections of dreams
and nightmares; if a good play
relies on witty repartee and
pointed dialogue, these often
consist of incoherent babblings.
So, the Absurd Plays are a clear
deviation from what was already
established among the playwrights.
Here, Martin Esslin lays the
foundation of the absurd plays and
which elements constitute an absurd
play as listed below:
No plot
Minimal or no Characterization
No proper beginning or ending
Unexplained themes
Dialogues that make no sense
Waiting for Godot checks the
required boxes for being an Absurd
play. We see no obvious traces of a
strong plot. There is no sequence of
events. Because there is only one
event that is the event of waiting.
The characterization in Waiting for
Godot is minimal. There is no
character development. Two tramps,
Estragon and Vladimir remain the
same in the end as they were in the
beginning; trying to give up the idea
of waiting but “they do not move”.
Another absurdian characteristic in
Waiting for Godot is the lack of flow.
There is no proper beginning or
ending of the play. It will be right to
say that the play ends at the
beginning. Which means the
situation of the play remains the
same. Absurd plays usually exhibit
unexplained themes. That is due to
the lack of happenings. But Waiting
for Godot, despite waiting for
happening to occur, has themes that
are well-explained by the critics and
readers alike. Lastly, absurd plays
are run on absurd dialogues. In
Waiting for Godot, we can easily
trace out the use of cross-talk like
the jesters in Waiting for Godot.
Thus proves that Waiting for Godot
has the traits of absurd dramas in it.
Existential Crisis in the Play
Waiting for Godot is said to be a
shining example of an existential
play. Yet it is considered to have the
roots of nihilism in its core.
Existentialism is a theory that is
presented by Martin Heidegger and
Jean Paul Sartre. The theory asserts
that mankind is thrown into a
meaningless universe in which their
lives have no (inherent) purpose.
Humans are put on an absurd
situation by an unknown force. While
Nihilism demonstrates that humans
exist, that is enough. They should
not do anything in this world of
meaninglessness. Waiting for Godot
has the shades of both
existentialism as well as nihilism,
probably to show the significance of
existentialism over nihilism.
In Waiting for Godot, existentialism
is present in two versions. One is
without God (General concept of
existentialism) while the second is
Christian Existentialism that does
believe in the existence of God.
Keeping in view the general
conception of existentialism, we find
Estragon and Vladimir trapped in
waiting with mental suffering and
agony exactly like the mental pangs
we find in the demonstration of the
Theory of Existentialism. The agony
of tramps can be found in this line:
 Nothing happens, nobody comes,
nobody goes, it’s awful.
The Christian version of
existentialism is also present in
Waiting for Godot that involves in the
discovery of God in the end. The
particular point is asserted by
Estragon as thus,
they were serious about Godot, they
should have searched for him. Or
they should have given up the idea of
waiting and readied themselves for
some work to change their
condition. But their tendency for
reliance on someone to change their
lives is what nihilism preaches to
do.

We always find something, eh

Conclusion
Didi, to let us think we exist.
Waiting for Godot showcases the
The question of “who we are” and
absurd existentialism that is
“why we are here in this world” has
affected by the nihilism of the
always been knocking through the
tramps.
minds of every person. Similarly, the
tramps are thrown away into a Sources and Suggested
pointless situation to waiting and Readings
they have no exact clue of their past
and they are not certain about their 1. https://owlcation.com/humanities/
future as well. This has been a the-Existential-Philosophy-of-
problem for all of us too. Samuel-Becketts-Waiting-for-
Godot
Nihilism in Waiting for Godot is
2. http://www.askliterature.com/dram
illustrated through the inaction of the
beckett/waiting-for-
tramps. Existentialism favours work
godot/existentialism-in-waiting-
to add a meaning to one’s
for-godot/
meaningless life. Both Estragon and
3. https://literaturetimes.com/existen
Vladimir are seen doing nothing to
in-waiting-for-godot/
add a meaning to their waiting. If
4. http://www.cssforum.com.pk/css- godot/waiting-for-godot-as-an-
optional-subjects/group-v/english- absurd-play/
literature/7165-waiting-godot- 7. https://www.literaturewise.in/mdl/
existentialism.html id=7
5. https://www.englitmail.com/2020/06/waiting-
8. http://www.cssforum.com.pk/css-
for-godot-absurd-play-by- optional-subjects/group-v/english-
beckett.html literature/7168-waiting-godot-
6. http://www.askliterature.com/drama/samuel-
absurd-play.html
beckett/waiting-for-

Meaning of the Title of The Sea – Play by Edward

Bond

By Asad Imran
July 31, 2021
Categories: Modern Drama

which the sea has been painted as a

General Introduction of the destructive as well as a constrictive
Play force of Nature. The title of this play
has many symbolic interpretations
The Sea is a play that has been
as indicated by various critics. The
written by Edward Bond. The play, at
Sea in the sea has been implied as
first, appeared in 1973 showcasing
the symbol of life, death, destruction
the life of the people living in an
and authority.
unknown seaside village in rural East
Anglia. The title of this play has been
aptly borrowed by Shakespeare’s
romantic comedy, The Tempest in
The Sea as a Force of
Destruction and Death
The sea is mainly painted as a
symbol of death and destruction
right from the beginning of the play.
In the opening scenes, much like in
The Tempest, we see Collins and
Willy trapped in a sea-storm. Willy
calls for help but is not answered in
time. Collins is drowned. Thus, here
the sea shows itself as a sign of
death. But one thing is noteworthy to Two
point out that the death of Collins
not only affects Willy to an extent
but also the life of Rose to a great
extent who was going to be married
to him. Thus the sea has far-
reaching distractive effects. Mrs.
Tilehouse refers to the destructive
nature of the sea as thus,
Oh dear. This terrible sea, this
terrible life.
The sea also refers to the danger
prevailing inside and outside it.
Hatch is a coastguard and his main
duty is to save people from getting
drowned due to the coarse waves of
the sea. Mrs. Rafi arranges a play to
collect money for the coastguard.
But ironically, it is Hatch who
purposefully do not answer the call
of help and indulges in molesting the
body of the dead Collins. Thus, the
destruction of the sea is a directly
associated with the violence that is
shown by the people like Hatch.
The Sea and the World War
Continuing the Sea as a symbol of
distraction, another possible hint
that strikes our minds is the
aftershocks of destruction caused
by World War Second. Although this
play was written in 1973 but the
contemporary society was still under
the acidic clouds of the said Great
War. For instance, Hatch and his
fellows always remain fearful of an
unknown enemy or aliens. The same
way people of that time were and
still are, afraid of the mass extinction
caused by the nuclear weapons they
had just invented. Willy alludes to
the destruction of man in these
symbolic terms:
Perhaps they’re all busy killing
each other and killing other
things.
Thus, the fear of aliens, trying to
occupy the planet earth, is also an
indirect symbol to the fear of
destruction of World War Second.
The Sea as a Force of
Authority
Lastly, another possible
interpretation of the sea that is
supported by the text is the force of
authority. Almost everyone in the
play longs for holding some kind of
authority over someone or
something. For example, Mrs. Rafi
wants to retain her authority over
other people in her village. That is
why, Mrs. Rafi cancels out the order
of the curtains that cost Hatch his
“whole shop”. An example of her
authoritative nature can be seen
below:
HATCH. The manufacturers won’t
deal with me any more.
MRS RAFI. Nor will I.
HATCH. I’m in a small way of
business, Mrs Rafi. I’m on the
black list. I had to pay for all this
before they sent it. And I made
such a fuss about delivery. All my
capital has gone into it.
MRS RAFI. You should have
thought ofthat before. I won’t
have it in the house.
This example shows how
authoritative Mrs. Rafi can get.
Hatch also has his influence on
Carter and Holarcut, and he uses his
power to grind his own axe.
Conclusion
Bond successfully adds meaning to
the play by choosing the title that
makes the most sense for the play.
Conclusively, the significance of the
title lies in the destruction and power
both inside as well as outside of the
sea. Evens rightfully concludes the
dangers in the depths of the sea as
below:
 It doesn’t matter how clear the
main currents are, you have to
live through the details. It’s
always the details that make
the tragedy.
1. http://www.askliterature.com/dram
bond/the-sea/title-significance-of-
bonds-the-sea/
2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_
3. http://epicnotes1.blogspot.com/20
sea.html

Sources and Suggested

Readings

Character Sketch of Mrs. Rafi in The Sea – A Play by

Edward Bond

By Asad Imran
August 1, 2021
Categories: Modern Drama

conflict between the upper and lower

Who is Mrs. Rafi? classes in their contemporary
society. She is on the exploitative
Mrs. Rafi is not only a central figure
side of the aristocratic class and her
of the play, but an authoritative as
exploitation of others is shown
well as the influential lady of the
through her authoritative behaviour.
society in which she lives. No
particular detail is given regarding
the physique of Mrs. Rafi other than
The Authoritative Nature of
the phrase “ageing”. So, she is a
woman of an old age. The character
Mrs. Rafi
of Mrs. Rafi demonstrates the
Mrs. Rafi is first and foremost, an
authoritative figure of her society.
She does not possess any regard for
the individual freedom of the people
who are under her thumb. She
expresses her authoritarian
necessity as thus:
Sometimes I think I am like a
lighthouse in their world. I give
them a sense of order and
security.
But she fails to recognize that
people are more capable than what
she thinks about her mental calibre.
Mrs. Rafi is NOT a lighthouse for the
people like Hatch but like the sea
which keeps the sailors (people like
Hatch) afloat at its own will. We find
her exploitive adventures when she
uses Hatch as her gardener yet he is
an ‘independent’ shopkeeper or
draper to be more precise. Mrs. Rafi
orders curtains and then refuses to
buy the curtains that Hatch bought
by putting the whole income of his
shop at risk is a significant example
of the manipulative tactics of Mrs.
Rafi to keep people under her
influence.
Her Artistic Nature
Another noticeable trait in the
character of Mrs. Raffi is her artistic
nature that is present in some parts
of the play. A good example
showcasing her artistic taste is her
conducting of a play annually, not
only to satisfy her aristocratic taste
but also as a kind gesture of
sympathy about which we will talk in
the other paragraph. Even during her
artistic endeavours, Mrs. Rafi
appears commanding. It is Mrs. Rafi
who directs the play. If someone is
not acting according to her
directions, she rebukes them hard.
For example, Mrs. Rafi scolds
Mafanwy for not acting of swimming
properly. Thus, Mrs. Rafi does show
artistic taste but that is also
characterized by her commanding
behaviour.
Some Positive Traits in her
Character
The character of Mrs. Rafi is not expect my class to shout at them.
entirely negative or villainish. She Bully them. They’re disappointed
has also some positive aspects in if you don’t. It gives them
her character. As mentioned before, something to gossip about in
one of the core reasons behind their bars.
arranging the play is to collect
This line uttered by Mrs. Rafi is
money for the coastguards. But her
important in a sense because it
sympathy does not end there. Mrs.
shows why people want to obey
Rafi cancels the order of the curtains
someone because they expect the
that she placed in the shop of Hatch
higher class to be their “masters”.
due to the irresponsibility of Hatch in
saving the life of the drowning Conclusion
Collins,
Despite showing some positive traits
You let an innocent man drown.
in her character, but those traits are
(Mrs. Rafi)
dwarfed by Mrs. Rafi’s authoritative
and commanding behaviour in both
Another positive aspect of the
her matters of the heart as well as in
personality of Mrs. Rafi is her
her artistic endeavours.
realization of her authoritative
nature. She is not like the typical
Sources
dictators who do not accept their
being dictators. Mrs. Rafi knows well 1. https://www.risenotes.com/sea/th
that she is getting old and with her sea-character-of-mrs-rafi.php
ageing life, she cannot hold her 2. Text of The Sea
authority for long:

I’m afraid of getting old. I’ve

always been a forceful woman. I
was brought up to be. People
Edward Bond’s Concept of Violence in The Sea

By Asad Imran
August 4, 2021
Categories: Modern Drama

The instances of violence can be

Introduction categorized into two kinds: the ones
that are caused by the Nature itself
The Sea is a play that abounds in the
while the second one is caused by
theme of violence to showcase the
humans. Natural violence has no
outcome and motives behind certain
reason behind its occurrence while
acts of violence. Edward Bond paints
human violence has many reasons
violence just like Jane Austen
behind it that we will discuss in the
portrays manners in her novels.
second paragraph. Natural instances
Bond portrays the violence
of violence in The Sea is caused by,
containing in the Modern Man and
well, the sea itself when it takes
his psychological complexes that
away the life of the drowning Collins.
help in increasing the cults of
While the instance of human
violence in them. Bond is of the view
violence are many. For example,
that text should be used as a vehicle
Hatch attacking Mrs. Rafi through
to convey human beings their share
his pair of scissors; his molesting of
in the violence they have been
the dead body of Collins and his
committing on the planet earth.
attacking of Willy through a club
stick are some notable examples of
human violence prevalent in the play.
Instances of Violence in The
We have collected the sufficient
Sea
evidence of violence in The Sea.
Let’s discover why does violence
take place in the play.
Motives behind the Violence
in The Sea
As mentioned before, there is no
reason behind the violence caused
by the natural sources like the sea.
But the violence caused by humans
has some causes behind its
happening. Hatch’s attacking of Mrs.
Rafi comes as a reaction to the
authoritative behaviour of Mrs. Rafi
when she refuses to buy the ordered
curtains. Doing so will put Hatch’s
shop in an extreme danger zone
because he has put all of his money
in purchasing curtains. Other two
instances of violences shown by
Hatch cannot be justified by saying
that the reason behind his attacks
are aliens. There is a much bigger
picture than merely “aliens”.
Now we come to the part in which
we have to demonstrate why has
Bond chosen to show violence in
The Sea. His main concern in
showcasing violence is to make
humanity learn the consequences
that come after attempting violence
of any kind. The mentioning of aliens
in the play can be considered as an
indirect symbol for mankind. Take a
closer look at this line uttered by
Willy
Perhaps they’re all busy killing
each other and killing other
things.
Although Billy is saying for the aliens
but a closer dissection of this line
reveals that it is us, the human
beings, who have been busy killing
each other since the dawn of
mankind. One thing to note here is
the fact that when the play was
written (1973), the world was still
struggling to come out from the fear
and the distraction caused by World
War Second. Another reason Bond
gives for the violence is stated as
below:
Where there’s life it kills, after all.
(Evens)
Here, Bond gives a universal but dark
explanation for the violence caused
by humans. It can be backed up by
the fact that we have made so many
advancements in ammunition that
the chances of our species going
extinct are much higher than ever
before.
Also, the analogy “I believe in the rat-
catcher” gives an indirect hint at the
violent innocence of the rat (a
helpless person) who builds defence
to guard itself against the cat and
then it uses the same defensive
technology to catch other rats (weak
nations) can be specified as an
indirect satire on the nations those
were once weak and then after
gathering much influence, they try to
suppress the weak ones of their
In the end, the play exhibits a
didactic purpose that is to extend
the deadline of the possible mass-
instinction that can be caused by the
violence of humanity through
change. Bond subtly uses the
concept of violence to curb violence
in general. Evens line beautifully
sums up the motive of Bond behind
his use of violence in the play,
But you must still change the
world.
Sources and Suggested
Readings
1. Text of The Sea

days. This, thus, leads to an 2. http://epicnotes1.blogspot.com/20

unexpected violence or resistance. sea.html

Conclusion

Who is the father of Modern Drama, Ibsen or Bernard

Shaw?

By Asad Imran
October 30, 2021
Categories: Modern Drama
An Introduction to Modern
Drama
Modern drama is fundamentally
different from the classical drama
we are accustomed to. In classical
drama, the manner used to portray
the action is verse. Classical drama
mostly showed the tragic life of the
people of higher class like Oedipus,
Othello and King Lear. The classical
comedy only illustrated the lives of
people below the racks of normal
ones. However, the modern drama
focuses on the tragedy of the
common people, presented through
the prosaic dialogues. In modern
drama, social issues and their
potential solutions are highlighted.
The revolution of modern drama was
put in motion by Ibsen and later
Bernard Shaw. It is difficult to find a
true father of modern drama as the
services of both the dramatists are
of considerable weight. I shall put
forth the contribution of both the
dramatists for you to get a better
idea about who is the real father of
modern drama.
Contribution of Ibsen in
Modern Drama
Henrik Ibsen, a Norwegian
playwright, was the first to rebel
against the classical doctrine of
playwriting. He is considered the
father of modern drama because of
portraying problems of the common
people through a realistic manner in
a language that was easy for the
laymen to understand.
Realism
As mentioned before, Ibsen rebelled
against the romantic caricaturing of
life in classical drama. According to
him,
And the secret of modern
literature lies precisely in the
matter of experiences that are
lived through.
After focusing on the line,
“experiences that are lived through”,
it becomes clear that for modern
literature to thrive, it has to portray
the experiences of real life. Such a Drama for Common People
rule of Ibsen was a fundamental
A notable milestone that Ibsen
point that attracted a host of other
achieved in the promotion of modern
writers and viewers because the era
drama to common people was his
of industrialization and later, war,
use of simple and prosaic diction
was not in favour of romantic
that was geared towards the
idealization. Ibsen bravely depicted
common people. Poetic language
the social plight of the people of his
shows passion while prose is
age to question the set taboos of his
suitable for the display of more
society.
elevated ideas. Therefore, Ibsen
The Problem Plays chose the social and psychological
issues of the common people to
What Ibsen introduced to the general
morally instruct them of leading a
public is known as the problem play
peaceful and purposeful life. Ibsen
or the play of ideas. A problem play
was highly objective in his
mostly ends tragically, giving the
caricaturing of the problems. Hedda
author’s view of the social problem
Gabler is considered to be the most
and its solution, not in a direct
objective play of Ibsen as it gives
manner. At times, it offends critics
little to no hint of the problem of the
and audiences alike. For instance,
women like Hedda Gabler.
Hedda Gabler is a problem play as it
displays the social issue of the Contribution of Bernard Shaw
confinement of women and their in Modern Drama
dreams which result in the suicide of
Hedda. The play also displays the George Bernard Shaw, an Irish

hypocrisy of men through the playwright, essayist and social

character of Brack who is not reformer, is also considered as the

ashamed of ruining the life of a father of modern drama. Shaw is the

married woman. one who propelled the modern

ideology of Ibsen to a more wider
audience with his pleasant and
unpleasant plays with his usual witty
expressions. Let’s explore Shaw’s
contribution to modern drama.
Original Characterization
The dramatic personages in Shaw’s
plays have a distinct approach to the
art of characterization which is quite
different from what was shown in
romantic plays. As aptly asserted by
Nicoll, we find women who are brave
and intellectual in Shaw’s plays as
compared to meak maidens in old
plays; the strong men of the past
have been replaced with the men of
weakness and coarse villainy is
transitioned into a helpful tool of the
society. Thus, Shaw’s characters are
original and appropriate.
Imported Literary Qualities in
Drama
Another notable contribution of
Shaw to modern drama is his
inclusion of some of the notable
literary qualities. He experimented
with a number of techniques to turn
the modern drama into literature.
Shaw is the master of dramatic
stage directions. His directions are
so vivid that a reading of the play
helps in visualizing the action of the
play through a reader’s imagination.
Shaw was well-aware of the
popularity of novels. But he acquired
the descriptive essence of the novel
and added his distinctive dramatic
touch to it.
Popularized Drama
The outcome of the sincere
contribution of Bernard Shaw came
in the form of the popularization of
the modern drama. Shaw’s witty
characters, paired with an Ibsen-like
simplicity and exposure of the
taboos of the society, along with
alive stage directions and preface,
the drama was soon made relevant
for poets and the readers of the
novels alike. Shaw’s contribution
was followed by a host of new
writers who further made plays
relevant, famous and appealing to
the general masses.
Conclusion Sources and Suggested
Readings
It is difficult to decide who is the true
father of Modern Drama based on 1. Hedda Gabler Study Guide by
contribution. But I cast my vote for NKM – Page 32
Ibsen because Shaw expanded the 2. Arms and The Man Critical
vision of Ibsen. Therefore, Ibsen is Studies by Famous Products –
the father of modern drama. Page 19

Modern British Drama after World War 2

By Asad Imran
November 1, 2021
Categories: Modern Drama

and such a rapid shift provided a

Introduction new opportunity for drama in Britain
to thrive. The second phase of the
World War Second had a profound
modern drama was greatly
effect on the economy and the
influenced by both the internal and
people of Britishers. From a
external turmoil caused by the
historical context, after the fierce
second Great War. Therefore,
brutalities of the war, The Great
pessimism and meaninglessness of
Britain had lost a great toll of her
life are two main distinctive
people as well as her “claimed
identifying factors behind the post-
territories”. Although America gained
war drama. Let’s explore different
a significant share in moulding the
movements and new adaptations of
destiny of the whole world after her
victory, Britain suffered a great deal
the British Drama after World War
Second.
Angry Young Men Movement
Angry Young Men was the first
movement that was directly
influenced by the war. It was an
artistic movement that focused on
the display of social and economical
issues of the working class. The
term was derived from John
Osborne’s play, Look Back in Anger
which featured an unsuccessful
marriage of a working-class man
and a middle-class woman. These
kinds of plays were also known as
Kitchen Sink Plays. The plays are
known for their cramped apartments
with poor neighbours. Some
examples of these plays include like,
Roots by Arnold Wesker and One Fat
Englishman by Amis.
The Theatre of the Absurd
The Absurdist Theatre is the second
prominent phase in the post-war
plays. As is obvious from the name,
The Absurdist Theatre features plays
that portray the meaninglessness of
life. Samuel Beckett is the chief
among the English Absurdist
playwrights. He is famous for his
play, Waiting for Godot which
features an absurd and meaningless
quest of two tramps, Estragon and
Vladimir, for an unknown person
known as Godot. The whole play
centres around Godot but he does
not show up to satisfy the tramps.
Waiting for Godot is a unique play
that does not show any development
from the plot. The play ends at the
beginning.
Radio Plays
Being affordable and easily
available, radio sets exploded in
popularity all around the globe after
the world war. The Post-war era
proved fruitful for the development
of radio plays. BBC Radio was the
platform of choice for Radio Dramas
to thrive. Many already performed
plays were converted and adapted to
be broadcast on the radio. The
popular radio dramatist was Caryl
Churchill and her first drama was
aired in 1962 which was known as
The Ants. By the 1973, 9 plays of her
were broadcast on the radio which
paved her way for the Royal Court
Theatre. Apart from plays, novels
were also converted to radio plays
like Like Men Betrayed.
excessively available to the general
people via Radio.
Sources and Suggested
Readings
1. https://englishsummary.com/mod
english-drama-characteristics/
2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twen

Conclusion century_English_literature
3. https://www.easternct.edu/speiche
Thus, British Drama after World War literary-history-all/british-
Second saw many innovations and literature-after-wwii.html
adaptations which made it

In Search of Truth in The Sea – A Play by Edward

Bond

By Asad Imran
November 3, 2021
Categories: Modern Drama

prevailing in Waiting for Godot.

General Introduction Instead of showcasing the
meaninglessness of life, The Sea
The Sea by Edward Bond is a notable
emphasizes on the discovery of
play of its kind. The Sea came long
truth. Different characters in the play
after Waiting for Godot. Therefore,
hold different opinions on truth and
this play is quite different from the
attempt to find the truth in their own
theme of meaninglessness
ways. Let’s discover how they find People will rally round the truth.
their own version of the truth. You’ll see many signs and
wonders in the days to come.

Thus, he is hopeful that the other

Truth for Mr. Hatch
people shall realize the existence of
The apparent antagonist of the play, aliens. But the play signals that we
Mr. Hatch believes in his truth that humans are the aliens Hatch is so
aliens are about to attack the people fearful of because his description of
living on the planet earth. He fears the conflict between the aliens looks
that his people shall be captured and exactly like the two grand conflicts
manipulated by the aliens. But humanity has suffered from.
people do not believe in his
‘theoretical truth’. But in order to
Truth for Mrs. Rafi
prove his assumption, Hatch resorts
Mrs. Rafi, the protagonist of the play,
to the means of violence. For
is the voice of authority and power. It
instance, he attacks Mrs. Rafi
is difficult for a ruler to realize the
through knife when she refuses to
truth of the immortality of his
purchase the curtains for Hatch to
authority. But Mrs. Rafi, despite
put his whole shop at stake.
many flaws in her character, believes
Similarly, he molests the dead body
in the immortality and temporal
of Collins thinking of him as an alien
nature of her authority over other
monster,
town’s people.

The army knows you’re here. The

They wheel you where they like.
whole country’s turning out. We’ll
‘Take me there.’ ‘You went there
smash you .
yesterday. We want to go the
other way.’ ‘Take me down to the
Moreover, Hatch believes in the ‘fact’
beach. I want to see the sea.’ ‘You
that,
don’t want to see the sea. You
 saw the sea yesterday. The wind’s
bad for your head. If you
misbehave and catch a cold we’ll
shut you up in bed. You’ll stay
there for good this time.’
And her assumption is affirmed by
her own niece, Rose, as she reveals,
She’s a bully and only the weak
ones like being bullied.
Thus, Mrs. Rafi’s assumption is true
about her authoritative self.
Truth for Evans and Willy
Evans’ views on truth are rather
cynical while Willy is philosophical in
the pursuit of truth. The nature of
their truth is revealed during their
final conversations after dodging the
attack of Mr. Hatch on them. Evans
version of truth centres around the
violent nature of humanity. He
asserts,
Where there’s life it kills, after all.
The Sea as a Tragi-Comedy – A Play by Edward Bond
Thus, Evans’ version of truth
suggests that the ultimate fate of a
civilization is death and it is very
likely to happen sooner or later.
As far as Willy’s philosophical quest
for truth is concerned, he is of the
view that one must plunge into the
sea and look for the truth which is
wanting for the one concerned
about,
The truth’s waiting for you, it’s
very patient, and you’ll find it.
Conclusion
Conclusively asserting, the quest for
the truth stands true, both literally
and figuratively, be it Hatch’s
assumption, Mrs. Rafi’s
foreshadowing and Willy’s
philosophical remarks.
Source
1. Text of The Sea
By Asad Imran
November 4, 2021
Categories: Modern Drama

of Collins, a well-loved person in the

An Introduction un-named town. This tragic
beginning affects the whole play.
The Sea by Edward Bond is a
The unfortunate death of Collins is
remarkable play despite its absence
used to symbolically project the
from B R Mullick’s book. The play
foreshadowing of something terrible
first appeared in 1973 and its fame
to happen in future. Considering the
grew because of the black humour
timeline of the play (1907), it
or black comedy in it. Black Comedy
becomes clear that his death is
is a genre in which pleasant
signalling at the arrival of World War
scenarios are depicted under the
First.
dark shadows of dismal happenings.
Although the play bears the subtitle
The Play of Orpheus and its
of a comedy. But The Sea is a tragi-
Tragic Significance
comedy as it implies the elements of
both a tragedy and comedy. Let us There is a play within a play. The Sea
explore what is tragic and what is accompanies the mythological and
comic in the play. tragic tale of Orpheus and Eurydice.
This play is a love-based tragedy.
Orpheus is an enchanting musician
The Tragic Beginning who falls in love with the most
beautiful nymph, Eurydice. Upon
The Sea opens in The Tempest but
their marriage, Eurydice is bit by a
this time, the tempest is not
snake in the forest. She dies. But
programmed by Prospero and his
their bond of love is so strong that
Ariel. The opening is tragic because
Orpheus decides to use his lyre to
the storm in the sea claims the life
enter into the underworld and
reclaim his beloved. He is
successful in scoring her again but
as he looks back when he gets into
the living world, Eurydice is lost for
good because she is still in the
underworld when Orpheus looks at
her. The tale is sad and tragic, and
affects many characters in the
actual play. But it must be noted that
the core theme of the Grecian
tragedy is woven into the actual play.
The helplessness of Orpheus is
paralleled with the helplessness of
Willy during the storm; of Mr. Hatch
on account of the cancellation of the
order placed by Mrs. Rafi and of the
helplessness of Mrs. Rafi in her
ageing.
The Tragedy of Hatch
Mr. Hatch, a draper of forty years old,
is responsible for the tragic demise
of Collins. Because, as a coastguard,
it was his duty to save the drowning
person. But he himself has seeds of
tragedy in his character. The major
tragic flaw in Hatch is his assumed
‘truth’ in the existence of the aliens
who will eventually attack and
occupy humans. He does not help
Collins because he considers both
Willy and Collins are under the
influence of aliens. Such a
negligence paves his way for his
tragic overture as Mrs. Rafi cancels
the order of the expensive curtains
for Hatch put his whole income of
his shop at stake. In order to “defend
his stance”, Hatch attacks Mrs. Rafi,
thus using violence to defend his
right. Despite his attempt, the
damage is done.
A Comic Ending
For the most part, the atmosphere of
the play remains tragic. But there are
little comic reliefs here and there.
For instance, Mrs. Tilehouse sleeps
during the lecture of Mrs. Rafi. But
the ending of the play is that of a
comedy. . The Sea ends with the
optimistic unification of Willy and
Rose. Apart from their unification, it
is their conversation that is a
remarkable essence of the play. Both
of them believe that the truth is
waiting to be discovered. What
matters is a personal determination. Sources and Suggested
Keeping in view the symbolic Readings
ignorance of Hatch, it is obvious that
the author wants to convey that war 1. https://www.greeka.com/greece-

is a hateful show of ignorance. It is myths/orpheus-eurydice/

the quest for truth that can make 2. https://www.facebook.com/Studym

people realize their tragic ignorance.

Conclusion

Thus, The Sea is a dark tragi-comedy

because it begins and expands its
scope of action tragically, but it ends
on a comically optimistic note.

Character Analysis of Hatch in The Sea – A Play by

Edward Bond

By Asad Imran
November 5, 2021
Categories: Modern Drama

dealer, ‫)پردے بیچنے واال‬, a coast guard.

Who is Hatch? As far as his physical features are
concerned, he is fortyish, with oiled
Apparently, Mr. Hatch is the
hair, flat face and pale-blue eyes. In
antagonist of the play. But his
the play, he appears both sane and
character is a complex blend of both
insane while his instincts are stirred
negative and tragic qualities. By
according to a situation. Although he
profession, he is a draper (cloth
lives in his world of illusion, but he
appears as a symbolic prophet. Let
us unfold the deeper mysteries
hidden in his character.
The Sane Insane
Mr. Hatch possesses both sanity
and insanity. As mentioned before,
his behaviour changes according to
his role as well as the situation.
Hatch is saner when he is a draper.
Whereas, he loses his sanity when
he wears the uniform of the
coastguard. He hatches his own
realm of illusion that sooner or later,
aliens shall attack the humanity and
occupy the planet. He believes that
aliens have penetrated into humans
like Willy and Collins. This is the sole
reason he does not rescue the
drowning men from sinking into the
sea and molesting the dead body of
Collins. Apart from the existence of
aliens, what else drives him mad is
the injustice of the influential people
of the unnamed town which we shall
discuss in his tragedy.
A Subtle Businessmen
When Hatch is in his senses, he
emerges as a clever businessman
who uses every possible tactic to
lure customers into purchasing from
his shop. But in the play, he uses his
tact to defend himself when Mrs.
Rafi questions his negligence in
saving Collins. Hatch asserts that
Willy’s tale is based on lies. Hatch
shouted the instructions to Willy but
he could not hear them.
The gentleman was hallucinated.
Shocked. I shouted instructions
to him. I tried to help.
In another instance, he uses his
clever hypocrisy to shift the blame of
cutting the corpse from him to Willy.
Thus, he appears as a subtle
hypocrite when he is in the suit of a
businessman.
His Tragedy
Despite many villainish attributes,
Mr. Hatch becomes a tragic
antagonist. As asserted before,
Hatch becomes crazy when
something unjust is inflicted on him.
Contextually adding, Mrs. Rafi
ordered expensive curtains to Hatch.
As soon as she learned that Hatch
was responsible for the death of
Collins, she cancelled the order in
order to remind him of his duties. It
must be noted that Hatch had put
the worth of his whole shop into
Mrs. Rafi’s order. Cancelling it would
make him bankrupt. The bankruptcy
of his shop is truly tragic on his part
because,
My name, my goodwill, my whole
life’s work is at stake. I’m on the
edge of a terrible disaster.
His tragedy is brought upon him
because of his own tragic flaw of
believing in his concocted illusion of
aliens. Desperate and helpless, he
attacks Mrs. Rafi, considering she is
in the shadow of an alien who is
about to ruin his source of livelihood
and his reputation tragically.
A Symbolic Prophet
The character of Mr. Hatch and his
assumed illusion are both symbolic.
It must be kept in mind that the play
features the story timeline of 1907,
just seven years before the
beginning of World War First. As far
as the symbolic significance of the
character itself is concerned, Hatch
denotes to the instinctive adherence
to violence in pursuit of one’s
desires. Similarly, his belief in the
existence of aliens and their
quarrelsome behaviour, combined
with Hatch’s caveat of their arrival
symbolically mean one of the most
horrible conflict of humanity, ever
witnessed before by the mortal
humans. Resultantly, Hatch, at last,
is introduced as a symbolic prophet,
foreshadowing World War First.
Conclusion
Conclusively, the character of Hatch
is largely centred around his villainy
with a hidden catharsis of his
tragedy.
Sources and Suggested
Readings
1. Text of The Sea
2. https://www.facebook.com/StudymodeUOS/posts/1000222616797705

Symbols and Themes in The Sea – A Play by Edward

Bond

By Asad Imran
November 6, 2021
Categories: Modern Drama

The Sea carries the following

Introduction symbols:

The Sea by Edward Bond is filled The Sea

with numerous symbols and themes.
Being a modern drama, the use of From the title to the actual sea, The
themes and symbols becomes Sea has been symbolized for the
essential to broaden the scope of rewarding as well as critical
the meaning of the play. Prominent challenges of life. The Sea also
symbols in this play include, the sea, appears as a symbol of different
aliens, Hatch’s shop and the opportunities to excel in life as well.
characters. As far as themes of the The ‘uncontrollable’ storm in the sea
play are concerned, the following has been utilized as a symbol of
themes can be traced throughout the destruction. The Sea is unavoidable,
play, the conflict between individual as is asserted by Mafanway,
and society, political, social and
In this town, you can’t get away
moral depravity, and change.
from sea.

The UFOs
Symbols
The Unidentified Flying/Foreign
Object (UFO) has a direct
association with aliens. UFOs are
used as the symbol of fear, the fear
of change and technological
innovation. Similarly, aliens are the
symbol of creatures loving
skirmishes and violence, thus
representing us, the war-loving
humans.
Hatch’s Shop
The items inside the shop of Hatch
are highly symbolic. The clinging
doorbell of his shop symbolically
indicates the incoming lurking
danger (in the form of World War
First). The cancellation of the order
of expensive curtains by Mrs. Rafi
symbolizes the hollow morality of
the modern and educated people.
The Characters
Almost every character in The Sea
stands symbolically for something
else in the play. Evans stands for half For instance, Mrs. Rafi, in the play,
sanity and half insanity while his
drinking symbolizes for the escape
from society. Willy becomes an
embodiment of sincerity, sanity,
rationality and love; Mrs. Rafi, the
mindset of a dictator; Mrs.
Tilehouse, for hypocrisy; Collins for
talent and love; Rose, love and
innocence, and Hatch, a symbol of
insanity, jealousy and irrationality.
Themes
The notable themes of this play are:
Individual vs. Society
The theme of the preservation of
individuality from the norms of
society has been a common theme
of the plays written in the twentieth
century. The Sea also exhibits this
theme through almost every
character. Everyone in the play
strives for an elevation in his or her
respect and status in the society. On
the other hand, characters like Mrs.
Rafi struggle for the retention of
authoritative individuality through
the means of questionable ‘justice’.
selects the role of Eurydice, the
female protagonist whereas she
gives Mafanway the role of the dog.
Similarly, Hatch is worried about his
own reputation in his friends and
suppliers in the midst of UFOs and
aliens.
Political, Social and Moral
Bankruptcy
Another theme of this play is the
condemnation of political, social and
moral depravity. As far as political
instability is concerned, the
democratic equality is abused by the
retention of power and authority of
Mrs. Rafi over other town’s people.
The social and moral decline is
shown by Mrs. Rafi and Hatch.
Hatch is a morally depraved person
who not only shows his negligence
from his duties by letting Collins
drown as well as snipping the dead
body of Collins through his sheers.
Similarly, Mrs. Rafi’s execution of
‘justice’ is flawed as she unjustly
makes Hatch go bankrupt by
cancelling the order of the expensive
curtains.
Change
Acceptance of change is the core
theme of this play. The setting of
this play co-relates with the time
period of industrialization. It must be
noted that the monarchy of
machines had made people
indifferent to each other and
materialism was at its peak. It
looked like people accepted the
benefits of industrialization but did
not accept the change. However,
Bond, through this play, asserts that
people must accept the change as
the change is mostly associated
with hope . This theme is expressed
through Evans,
But you must still change the
world.
Conclusion
Thus, The Sea packs quite an
impressive set of symbols and
themes which highlight the core
motivation for the play and also
illustrate the skilful mastery of
Edward Bond.
Sources and Suggested
Readings
1. https://www.facebook.com/StudymodeUOS/posts/1000222616797705

The Cherry Orchard as a Social and Political Play

By Asad Imran
November 8, 2021
Categories: Modern Drama

Division in the Class

Introduction
In Russia, the class division
The Cherry Orchard is a play of
continued to create a divided
political change that communist
atmosphere for the privileged and
Russia observed in its 1917s. The
unprivileged people. The division
play basically highlights the social
existed between the aristocratic
and political rise of the working
class and the serfs. Before the
class as well as the decline of the
Communist Revolution, the
aristocratic or feudal class. While
aristocratic class enjoyed luxury,
also shedding a light to the reaction
power and a great deal of privileges,
of the higher class on change. They
not to mention a gigantic patch of
were uncertain about the change
lands. But all such privileges were
which was knocking at their
made possible through the hard
doorsteps. Let’s begin dissecting
work of serfs yet they were not
The Cherry Orchard as a Political
allowed to enter into the kitchens of
Play from the division of classes at
their masters. Lopakhin gives an
the time of the Communist
account of the condition of the
Revolution.
serfs,
 I’ve bought the estate where my
grandfather and my father were
slaves, where they weren’t even
allowed into the kitchen.
It is also notable that the feudal
aristocratic class did nothing to
justify their luxurious life. However,
the backbone behind their luxury
depended on their serfs. It created a
host of problems for them when the
season of change came in.
The Rise of Working Class
The Cherry Orchard realistically
portrays the social change taking
place in both the class. However,
after serfs were awarded with their
respective rights. Thus, the
possibility to elevate their social
status became possible. They were
allowed to run their own business as
well as to purchase estates. Such
development of progress for the
common working class is shown
through the character of Lopakhin.
As he himself asserted, he was the
grandson of the “slaves” who worked
day and night in the fields of their
master. However, upon being
awarded with the rights, Lopakhin is
not only able to develop his own
business, but also able to surpass
the aristocratic class by claiming
their own Cherry Orchard into his
possession.
The cherry orchard is mine now,
mine! My God, my God, the cherry
orchard’s mine!
Reaction by the Aristocrats
The play also highlights the reaction
of the Feudal class over the
downgrade to their social status. It is
obvious that they are not happy with
the change. When serfdom is
abandoned, they have nothing
special to do except to move into
another country. For instance,
Lyubov and her family shift in Paris,
France. She lavishly bestows her
wealth on a disloyal “lover” of hers.
Resultantly, she and her family is
unable to meet their expenses. She
and her family are rather unfit for the
job because they spent their life
doing nothing. Therefore, the only
option left for their financial stability
is to utilize their Cherry Orchard.
Lopakhin, being a practical person,
gives a piece of practical advice to
build cottages and lease them. The
advice is rejected because the
aristocratic class is still obsessed
with their past of possessions (and
this is the core reaction of the
aristocratic class on the change).
The auctioning of Cherry Orchard
deprives the aristocrats of their
‘valuable’ assets. But the reaction of
the young aristocrats is optimistic as
Anya resolutes,
We’ll plant a new garden, finer
than this.
Depiction of Social Issues in Hedda Gabler
By Asad Imran
November 9, 2021
Categories: Modern Drama
Introduction
Conclusion
Thus, The Cherry Orchard by Anton
Chekhov realistically conveys the
political and social outburst of the
Communist change that made the
serfs the active contributors for their
society.
Sources and Suggested
Readings
1. http://askliterature.com/drama/an
chekhov/the-cherry-orchard/the-
cherry-orchard-as-social-and-
political-play/
2. https://www.coursehero.com/lit/T
Cherry-Orchard/context/
Hedda Gabler, a well-known play by
Henrik Ibsen, is a play that
realistically highlights the social
issues of its time. It is a well-known
fact that it was Ibsen who kick-
started the movement of Modern
Drama. The chief feature of Modern
Drama was a realistic portrayal of
the social issues instead of
romanticizing or glorifying
something. Hedda Gabler highlights
the social issues of the confinement
of women, freedom of men to do
anything and the aftermath of
confinement.
Confinement of Women
In the Victorian Era, the role of
women was only determined to be
chaste and to be married. But as
French Revolution began to influence
many people, the sense of freedom
was given more importance. The
idea of the freedom of women was
so modern at that time that many
people turned against it. In Hedda
Gabler, the play, the confinement of
women is shown through Hedda
Gabler. Just like any other Victorian
woman, Hedda Gabler is afraid of
her society. From the text, it is
obvious that Hedda wanted to lead
an independent life after the death of
her father but,
I’d danced myself out. That was
all. My time was up.
Hedda wanted to see herself as a
horse rider or politician. But crippled
by the cries of her society, she
pursued marriage.
Freedom of Men
Another issue that this play presents
is rather contrasted with the
confinement of women. Man of the
Victorian Era has all the freedom to
do whatever he likes to. Apart from
the freedom, man is considered as a
guardian of the chastity of woman.
The social issue related to the
freedom of man is the exploitation
of that freedom by pursuing negative
actions. Men in Hedda Gabler are
presented in not a good light. George
Tesman, though he purchases a new
home for Hedda, still does not offer
her the company she needs despite
the six-month long honeymoon. But
the knavish person out of the bunch
is Judge Brack. He is not hesitant to
ruin the life of a married lady only for
a triangular yet sexual relationship.
The Aftermath of the
Confinement of Women
The character of Hedda Gabler is a
prime example to showcase the
aftermath of such a confinement.
Being a daughter of a general and
upon seeing the injustice in the form
of the monopolistic freedom of men,
she is ambitious to change “a man’s
destiny”. In the play, Hedda
desperately tries to mould Loevborg
after Thea successfully moulds him
to his redemption. Hedda does this
because she “is bored to death”. In
Hedda’s attempts in making
Loevborg “free again”, Hedda falls a
prey to Brack’s blackmailing. Upon
losing her own domestic freedom,
Hedda thinks no other than suicide
to reclaim her freedom and to let
List of Important Long Questions of Modern Drama in
2022 for MA English Literature Part 2 – Sargodha
University
people like Judge Brack know that
“people can perhaps have the ability
to do such things”.
Conclusion
Hedda Gabler, The Play appropriately
highlights the hypocritical as well as
monopolistic freedom of men as
well as the unjust confinement of
women which is the core reason
behind the negative aftermath as is
shown through the character of
Hedda Gabler.
Sources and Suggested
Readings
1. Lectures of Sir Hassam Akbar
2. This article was written on the
basis of my own understanding of
this play. If some contextual
errors are found, kindly comment
below.
By Asad Imran
December 4, 2021
Categories: Modern Drama

4. A Tragedy or a Black Comedy

Hedda Gabler
1. As a Tragedy and Reasons behind
Her Tragedy
2. Reflection of Social Issues in
Hedda Gabler
3. Role of Female Characters
4. Significance of the title
5. Symbolism
6. Character Sketch of Hedda Gabler
Arms and The Man
1. Shaw as a Realist
2. Reversal of Values in Arms and
the Man
3. Shaw as a Socialist
4. The Shavian Hero in Arms and the
Man
The Sea
1. Character of Mrs. Rafi and Mr.
Hatch
2. Use of Symbols and Metaphors
3. Responsibility of Individual in
Search of Truth
5. Bond’s Concept of Violence in The
Sea
6. Meaning of the Title
Waiting for Godot
1. Existentialism and Nihilism
2. As an Absurd Play
3. The Theme of Waiting
4. Other Themes
5. Tragedy or Comedy
6. Significance of Lucky’s Speech
7. Beckett as a Dramatist
8. Similarities and Difference
between Estragon and Viladmir
9. Symbolism
Cherry Orchard
1. As a Political Play – Or Political
Change
2. As a Tragic Comedy
3. Character Sketch of Lyubov
4. Character Sketch of Lopakhin
5. As a Naturalistic Play
6. Importance of the Title
Other Topics
1. The Main Features of British
Drama after World War 2
Modern Drama – Past Papers – MA English Literature
– Part 2 – Sargodha University
By Asad Imran
December 24, 2021
Categories: Modern Drama
Time Allowed: 3 Hours
Total Marks: 100
Passing Marks: 40 (As of 2020)
Note: Objective part is compulsory.
Attempt any four questions from the
subjective part.
2021
Short Questions
1. Describe the physical personality
of Hedda Gabler?
2. What is the attitude of Hedda
Ciabler towards other female
characters in the play “Hedda
Gabler”?
2. Who is the Father of Modern
Drama, Ibsen or Shaw?
3. Define tragi-cemedy giving two
examples of this particular geare?
4. What is relation of Varya to Mrs.
Ranevsky?
5. What is the setting of the play
“The Sea”?
6. Who is Mr Evans?
7. Where does Bluntschli hide
himself?
8. Why do Vladimir and Estagen
want to commit suicide?
9. What changes Pozzo and Lucky in
Act-II?
10. What is the opinion of Sergius
about the art of soldiering?
Long Questions
1. The Cherry Orchard truly
represents a decaying order which
cannot sustain itself for long.
Comment
2. What is meant by the Theatre of
the Absurd? How far Waiting for
Godot can be termed as an
Absurd Play?
3. Hedda Gabler is a tragedy in a true
sense. Do you agree with this
statement? Substantiate your
stance with special reference to
Aristotle’s concept of tragedy
4. What are the contributions of
Henrik Ibarn und GB Shaw to the
development and growth of
modern English drama?
5. Discuss Arms and the man as an
anti-romantic comedy
6. Critically analyze the character of
Mrs. Refi in The Sea.
2020
Short Questions
1. In what two ways is the theme of
motherhood introduced in ‘Hedda
Gabler’?
2. Why is Hedda so cruel to other
female in the play?
3. From what class struggle does
Louka pass?
4. Compare the thematic and
structural unity of Waiting for
Godot”?
5. What does the falling of axe stand
for in ‘The Cherry Orchard’?
6. How is carrot used as a symbol in
“Waiting for Godot”?
7. Mention the major fear of Mrs.
Rafi.
8. Briefly introduce Epic Theatre.
9. What is primarily anti-romantic in
‘Arms and the Man’?
10. Define Naturalism.
Long Questions
1. The play ‘Hedda Gabler’ focuses
on certain clashes between the
aristocracy and the bourgeoisie.
Point out those clashes and their
effects on man and society.
2. How do you take the play “The
Sea’ – a light-hearted tragedy or a
black comedy? Quote text to
support your answer.
3. Evaluate ‘The Cherry Orchard’ as a 4. How do Willy and Rose create
briefing on social and economic their personal maturity?
depression in the contemporary 5. What is the importance of tree in
Russia. ‘Waiting for Godot’?
4. A Shavian character has certain 6. Briefly describe Bond’s concept of
specifications. Who is a real Violence.
Shavian character in ‘Arms 7. Why is there no climax to Waiting
and the Man’ and on what for Godot”?
grounds? 8. Why does Raina prefer Bluntchili
5. Describe the various symbols to Sergius?
used in ‘Waiting for Godot’. 9. Why does Judge Brack never
6. Explain the given lines: marry?
10. Define Naturalism.
“I’m like that. Either I forget right
away or I never forget.”
Long Questions
“Suffering is a human language and
everything that has a voice is a 1. How would a Pakistani

human. “ audience/reader take Hedda?

Detestable? Captivating?
2019 Admirable? something else?
2. Does Waiting for Godot provide a
Short Questions solution to the problems of
present day man? If yes, how? If
1. What is the importance of home
no, why not?
in Hedda Gabler”?
3. “Everything I touch seems
2. Who can be called Chekov’s
destined to turn into something
spokesman in ‘The Cherry
mean and farcical.”
Orchard’ and why?
4. Shaw is predominantly realistic
3. What is the main character flaw of
but deviations are still there. How
Trofimov in “The Cherry Orchard’?
much realistic and unrealistic
 does he appear in ‘Arms and the
Man’? Quote text where
necessary.
5. Evaluate “The Cherry Orchard’ as
a political play.
6. Critically analyze the character of
Mrs. Rafi (“The Sea’). Explain the
given lines:
“Everything I touch seems destined
to turn into something mean and
farcical.”
“Life has gone by as if I never lived.”
2018
Short Questions
1. Describe the physical features of
Hedda Gabbler.
2. From where do Hedda and George
return when the play opens?
3. Why is G.B.Shaw call an
iconoclast?
4. Who says in ‘Arms and the Man”:
5. “Soldiering, my dear, is the
coward’s art of attacking when
you are strong and keeping out of
harm’s way when you are weak”.
6. Who does purchase Cherry
Orchard? What does it signify?
7. Give a brief estimate of Yasha?
8. What does sea in ‘The Sea’
symbolize”?
9. Why do Vladimir and Estragon
want to commit suicide?
10. What are the major themes of
Bond’s plays?
11. Why is ‘Waiting for Godot written
only in two acts?
Long Questions
1. ‘Hedda Gabbler’s character
anticipates the modern
emancipated woman who
invariably places herself in
opposition to the traditional
maternal role’. Elaborate.
2. ‘The Cherry Orchard’ truly
represents a decaying order which
cannot sustain itself for long.”
Comment
3. What is Theatre of Absurd? How
far *Waiting for Godot can be
called as an Absurd play?
4. What does Bond gain by inserting
the classical tragedy of Orpheus
with in the tragedy of modern
world in ‘The Sea’?
5. Shaw’s aim is to destroy illusions
and to compel his audience to
face realities. Discuss Arms and
the Man in the light of this remark.
6. Discuss the main features of
British drama after the World War- 10. Give a pen-picture of Rose with
11.
2017
Short Questions
1. Mention Hedda’s life before and
after marriage.
2. Why is Hedda called “a female
Hamlet” in ‘Hedda Gabler’?
3. How does Act 1 of ‘Arms and the
Man’ introduce the themes of the
play?
4. Who says in ‘Arms and the Man’:
“Act as if you expected to have
your own way, not as if you
expected to be ordered about”?
5. What does Lucky’s “Dance in a
Net’ symbolize?
6. What benefit does Pozzo get from
his blindness?
7. Who says in “The Cherry Orchard”:
“Well, good-bye, old man. It’s time
to get. Here we stand pulling one
another’s noses, but life goes its
own way all the time”.
8. What did anya do in Paris?
9. Differentiate between theme and
motif.
reference to ‘The Sea’.
Long Questions
1. Should “Hedda Gabler’ be
considered a tragedy? How does
it adhere (Or not adhere) to tragic
characterization, structure, or
catharsis?
2. ‘Arms and the Man’ is an attempt
on ‘reversal of values’. Elucidate.
3. Is ‘Waiting for Godot’ about Godot
or Wait? Justify your answer with
strong arguments.
4. How does the comic element in
“The Cherry Orchard” enhance the
tragic impact of the play?
5. Examine Edward Bond’s use of
symbolism, metaphor and
surrealism in “The Sea”.
6. Who deserves the better claim as
“the father of modern drama” and
how— Ibsen or Shaw?
2016 2. How does Shaw in “Arms and the
Man’ reconsider romance and
Short Questions heorism in the light of realism?
3. Point out the similarities and
1. Describe the physical appearance
dissimilarities present between
of Hedda.
Vladimir and Estragon.
2. Why is Hedda so cruel to other
4. Class conflict is quite evident in
females in “Hedda Gabler”?
“The Cherry Orchard”. Prove with
3. What is Raina’s nickname for
examples from the text.
Bluntschli?
5. What is the role of Mrs. Rafi in the
4. In what ways is Captain Bluntschli
play “The Sea”?
an Anti-hero?
6. What are the contribution of Shaw
5. Discuss Beckett’s attitude toward
and Ibsen to modern drama?
hope in “Waiting for Godot”.
6. What is the function of the boy in
2015
“Waiting for Godot”?
7. What is Varya’s relation to Mrs. Short Questions
Ranavksy?
1. For what physical feature does
8. Why does Trophimov not accept
Hedda not like Thea?
Lopakhin’s money?
2. In what extraordinary way does
9. What are the Vicar’s views about
Hedda greet Judge Brack. When
Colin?
he comes to tell about the
0. How does Bond criticize religion
purchase of a villa?
with regard to the aristocratic
3. How does Shaw employ irony in
class?
the opening lines of “Arms and
Long Questions The Man’?
4. How did Petkoff become a major?
1. Describe the major social issues
5. Why is “Waiting for Godot” in two
reflected by the play “Hedda
acts?
Gabler”.
6. Explain the idea of pairing
throughout “Waiting for Godot’.
7. What is the metaphoric
significance of sea in “The Sea”?
8. Why does Mrs. Rafi arrange a
play?
9. What does Charlotta’s character
represent in “The Cherry
Orchard”?
0. How is Dunyasha an especially
Ironic Character?
Long Questions
1. Who is responsible for the
destruction of Hedda—Fate or
Society? Give examples to prove
your point.
2. How does Sergius’ view of war
differ from Bluntschli’s?
3. How far is it correct to say that
“Waiting for Godot” voices the
infinite hope and despair of man
about the future of humanity?
4. Why does Bond refuse to suggest
a solution to the problems of the
society? What are the
recommendations made in “The
Sea” regarding the responsibility
of the individual in the search of
the truth?
5. How does the comic element in
“The Cherry Orchard” enhance the
tragic impact of the play?
6. Discuss the main features of
drama after the World War-II.
2014
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50
Modern Poetry – Short Questions and Their Answers
(From Sargodha University Past Papers) MA English
Literature Part 2
By Asad Imran
July 2, 2021
Categories: Modern Poetry
2021
Q1: Describe the distinctive features
of Romantic Poetry.
Already answered below
Q2: Define alliteration. Give an
example.
Alliteration is the repetition of the
consonant sounds at the beginning
of words in a verse.
Example:
From forth the fatal loins of these
two foes
Q3: What is the central idea of the
poem “The Chimney Sweepers” by
William Blake?
The central idea of the Chimney
Sweepers is to highlight the innocent
desires of liberty from the sooty
profession of the chimney sweepers
as this kind of dangerous work is not
suitable for small children.
Q4: What type of memories does
Wordsworth recall in the “Prelude”?
Wordsworth recalls the memories of
his childhood by spending most of
his time in the lap of Nature in the
“Prelude”.
Q5: Why does John Keats call the
Grecian Urn “Sylvan Historian”?
Already answered below
Q6: What is the theme of the poem
“When You Are Old” by W.B Yeats?
The prominent theme of this poem is
the temporal significance of beauty.
Q7: What type of impression do we
gather about Philip Larkin’s
personality after reading his poem
“Mr. Bleaney”?
Just like the dull and dreary life of
Mr. Bleaney, we get the impression
that Philip Larkin must have the
same personality too. But Larkin’s
life was marked with pain of cancer
that eventually took his life.
Q8: What does West Wind’
symbolize?
The West Wind symbolizes for the
beginning of a new order after the
end of the previous life. It can also
be interpreted as a symbol of
change and revolution.
Q9: Explain the given lines with
reference to the poem and the Poet.
And the round ocean and the living air,
And the blue sky, and in the mind of
man;
A Motion and a Spirit, that impels.
Poem: Tintern Abbey
Poet: William Wordsworth
Through the very lines, the poet
gives a clear idea of the spirit of
Nature. The presence of the
monarchy of Nature can be found
everywhere. Be it the round ocean,
the blue sky or even in the mind of
the poet.
Q10: Explain the given lines with
reference to the poem and the Poet.
My heart aches, and a drowsy
numbness pains
My sense, as though of hemlock I had
drunk
Poem: Ode to a Nightingale
Poet: John Keats
These lines have been taken from
the beginning of the poem. In these
lines, the poet shows his condition
of the excess of pain that has been
inflicted upon him through the “fever
and fret” of life. The pain is so
intense that the poet is unable to
feel it.
2020
Q1: Define the Romantic Age in your own
words.
Romantic Age was a literary and artistic
movement of the late 1700s that aimed at
showcasing and finding escape in nature and
illustrating personal emotions attached to it.
Q2: What is the major theme in “The Little Black
Boy”?
There are two major themes of this poem by
William Blake. The first one is the earthly equality
that the boy perceives for the Divine Love while
the second theme gives importance to life and
love to claim a good spot in the afterlife. View
Critical Analysis
Q3: What is the central idea of the poem, “To a
Skylark”.
The main idea hidden in this poem is to relish the
freedom like a skylark that flies and to enjoy the
song of Nature. Source
Q4: What kind of memories does Wordsworth
reveal in “Tintern Abbey”?
William Wordsworth reveal his memories of
childhood in his long poem, “Tintern Abbey”. He
recalls playing in the lap of Nature and visiting
the abbey with his sister.
Q5: Explain the following lines in your own
words along with the name of the poem and the
poet:
“A thing of beauty is a joy forever
Its loveliness increase, it will never pass into
nothingness”
Poem: Endymion
Poet: John Keats
These lines indicate that the beauty of a thing
lives beyond a person’s death. If a person dies
that does not mean beautiful things associated
with him shall wither away with hands of time.
Q6: Explain the following lines in your own
words along with the name of poem and the
poet:
“Where are the songs of spring? Ay, where are
they?
Think not of them, thou hast thy music too.”
Poem: Ode to Autumn
Poet: John Keats
These lines are used to pay a tribute to autumn.
Keats admire the way autumn plays the music of
its own.
Q7: What is the main idea of the poem “The
Divine Image”?
The Divine Image conveys its main idea of
establishing a divine relationship between God
and Man through four virtues that are Mercy,
Pity, Peace and Love. Source
Q8: What is the central idea of the poem “When
You are Old”?
When You are Old is a poem by W. B. Yeats in
which he underlines a bleak idea of aging. He
suggests that as soon as we begin to age, our
youthful beauty starts to fade away. Source
Q9: Write a note on Philip Larkin’s poetry in your
own words.
Larkin’s poetry gives us a slight hint at the
pessimism lurking in the twentieth century. His
poetry mostly centred around religion, isolation,
social chaos, love and nature. Source
Q10: What is the main idea of the poem “Church
Going”?
“Church Going” is a poem by Philip Larkin in
which he discusses the theme of tension
between religion and spirituality as well as the
relationship between humans and
nature. Source
2019
Q1: Define the Romantic Age in your own country and abroad. But he avoided public
words. gatherings and modern American
Already defined in 2020 Poetry. Source
Q2: What is the major theme in the poem “The Q10: What is the central idea of the poem Mr.
Divine Image”? Bleany?
Already answered in 2020 Mr. Bleaney is a poem by Philip Larkin in which
Q3: What is the central idea of the poem Tintern he opens up the shallowness of life and
Abbey? loneliness of humans. Source
The central idea in Wordsworth Tintern Abbey
revolves around remembering Wordsworth’s 2018
childhood memories and Man’s association with
nature. Q1: What is dualism in Black’s poetry?
Q4: What kind of memories do Wordsworth
Dualism in Blake’s poetry is his
reveal in The Prelude?
Wordsworth reveals his memories of his treatment of the same topic from
childhood and school time in The Prelude and
how did he grow up in the lap of Nature. the perspective of both innocence as
Q5: Explain the given lines with the name of the well as experience.
poem and the poet in your own words:
Q2: Define symbolism.
“but still will keep
Symbolism is a process of using symbols in a
A bower quiet for us, and a sleep
literary work, be it poetry, novel, drama or prose.
Full of sweet dreams, and health, and quiet
While a symbol is a literary device that stands for
breathing.”
something else beyond its literal
Poem: Endymion
meaning. Source
Poet: John Keats
Q3: Define realism.
In these lines, the poet suggests that beauty is
Realism is the depiction of the reality of everyday
like a shelter or a shadow of a tree which helps
life through the life-like personages in
us plunge into our world of dreams. Source
literature. Source
Q6: Explain the following lines in your own
Q4: Explain the term “experience” used in
words along with the name of the poem and the
Blake’s poetry.
poet:
According to Blake, experience is contrary to
“Where are the songs of spring? Ay, where are
innocence but both are essential for a soul to
they?
function. Experience is what makes us tackle
Think not of them, thou hast thy music too.”
with the challenges of life. View Discussion
Already explained in 2020
Q5: Why did Wordsworth visit Tintern Abbey in
Q7: What is negative capability?
1798?
Negative capability is the ability to remove one’s
Wordsworth visited Tintern Abbey on 13 July
self from a piece of writing and to become like
1798 due to the social and political turmoil
the nightingale of Keats as a whole.
during French Revolution, Wordsworth fled from
Q8: What is the central idea of the poem Wild
France to save his life. Source
Swans at Coole?
Q6: Why does Shelley call the West Wind
The central idea of this poem by WB Yeats is
“Destroyer and Preserver”?
how time progresses. The poet is saddened to
Shelley calls the West Wind both the destroyer
realize how much has changed since he began
and preserver in his ode. The wind is a destroyer
counting swans nineteen years ago. Source
in a sense because it puts an end to the lives of
Q9: Write a note on Philip Larkin’s life in your
different plants and small birds in cold winter. It
own words.
is a preserver in the form of the gentle breeze of
Philip Larkin was born in 1922 and died in 1985.
He was a well-recognized poet both in his
Spring that breathes a new life into the plants,
flowers and birds. Source
Q7: Explain the following:
“Heard Melodies are Sweet
But those unheard are Sweeter”
In these two lines, Keats wants to state that
beauty is not limited to the concrete world that
surrounds us. It can live inside our would of
imagination. Just like the unheard music player
by the pipers inscribed on the Grecian urn that
can be heard through the imaginative ears of
ours.
Q8: Why does T. S. Eliot call London an “Unreal
City”?
TS Eliot calls London “Unreal City” because of
the people living in this city who lack warmth and
the ability to connect with each other. Source
Q9: How does Larkin show his disrespect to the
Church?
Philip Larkin shows his disrespect for the Church
by mounting the pulpit and mocking the
ceremony of the Church. Source
Q10: Define the “Spiritus Mundi” in “The Second
Coming” by W. B. Yeats.
Spiritus Mundi, according to W. B. Yeats means
a “muse” that bestows upon the poets and
writers to write. He thinks that Spiritus Mundi is
a primary source for “images” and
“symbols”. Source
2017
Q1: What is mysticism?
Mysticism is a person’s spiritual association with
God or the Absolute. In my humble opinion,
mysticism is something that takes us away from
the concrete world to a spiritual realm where
there is no monarchy of the time. Read more
Q2: What do “Songs of Innocence” signify?
The Songs of Innocence signify the innocent
fears and actions of a child and how he needs
the experience to get into practical life when he
grows into adulthood.
Q3: Define romanticism.
Romanticism was a literary movement in the
18th century that emphasized at the subjectivity,
importance of nature and primacy of the
individual.
Q4: Define pantheism.
Pantheism is a doctrine of religion and
philosophy that is used by a large number of
literary figures who believe that God is present
everywhere in nature. They think that God and
nature are the same. Source
Q5: Why did Wordsworth pay his first visit to
Tintern Abbey in 1793?
Already answered.
Q6: Define Ode.
Ode is a lyrical poem that is an address to a
living being, an inanimate object or an abstract
thing. For example, Ode to West Wind, Ode to
Immortality.
Q7: Why does Keats call urn “Sylvan
Historian”?
Keats calls the urn a Sylvan Historian because of
the image printed on it. The image portrays a
pagan festival in which people are surrounded by
wooden trees. Because the word “Sylvan” means
“wooden”.
Q8: Explain “Those were pearls that were his
eyes”.
This line appears in T. S. Eliot’s Wasteland. This
line hints at Ariel’s Song in Shakespeare’s “The
Tempest”. Probably as a symbol to highlight the
ruins after World War 1. Source
Q9: What is the significance of “Uneven Lines”?
The word “Uneven lines” in Larkin’s poem
“MCMXIV” (1914) has been used as a symbol for
the people who had been signing up for the
participation in World War First. Source
Q10: Why does Shelley call the west wind
“destroyer and preserver”?
Already answered.
2016
Q1: What are the four divine qualities in “The
Divine Image”?
These qualities are mercy, pity, peace and love.
Q2: Define mysticism.
Already answered.
Q3: Why did Wordsworth visit Tintern Abbey in
1793?
Already answered.
Q4: What does Wordsworth mean by Nature?
Wordsworth conceived nature as a living being;
as a source of joy and as a great teacher.
Wordsworth worshipped Nature due to the very
qualities that he gave to Nature. Source
Q5: What is the underlying message in “Ode to
the West Wind”?
Ode to the West Wind gives the message of both
destruction and creation. Life is a continuous
process that is marked by destructive as well as
creative activities. After the destruction of Winter
comes the creativity in the Summer.
Q6: How is the Urn “Sylvan historian”?
Already answered.
Q7: Define escapism.
Escapism is the desire of a romantic poet to flee
from the harsh realities of life into the lap of
Nature.
Q8: What type of man is Prufrock?
Prufrock is the man of our modern time. He is a
voice of disillusionment and loneliness who
becomes bald at the head. Source
Q9: How does Yeats compare Ireland with
Troy?
Yeats compares Ireland and Troy through the
characters of Gonne and Helen. Just like Helen
was partially responsible for the burning of the
city of Troy in Homer’s Iliad during Trojan War.
According to Yeats, Gonne was partially
responsible for the revolution taking place in
Ireland.
Q10: What is Larkin’s attitude to World War-I in
1914?
Larkin’s views on First World War were stern as
he wrote that it was the death of innocence and
illusions.
2015
Critical Appreciation – Ode to a Nightingale – John
Keats
By Asad Imran
August 20, 2021
Categories: Modern Poetry
Q1: Define mysticism.
Already answered
Q2: Define romanticism.
Already answered
Q3. Why is Blake called a visionary poet?
Blake is called a great visionary poet because he
can visualize things through his sharp
imagination. He himself claimed that he had
seen the vision of God when he was only four
years old. Source
Q4. Define ode.
Already answered
Q5. Define pantheism.
Already answered
Q6. Define absurdism.
Absurdism is an internal conflict between finding
the inherent value and meaning of life and the
incapability to find it. Source
Q7. What is negative capability?
Already answered
Q8. Why does Eliot call the modern civilization
‘Wasteland’?
Eliot calls modern civilization “Waste land”
because of their social and moral decay. Eliot
uses it as a symbol to demonstrate how much
ruinous the modern civilization has become
intoxicated in their national pride. Source
Q9. What do the ‘dark-clothed’ children signify
in Larkin’s poem MCMXIV (1914)?
“Dark-clothed” children signify the time period in
which the war was going to be fought.
Q10. Why does Keats call the Urn ‘Sylvan
Historian’?
Already answered

Background Information
Ode to a Nightingale is one of the
most quoted poems in English
Literature. The ode was written in
1819. Charles Brown, a friend of
Keats suggests that he constructed
the particular poem in the morning
only, inspired by the song of a
nightingale while sitting under a
plum tree. The famous ode is Keats”
attempt in fleeing from the “fear and
fret” of life,
My heart aches, and a drowsy
numbness pains
The ode is Keats’ largest poem and
his penetration or transition into the
nightingale through Negative
Capability.
Summary
The poem opens when the
addressor is profoundly enchanted
by the song of the nightingale as if it
were a strong intoxicating wine. The
speaker desires to acquire the finest
wine buried deep in Earth and to flee
into the forest of the nightingale. The
poet declares an escape from the
worries of life.
The poet flies to the calm and
fragrant realm of the nightingale
through his “wings of poesy” where
no moonlight can pierce through the
darkness of the night. The addresser
identifies flowers not through his
slight but through smell. The
speaker considers the nightingale
immortal because its unchanged
song is heard by people from
generation to generation. Then, the
nightingale leaves the poet in the
middle of his imagination and he is
left confused in between the state of
dream and reality.
Themes
Ode to a Nightingale is rich in the
themes of anxiety of time,
immortality and death. It must be
noted that Keats himself was
suffering from the problem of the
deaths of his loved ones. His own
life was uncertain as he himself was
mortally ill. Therefore, the theme of
death is prominent in his poetry.
In this poem, the speaker is unaware
of his actual state whether he is
alive or dead. One thing he is sure
about is his state of drowsiness that
lasts from the beginning to the end
of this poem. The speaker seems
anxious of his temporariness in the
grand scheme of time. He is
marvelled at the “immortality” of the
nightingale through her song. One
thing to note here is that Keats
suggests that it is the song of the
Nightingale that keeps it immortal,
not the physical body of the
nightingale. Similarly, it is the poetry
of the poet which keeps him alive
even after his death.
The second theme prominent in the
poem is the poet’s escape through
the bitterness of life through the tool
of intoxication. But how does the
poet acquires his state of
numbness? Obviously through the
song of the nightingale. The poet
enters into the peaceful realm of the
nightingale through his poetry and
relishes the melodious sound and
fragrant smell to forget his plight
temporarily.
Away! away! for I will fly to thee,
Not charioted by Bacchus and his
parts,
But on the viewless wings of
Poesy,
But the state of intoxication is
temporal, as the world, and the poet
is forced to return into the actual
world of melancholy.
The third theme hidden in this poem
is the poet’s love for the pure beauty
of Nature. The particular version of
the beauty is represented through
the enchanting song of the
nightingale that is simple, pure and
‘immortal’.
Literary Devices
Since this Ode is a long poem, it
boasts a variety of literary devices to
add number of meanings to it. Keats
has used similes, metaphors and
personification in his poem to
structuralize his imaginative world.
Simile occurs when the poet
describes forlorn as a ringing bell,
Forlorn! the very word is like a
bell.
Keats also implies a metaphor to
praise the lovely effect of wine like
the fine and the warm weather in the
South,
for a beaker full of the warm
south
Keats personifies beauty to a human
being who can see,
where beauty cannot keep her
lustrous eyes
The poem also carries apostrophes
when the poet addresses the
nightingale and affirms its
immortality.
Setting and Images
The poem basically originates within
the imaginative mind of the poet. So,
the original setting of this poem is
the poet’s mind. But his imagination
leads us and him to a dark but
fragrant jungle. Thus, the prominent
setting within the poem is the dark
and melodious woods where the
nightingale is singing.
Keats’ sensuous imagery sets him
apart from the rest of the
Romantics. His images are as vivid
as if the nightingale has flown from
her peaceful world to ours – singing
her sweet song. Here are some of
the images used in this ode to make
it more life-like, “Past the near
meadows”, “though of hemlock I had
drunk,” “Past the near meadows,”
“Tasting of Flora and the country
green”, and “viewless wings”.
Structural Analysis
As mentioned before, this ode is one
of the longest odes written by Keats.
The poem is made of 80 verses –
divided into 8 stanzas and each
stanza carries 10 lines. The rhyme
scheme of this poem is
ABABCDECDE. While the rhythm of
this poem is iambic pentameter. The
ode holds enjambments
(continuation of a sentence on two
or more lines) as well, as is obvious
in this example:
My sense, as though of hemlock I
had drunk,
Or emptied some dull opiate to
the drains.
Conclusion
Ode to a Nightingale is Keat’s own
Romantic escape from the hustle
and bustle of the daily routine. The
poem beautifully conveys Keat’s
views on death, immortality and
beauty through the guise of the
melodious song of the nightingale.
Critical Appreciation – Ode on a Grecian Urn – John
Keats
By Asad Imran
August 22, 2021
Categories: Modern Poetry
Background Information
Sources and Suggested
Readings
1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ode_t
2. https://www.litcharts.com/poetry/j
keats/ode-to-a-nightingale
3. https://www.shmoop.com/study-
guides/poetry/ode-
nightingale/summary
4. https://www.shmoop.com/study-
guides/poetry/ode-
nightingale/analysis/setting
5. https://literarydevices.net/ode-to-
a-nightingale/
6. Lectures of Sir Saffi
7. Critical Evaluation of Selected
Poems by John Keats – Famous
Products – Page 124
From the sweet melodies of the
“unheard music” to the “truthfulness
of beauty”, Ode on a Grecian Urn
is definitely the most influential as
well as famous ode ever written by
John Keats, appeared in Annals of
the Fine Arts in 1820. There is so
much to talk about the poem that it
is very hard to jot it down in one
article in a critical appreciation.
Although many researchers assert
that Keats must have been inspired
by the two essays written by
Benjamin Haydon. But Keats visit to
many museums in which he saw a
great collection of vases may have
stirred his imagination to address an
old but Grecian Urn. The poem
focuses on images engraved on the
urn.
Summary
The poem begins with the speaker
directly addressing the Urn by calling
it the “bride of quietness” as well as
the son of “silence and slow time”.
(Keats wants to state that the Urn
shall remain unchanged. ) Then the
addressor tells the readers about the
profession of the urn which is to tell
the history. There is a story
illustrated on the urn that may
involve either gods or men or both.
People are seen playing on pipes
and a forest is accompanied by
different people. The addressor is
uncertain about the actual story
behind the illustrations. (So, he tries
to find his own meaning inside the
illustration).
The poet tries to listen to the silent
music played by the pipers painted
on the urn and finds it more sweeter
than the “heard melodies”. Because
the picture shall remain static, the
piper sitting under the shady tree
shall keep on playing. Then the
addressor turns to the trees which
will never shed their leaves. The
passion of love between the maiden
who is chased by the boy and the
boy himself shall remain the same.
Then the poet shifts his poetic
spectacles to the other side of the
urn in which a cow sacrifice is
depicted and a procession of the on-
lookers being led by a priest. The
addressor feels anxious to tell us
that the people engraved on the urn
are long dead but the urn shall
continue to describe their stories.
And this is the beauty of the truth.
Themes
Death or mortality of human beings
is one major theme of this poem that
is evident in both inside as well as
the outward appearance of the
poem. The urn itself stands as a
symbol of death because an urn is
used to keep the ashes of the dead
in it. However, the urn of the ode
shows a Classical civilization that
has passed its share in the grand
scheme of time and no longer exists.
Moreover, the poem also gives
reference to the death when the poet
alludes to the illustration of the
sacrifice.
The poem is written in praise of
beauty that, according to the poet, is
truth itself. Therefore, the second
most prevalent theme is the
importance of art as a medium to
showcase beauty and truth. Truth is
something that is exact and
concrete while beauty is something
that casts a spell upon our five
senses. The main difference
between the two is the truth can be
both bitter as well as sweet but the
nature of beauty is always
appealing. Then why does Keats
consider them the same? The
answer is, again, death. Death or
mortality is the ultimate truth
counter to life. The urn depicts the
victory of death in eloquent terms.
But death is beauty as well.
Remember that along with other
Romantics, Keats was an escapist
too. Every escapist is desirous to
escape from the worries of life. And
the permanent solution for the
escape is death which makes it
horrifyingly beautiful. But art is
something that keeps both truth and
beauty alive, forever. Just look at the
picture of the urn. The engraving
shows the beauty of the culture of
the ancient Greece. The people
depicted on the urn are no longer
living but through the immortal
power of the art, their activities are
preserved. While the same can be
said for the art of poetry. If we know
about the urn and the people of the
urn, that is because of the immortal
power of poetry.
How is the Urn a History
without Footnotes?
The ode is a representation of the
love of ancient history by the poet of
the nineteenth century. Keats calls
the urn a ‘Sylvian’ Historian which
represents the history of the forest?
No way! Universally speaking, the
illustration engraved on the urn
makes it an Idyllic Historian. It is
idyllic in the sense of the presence
of trees animals and simple men.
The urn showcases the earlier
development of the modern
civilization. Cleanth Brooks calls the
poem “A History without Footnotes”
while disagreeing with the last lines
of the poem. Footnotes present
explanations of previously unknown
terms, places or persons. Ode on a
Grecian Urn is rightly a history
without footnotes because the poem
is written in a simple language that
does not require a heavy dose of
knowledge.
Literary Devices
The ode incorporates a number of
literary devices to add a distinctive
touch to it as well as to broaden the
scope of meanings. The first literary
device that hits us in the poem is
symbolism. Keats has implied many
symbols that refer to something
else. For instance, the symbols of
trees and plants denote to the
season of spring as well as youth.
Similarly, the urn itself has been
used as a symbol of the continuation
of time, life and death.
Personification is present in different
sections of the ode. For example, by
calling the urn “Sylvian Historian”, a
child of “silence and slow time” and
by attributing the quality of
musicians to the pipe. Synecdoche,
which is the representation of a
thing as a whole through one of its
parts, can also be traced in the poem
through the examples of denoting to
fever by “burning forehead” and
thirst through “patching tongue”.
While there is a striking instance of
paradox at the beginning of the
second stanza,
Heard melodies are sweet, but
those unheard
…
Pipe to the spirit ditties of no
tone:
Keats, here suggests that the
unheard melody can only be heard
through a spirit, which is
paradoxical.
Setting and Imagery
The poem takes place in an
unknown place surrounded by a
cluster of trees. We are uncertain
whether it is a forest or a village.
However, the sensuous images like,
“happy boughs”, “burning forehead”
and “marble men and maidens”.
Structural Analysis
The poem is structurally divided into
five stanzas of ten lines each. So, the
collective sum of the verses in this
ode reaches to the number fifty. The
rhyme scheme of this poem follows
ABABCDCDECDE in every stanza.
While the rhythmic pattern of this
ode is iambic pentameter.
Conclusion
Ode on a Grecian Urn is a beautiful
and melodious mix of the
truthfulness of beauty and history of
the i=ancients. But it has a message
under its disposal that Murray sums
up in his apt remarks in the poem,
It has a precious message to
mankind, not as a thing of beauty
which gives exquisite delight to
the senses, but as a symbol and
prophecy of a comprehensive
human life which mankind can
attain.
Sources and Suggested
Readings
1. Critical Evaluation of Selected
Poems by John Keats – Famous
Products – Page 110
2. Literary Criticism – Current Notes
– Page 319
3. Lectures of Sir Saffi
4. https://literarydevices.net/ode-on-
a-grecian-urn/
5. https://www.shmoop.com/study-
guides/poetry/ode-grecian-
urn/summary
Critical Appreciation – Ode to Autumn – John Keats
By Asad Imran
August 24, 2021
Categories: Modern Poetry
Background Information
Ode to Autumn is one of Keats’ last
poetic endeavours. Because after
one year of publishing the poem in a
collection called Lamia, Keats kicked
the bucket in Rome. Keats wrote this
poem when he was suffering from
his financial crisis, while walking in
the evening of the monarchy of
autumn. This short poem is highly
allegorical as it notes Keats’ direct
response to Peterloo Massacre, in
which the British Army showed its
brutality to the protestors who
demanded parliamentary reforms.
6. https://www.litcharts.com/poetry/
keats/ode-on-a-grecian-urn
7. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ode_
Summary or Situation
The poem starts with the speaker,
calling the sun and the autumn good
mates that help the fruit to grow and
crops to ripen. The ripe crops shall
drop more seeds to the ground,
making a perfect spot for the
blooming of flowers in Spring. The
addressor tells us that the bees think
that “warm days will never cease”
but the speaker knows better than
the bees.
In the second stanza, hard harvest is
accomplished and harvested crops
are safely stored. The autumn sits
on the floor of a granary. The
speaker suggests autumn to take a
rest or watch the making of cider. In
the last stanza, the speaker asks
autumn where did she keep the song
of Spring. But he also notes that the
song of autumn has her own music
too. The song of Autumn may
include harvested land in sunset,
clouds, bleating of lambs, gnats
flying and twittering and chirping of
the birds.
Themes
Ode to Autumn showcases the
theme of life and death at once.
Autumn is a season that stands
between the summer as well as the
winter or the season of life and
death. The pleasant days of Summer
and Spring bring the whistling of the
birds after the scorching winter. But
the season of autumn, despite its
moderate temperatures, warns the
elements of Nature of the plunder of
winter and death. It is a season to
build a shelter as well as to store
food for the snowy days.
The second theme of this poem lies
in the appreciation of the present
time. The poet reminds us of the
sweet music of spring but he
suggests autumn not to think of it.
Because her music has the beauty of
her own. Here, the poet wants to
emphasize the importance of the
present. He asserts that no matter
how many challenges fall in your
way like leaves, you must not be
afraid of them but embrace them
while you admire the facilities and
felicities of the present day.
Literary Devices
The use of literary devices extends
the scope of evaluation of a poem.
Keats has implied different literary
devices to make his ode stand out.
There are many symbolic meanings
hidden inside the poem. The autumn
is the symbol of a woman while the
sun stands for the male counterpart.
The poet compares autumn with a
person who picks up remains of
food, thus forming a simile,
 And sometimes like a gleaner
thou dost keep.
The poet puts a rhetorical question
to the readers as well as autumn
that “where are the songs of Spring?
” without expecting any answer. The
poet makes the sun and autumn
friends as if they were human
beings, thus personifying the
existence of autumn,
Season of mists and mellow
fruitfulness,
Close bosom-friend of the
maturing sun;
Setting and Images
This ode boasts a vast setting of a
field which is watched by autumn.
There are numerous images that
help us, the readers create a
projection of the ripeness of the
field. The images may include “the
granary floor”, “mossed cottage
trees”, “fume of poppies” and
“winnowing wind”. Thus, the
olfactory, tactile and visual imagery
transforms words into an imaginary
world.
Structural Analysis
The ode is composed of thirty-three
lines which are divided into three
stanzas. The rhyme scheme of the
particular ode is ABAB CDECCCE.
While the rhythmic pattern follows
the flow of iambic pentameter.
Conclusion
Ode to Autumn, despite its
appearant shortness, holds a
plethora of symbolic meanings
approaching from the simple
interpretations of a bridge between
the season of life and death to the
allegorical significance of
oppression and deliverance.
Sources and Suggested
Readings
1. Critical Evaluation of Selected
Poems by John Keats – Famous
Products – Page 143
2. Lectures of Sir Saffi
3. https://literarydevices.net/to-
autumn/
4. https://www.litcharts.com/poetry/j
keats/to-autumn
5. https://www.shmoop.com/study- 6. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/To_Au
guides/poetry/to-
autumn/summary

Critical Appreciation – A Poison Tree – William Blake

By Asad Imran
August 26, 2021
Categories: Modern Poetry

Development of Situation
Background Information
The poem opens on the speaker,
A Poison Tree was written and
sharing his anger with the person
illustrated by the poet and illustrator
(his friend) he is angry with and
William Blake in 1794 that was
resultantly, the anger or negative
included in Songs of Experience. The
emotions go away. But when the
initial title of the poem was Christian
speaker becomes angry with his
Forevearance. Because the poem is
enemy, he does not disclose his
included in the Songs of Experience,
anger with his foe. Thus, his rage
it displays a much grimmer aspect
continues to grow that he develops
of anger that can kill the innocent
through fears and tears.
soul of a person. The poem is
Consequently, his nourished anger
popular among the people of the
turns into a tree that bears a shiny
present day because it highlights the
fruit. The enemy of the poet stealthy
consequences of common negative
enters into his garden and picks up
emotions (any Akuma flying nearby?
the glittering fruit in the darkness of
)
night. The enemy eats the fruit of
negative emotions and lies
“outstretched beneath the tree”.
Themes
There is only one theme or hidden
message of the poem that is
expression and suppression of
anger. The poem maintains the fact
that compression of anger leads to
violence. Expression of anger in less
corrosive ways can minimize its
devastating effects. The addressor
of the poem emphasizes on the
frankness that ultimately leads to
the disappearance of anger.
Now, the question arises, is
suppression of anger and the poison
tree coming out of it are morally
good? Absolutely not! Although the
poet does not explicitly deems it
immoral in the text. But the title of
the poem directly informs us about
the poisonous injustice.
Allegorical Significance
Before highlighting the allegorical
significance of the poem. First, we
have to determine what actually
makes a person an enemy. An
enemy is a person who tries to
suppress a person or even attempts
to kill him. The poem is considered
to be a direct allegorical allusion to
the hatred of the French Revolution
by English Writers. The revolution
was brought after suppressed anger
of the working class against the
hostility of the aristocratic class. The
result was fierce and the fruit of the
poisonous tree was red in the blood
of the aristocracy as well as the
ones who were wrongly and unjustly
condemned by the “Republic”. Thus,
the vengeance of the speaker of the
poem is directly an allegorical
parallel to the vengeance of the
revolutionaries.
Literary Devices
A Poison Tree carries a striking use
of literary devices that add to the
charm as well as the meaning of the
poem. The first one is Antithesis.
Antithesis is a literary device that
presents two contrasting ideas
juxtaposed in one section. Here in
this poem, Blake has juxtaposed the
disappearance and development of
his anger with his friend and foe
simultaneously.
I was angry with my friend;
I told my wrath, my wrath did end.
I was angry with my foe:
I told it not, my wrath did grow.
The second literary device that
seems in works in this poem is
allusion. An allusion is a literary
device that, well, alludes to a story
from history, religion and mythology.
In this verse, Blake alludes to the
apple of knowledge in Eden and the
Fall of Mankind. The poem also
withholds symbolic meaning. Here,
the tree is the symbol of negative
emotions while the garden is the
heart that stores and nourishes
these emotions. While bearing of the
“apple bright” is an implied metaphor
that means the poet’s ill feelings.
Setting and Imagery
The poem takes place in a garden in
which the poison tree is situated.
The images used in this poem are
morbid. The imaginative picture
gallery in this poem may include
“watered it in fears”, “sunned it with
smiles”, ” grew both day and night”,
“bright apple”, and “foe outstretched
beneath the tree”. The images of this
poem put a horrifying effect on a
reader.
Structural Analysis
A Poison Tree is composed of
sixteen lines. While the poem is
beautifully divided into four
quatrains. Each quatrain contains
four lines. The rhyme scheme of this
poem is AA BB that is repeated in
every stanza, thus forming eight
heroic couplets. The rhythmic
pattern of this poem is trochaic
tetrameter.
Conclusion
Blake subtly transitions this poem
into a semi-didactic lesson of the
cathartic release of anger. He
favours the extinction of anger
within a person’s mind rather than its
emission.
Sources and Suggested 3. https://www.shmoop.com/study-
Readings guides/poetry/poison-
tree/summary
1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Poison_Tree
4. https://literarydevices.net/a-
2. https://www.litcharts.com/poetry/william-
poison-tree/
blake/a-poison-tree

Critical Appreciation – The Chimney Sweeper 1 –

William Blake

By Asad Imran
August 27, 2021
Categories: Modern Poetry

England in the eighteenth century.

Background Information Due to industrialization, it was a
common practice to use small
The Chimney Sweeper that is
children of four to six years, sold due
included in our course in Sargodha
to financial crisis, to clean the sooty
University is taken from Blake’s
chimneys up. Some of them would
collection of poems, Songs of
die due to breathing in soot and
Innocence. The poem along with
falling from the chimneys.
other poems of innocence was
published in 1789. The speaker of
this poem is a chimney sweeper who
Development of Situation
narrates his dream of attaining good
status in heaven (presumably). The The poem begins upon the chimney
poem is a direct hit upon the sweeper, revealing about himself.
acceptance of child labour in His mother died when he very small
and his father sold him when he
could barely cry. Then he tells about
his job and his bed made of soot.
Then the sweeper shifts his
attention to one of his fellow
sweeper whose name is Tom Dacre.
The narrator informs us about the
dream of Tom.
Tom dreams that a thousand other
chimney sweepers are locked inside
black coffins. An angel comes with a
bright key and sets all of them free.
They play and jump in the green
flelds and clean themselves up from
the soot by bathing in the river. Then
they fly into the clouds. The angel
says to Tom that if he works
dutifully, he will have the patronage
of God.
After waking up from his dream,
Tom picks up his tools of cleaning
and sets himself for work
enthusiastically. So that he may not
receive any kind of harm (inflicted by
humans).
Themes
Although the poem may look like an
“expression of innocence”, it hides
many grim themes of life, like
misery, death but not without hope.
The first obvious theme is the
deprivation of childhood. It is clear
that the children cleaning chimneys
are stripped off of their innocence of
childhood. The poem makes us
realize their plight and misery in no
obscure terms. They have no time
and right to play and get educated as
other privileged children. Their only
play is climbing up in the chimneys
and cleaning them up from top to
bottom while risking their (innocent)
lives.
Another prominent theme of this
poem is desire and hope. Remember
Tom’s dream?
he opened the coffins & set them
all free;
Then down a green plain, leaping,
laughing they run,
And wash in a river and shine in
the Sun.
The poet here wants to signify that
the chimney sweepers consider
themselves locked in a box or coffin.
No doubt it is a dangerous job and
sadly, they are not given even a
second of recreation and relaxation.
Therefore, it is a natural
phenomenon to dream of
recreational activities like playing,
jumping and most importantly,
cleaning their body from the sooty
mess of the chimneys they clean.
The dream also reveals the theme of
religious hope of deliverance. Their
desire transitions into a Christian
hope that enables the sweepers to
do the dangerous work. Because,
they have an innocent and firm belief
that their ‘hard’ work shall end in the
blessings of God. Hope keeps their
working spirit alive.
The Other Chimney Sweeper
Blake wrote two versions of The
Chimney Sweeper – one displaying
an innocent desire to go outside of
soot, while the other, being the
experience of the soul, shows the
grim side of the life of a chimney
sweeper. In the experience version
of chimney sweeping, the narrator
seems complaining the role of
Church in favouring dangerous child
labour in the guise of (Christian)
hardships. As compared to the
innocent chimney sweeper, the
experienced one has a much sadder
tone of resentment of the monarchy
who,
Make up a heaven of our misery.
Literary Devices
The literary devices used in this
poem are somewhat basic but
carrying deeper meanings inside.
The poet uses simile to compare
Tom’s curly hair with the wool of a
lamb. The instance of metaphor can
be traced when the narrator says,
“We rose in the dark”, thus signifying
the dark aspects of their life.
However, there are two striking
symbols used in this poem. The
symbol of lamb hints at the
innocence of childhood while green-
plain signifies freedom.
Setting and Imagery
The setting of this poem varies from
situation to situation. When the
narrator begins his miserable poem,
the setting of this poem hints at a
ground with a chimney nearby.
During the dream, the setting of this
poem shifts to a vast country plain.
The images used in this poem prove
a significant help in mapping the
dismal world of the chimney
sweepers. The images may include
like sleeping in soot, hair like the
back of a lamb, thousand sweepers
locked in coffins, sweepers playing
and cold morning.
Structural Analysis
The poem is composed of twenty
lines, divided into five stanzas. Each
stanza contains four verses, thus
forming a quatrain. The rhyme
scheme of this poem is AA BB. Such
heroic couplitism gives a “singy
songy” tone that adds the innocence
of a nursery rhyme. The only
difference between a nursery rhyme
and this song of innocence is the
grim reality of the life of a chimney
sweeper. The rhythmic pattern is
somewhere iambic and anapestic.
Conclusion
The Chimney Sweeper is Blake’s
vigorous atttempt in condemning
child labour when it was considered
a sacred rite. Blake’s innocent
narrator indirectly shows his
disregard to putting small children
into a work that would lock them into
sooty coffins.
Sources and Suggested
Readings
1. https://www.shmoop.com/study-
guides/poetry/chimney-sweeper-
innocence/summary
2. https://www.litcharts.com/poetry/w
blake/the-chimney-sweeper-
songs-of-innocence
3. https://literarydevices.net/the-
chimney-sweeper/
4. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_C
5. https://www.shmoop.com/study-
guides/poetry/chimney-sweeper-
innocence/analysis/form-and-
meter
Critical Appreciation – The Little Black Boy – William
Blake

By Asad Imran
August 30, 2021
Categories: Modern Poetry

And flowers and trees and beasts

Text and men receive
Comfort in morning joy in the
My Mother bore me in the southern
noonday.
wild,
And we are put on earth a little
And I am black, but O! my soul is
space,
white;
That we may learn to bear the
White as an angel is the English
beams of love,
child:
And these black bodies and this sun-
But I am black as if bereav’d of light.
burnt face
My Mother taught me underneath a
Is but a cloud, and like a shady
tree
grove.
And sitting down before the heat of
For when our souls have learn’d the
day,
heat to bear
She took me on her lap and kissed
The cloud will vanish we shall hear
me,
his voice.
And pointing to the east began to
Saying: come out from the grove my
say.
love & care,
Look on the rising sun: there God
And round my golden tent like lambs
does live
rejoice.
And gives his light, and gives his
Thus did my mother say and kissed
heat away.
me,
And thus I say to little English boy.
When I from black and he from white
cloud free,
And round the tent of God like lambs
we joy:
Ill shade him from the heat till he can
bear,
To lean in joy upon our fathers knee.
And then I’ll stand and stroke his
silver hair,
And be like him and he will then love
me.
Background Information
The Little Black Boy is one of the
famous poems written by a British
poet, William Blake. The poem was
published in the collection Songs of
Innocence in 1789. Evident from the
title, the poem raised the issue of
slavery and racism against the black
people at that time when slavery
was legal and the blacks were
deprived of their basic human rights.
They were leading a miserable life.
They were treated far below animals.
The poem features, well, a little black
boy who shows his desire to be
treated as equal as his white
‘friends’.
Development of Situation
The poem opens on the little black
boy, giving a little back story about
his origins. He tells us that his
mother bore him in the Southern
portion of Africa. He, then
emphasizes that he only has black
skin but his soul is white, just like
that of an English child. Then, he
tells the readers that his mother
brought him up underneath a tree
while facing the heat of the sun. His
mother states that the sun is an
equal blessing of God that shines its
rays on all creatures, giving them
comfort and joy. Then, she asserts
that his black body is like a cloud or
a shady tree that is to provide
shelter. His mother is hopeful that
their clouds shall wither away with
the blessings of God.
Then the boy speaks to an English
boy, suggesting to him that both of
them are born free. They should
enjoy their lives around the “tent of
God”. The Little Black Boy shall
provide his shade to the White Boy
for ensuring God’s heat of love. The
boy shows his desire to “be like him”
so that he might be loved.
Themes
The poem explores the themes that
were uncomfortable for the Colonial
Lords, Britishers to discuss. The first
major theme of this poem is racial
equality that the little black boy
expects from the white boy, both in
this world and the spiritual world
that may come after it. It was
evident that the Blacks were
considered very inferior to their
White counterparts. But the poem
argues that the black boy is as
spiritually pure as the white boy who
enjoys more privileges than an
African black boy,
And I am black, but O! my soul is
white;
White as an angel is the English
child:
Another theme of this poem is the
temporal identity on earthly life. The
poem implicitly suggests that the
racial identities of life on this earth
are temporary and they bear no
significance in the afterlife. It is our
conduct that determines our place in
the afterlife. The blacks of that time
lead miserable life. More misery on
earth means a more elevated place
in the afterlife. According to this
belief, black people shall enjoy a
more prosperous life in the afterlife
as compared to the whites. But the
black person in this poem shows his
full support for the white person so
that he may be loved not because of
his colour, but because of his good
deeds.
Literary Devices
Literary devices used in this poem
are similes, symbols and
enjambments. Simile occurs in this
poem when the poet compares a
white child with an angel (mostly
associated with light) and when
children are compared with lambs to
showcase their innocence. As for
the symbolism, the poem uses the
symbol of the colour of the elevation
as well as deprivation of social
status. The enjambment in this
poem continues and connects two
lines of the poem as thus,
When I from black and he from
white cloud free,
And round the tent of God like
lambs we joy.
Setting and Imagery
The main setting of this poem is (an
African) tree. The images used in
this poem help a reader grasp the
idea of Black Boy’s desire of racial
equality. These images may include
like, “underneath a tree”, mother
kissing her child, “I from black and
he from white cloud free”, and
“bereav’d of light”.
Structural Analysis
The poem is made of twenty-eight
lines arranged in seven stanzas.
Each stanza contains four verses,
thus forming a quatrain. The rhyme
scheme of this poem is ABAB CDCD
EDED FGFG HIHI JKJK LMLM.
Conclusion
A Little Black Boy is Blake’s bold
move in highlighting the social
prejudice against Black people that
was observed by the white people of
the eighteenth century. The poem
artfully highlights the desire of the
blacks to be loved and treated
humanly.
Sources and Suggested
Readings
1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_
2. https://www.litcharts.com/poetry/
blake/the-little-black-boy
3. https://poemanalysis.com/william
blake/the-little-black-boy/
4. https://literarydevices.net/the-
little-black-boy/
Critical Appreciation – The Divine Image – William
Blake

By Asad Imran
August 31, 2021
Categories: Modern Poetry

Text
To Mercy, Pity, Peace, and Love
All pray in their distress;
And to these virtues of delight
Return their thankfulness.
For Mercy, Pity, Peace, and Love
Is God, our father dear,
And Mercy, Pity, Peace, and Love
Is Man, his child and care.
For Mercy has a human heart,
Pity a human face,
And Love, the human form divine,
And Peace, the human dress.
Then every man, of every clime,
That prays in his distress,
Prays to the human form divine,
Love, Mercy, Pity, Peace.
And all must love the human form,
In heathen, Turk, or Jew;
Where Mercy, Love, and Pity dwell
There God is dwelling too.
Background Information
The Divine Image is a famous poem
composed and illustrated by William
Blake. The poem is a part of a
collection known as Songs of
Innocence that appeared in 1789.
The title of the poem has been taken
from the Book of Genesis, Chapter 1
and Verse 26:
And God said: Let us make man
in our image
The poem features a utopia in which
people are depicted practising four
traditional Christian values that are
Mercy, Pity, Peace and Love. And
they are deemed eligible for the
blessings of God.
Development of Situation
The poem opens basically is holy and is a tiny spec of God’s
addressing the four divine Christian shared divine image that links a
traditional virtues. The poet believes person with another person (and
that the human who is the Christian even God) spiritually.
child of God is also an embodiment
of these values. The quality of mercy “A Divine Image”
lives in the human heart. Pity is
Blake wrote two poems on the
evident from the human face. Peace
subject of divine image. The one that
is the human dress while love is the
appeared in the Songs of Experience
“human form divine”. Therefore,
is known as ‘The Divine Image’.
humans should love each other
While the second one that is
regardless of any religion, colour and
included in Songs of Experience is
creed as they love their God.
titled as “A Divine Image”. The poem
presents a terrifying image of
Themes
mankind that is marked with cruelty,
The main theme of this poem is the jealousy, terror and secrecy
shared divinity inside humanity. The (hypocrisy). Some analysts consider
poet does not mean to state that this poem as Blake’s attack on
humanity is the image of God or different religions claiming to be the
humanity is the physical right ones. Check out these lines to
representation of God. It is His divine get a clear idea of the poem:
traits that are universally present
Cruelty has a Human Heart
inside every person. The four
And Jealousy a Human Face
qualities that the poet is referring to
Terror the Human Form Divine
are mercy, pity, peace and love. The
And Secrecy, the Human Dress
existence of four divine qualities
connects them with each other
Literary Devices
through the mutual expectation (and
practice) of love. Thus, every person
The poem makes use of different
literary devices to heighten the
scope of meaning. The poem has
been dedicated to four Christian
virtues that make up the divine
image. The poet has used
personification by making the virtues
a part of different human qualities.
For Mercy has a human heart,
Pity a human face,
And Love, the human form divine,
And Peace, the human dress.
Blake also implies irony when he
describes Man as an image of God
while in Bible, God created man in
His image. While there are multiple
instances of repetition of four
Christian values or qualities (Mercy,
Pity, Peace and Love) to lay
emphasis on these values. The tone
of this poem is didactic while its
diction is assertive.
Setting and Imagery
The setting of this poem is the whole
earth because the poem indirectly
addresses the whole human race
living on earth. The poet makes use
of the images like praying in distress,
“where Mercy, Love, and Pity dwell”
and “Pity a human face” to display a
proper divine image that he intends
to showcase.
Structural Analysis
The Divine Image has been
composed of twenty lines. The
poem is divided into five stanzas of
four lines each, thus forming five
quatrains. The rhyme scheme of this
poem is ABCB ADAD EFGB GBGH
IJKJ, following an inconsistent
pattern in stanzas. While the
rhythmic pattern of this poem is
iambic tetrameter.
Conclusion
The Divine Image shows an image of
love and harmony across the globe.
As unrealistic as the idea sounds but
one must keep in mind that Blake
was a precursor of the Romantic
Movement. Despite the romantic
utopia inside the poem, it gives a
sense of hope that one day, we love,
respect and tolerate each other
mutually.
Sources and Suggested 4. https://poemanalysis.com/william
Readings blake/the-divine-image/
5. https://prezi.com/-
1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Divine_Image
xwwypjgbgbn/the-divine-image-
2. https://www.litcharts.com/poetry/william-
william-blake/
blake/the-divine-image
3. https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/43656/the-
divine-image

Critical Appreciation – Holy Thursday 1 – William

Blake

By Asad Imran
September 2, 2021
Categories: Modern Poetry

Seated in companies they sit with

Text radiance all their own
The hum of multitudes was there but
Twas on a Holy Thursday their
multitudes of lambs
innocent faces clean
Thousands of little boys & girls
The children walking two & two in
raising their innocent hands
red & blue & green
Now like a mighty wind they raise to
Grey-headed beadles walkd before
heaven the voice of song
with wands as white as snow,
Or like harmonious thunderings the
Till into the high dome of Pauls they
seats of Heaven among
like Thames waters flow
Beneath them sit the aged men wise
O what a multitude they seemd
guardians of the poor
these flowers of London town
Then cherish pity, lest you drive an
angel from your door
Background Information
The poem Holy Thursday was first
published in the poetic collection
known as Songs of Innocence,
painted and composed by a British
poet, William Blake. The first version
of the poem hit the shelves in 1789.
The poem presents a religious rite
“starred” by the orphans wearing
colourful dress. It features The
Ascension Day. The day in which a
procession of orphans marches to
the Cathedral of Saint Paul. The
poem is an inward satire on the
religious (and economical) system
of England at that time.
Development of Situation
The poem begins on the
announcement of the Holy Thursday
and clean children marching towards
the cathedral in two by two. The
procession of children looked like
the river Thames. The poet is
bewildered to see their sheer
number. Their gigantic size looked
like a herd of lambs. Then like a
forceful wind, the children raise their
voices. In between the singing
children are sitting some old people
who are the “guardians of the poor”.
Themes
Holy Thursday is a poem that
highlights two rather uncomfortable
themes those are related to the
innocence of the children. The first
one is the innocence itself. Children
are innocent. They usually do not
adhere to the practical values
associated with life. It is also worth
noting that innocence can be
exploited through ignorance. Which
leads us to the second theme that is
Blake’s criticism of the English
religious values.
As mentioned in the background
information of the song, the
ceremony of Holy Thursday is put
into motion through orphans. The
life of an orphan is much different
and difficult from the rest of his age-
fellows. He is deprived of parental
love and financial support or in most
cases, both. Religion is often
portrayed as a (financial) guardian of
such people. But here in this poem,
we see they are being used as a
means to extort charity. This was a
common scene in England at that
time and Blake favoured the old
Christian model that truly patronized
the poor.
Comparison with Holy
Thursday 2
It is his usual pattern of Blake to v
present an experienced version of
his innocent poems. Thus, Holy
Thursday 2 from the Songs of
Experience comes as an
experienced response to its innocent
‘rival’. Holy Thursday 2 is a direct
attack on the unjust religious
monarchy of England of that time.
The poem openly opposes the
festival calling it “trembling cries”.
Is that trembling cry a song?
Can it be a song of joy?
And so many children poor?
The poem tries to investigate that
why orphan children are poorly
supported in a “fruitful land” like that
of England. The answer implicitly
lies in the social and religious
injustice of the English Church.
Literary and Figurative
Devices
Literary Devices used in Holy
Thursday are a few but they help in
highlighting the core issue inside the
poem. The first instance of literary
device is the simile. Simile occurs
when the poet compares the
children in the procession to the river
Thames.
Till into the high dome of Pauls they
like Thames waters flow
Blake also makes use of metaphor
when he compares 3 children with
lambs to signify innocence. There
are multiple instances of symbolism
inside the poem. The symbol of
flowers hints at the beauty of the
innocent children. The child is itself
a symbol of innocence. While the
thunder is the symbol of the
presence of God or the Holy Spirit.
Setting and Imagery
The poem takes place around the
cathedral of Saint Paul. The poet
uses clear images that help
imagining a procession of children.
The images may include “innocent
faces clean”, “walking two and two”,
“as white as snow” and ” raising their
innocent hands”.
Structural Analysis, Tone and
Diction
The poem is composed of twelve
lines. Further divided into three
stanzas of four lines each – thereby
forming three quatrains. The rhyme
scheme of this poem is AABB that is
neatly repeated in every stanza
which creates six rhyming couplets.
Critical Appreciation – Ode on Immortality – William
Wordsworth
By Asad Imran
The tone of this poem is inwardly
satirical and the diction is moderate.
Conclusion
Holy Thursday is a famulous poem
not because it highlights an
important social as well as religious
issue but through the innocent way it
highlights.
Sources and Suggested
Readings
1. https://www.poetryfoundation.org/
thursday-twas-on-a-holy-thursday-
their-innocent-faces-clean
2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_
3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_
4. https://crossref-
it.info/textguide/songs-of-
innocence-and-
experience/13/1510
September 4, 2021
Categories: Modern Poetry
Background Information
Ode on Immortality is a famous
poem, composed by a famous
Romantic poet, William Wordsworth.
The original name of this ode is
“Ode: Intimations of Immortality
from Recollections of Early
Childhood” while other names may
include only “Ode” or “Great Ode”.
The particular ode appeared in a
poetic collection entitled “Poems” in
1814. However, Wordsworth
completed a part of the poem in
1802 and sent it to his friend, S. T.
Coleridge who, in response, wrote
“Dejection: An Ode”. The Ode is a
juxtaposition of different ‘moments’
– each dealing with the ‘history’ of
Nature from different perspectives
of the age.
Summary
The poem is divided into three
moments or phases of life. The
poem begins with the speaker
regretting and mourning the deprival
of his youth and his deep connection
with the realm of nature. The poet
tries to peep into the memories of
the past but,
The things which I have seen I
now can see no more.
For a moment, the speaker becomes
happy over his current feelings for
the Nature around him but then it
fades away in the mist of despair
when the speaker finds something
missing that he cannot find. In the
sixth stanza, the poet claims that we
have come not from earth but from
the natural heaven that can only be
relished in our childhood. As we
grow up, our heaven is replaced with
the earth that lacks some of the
natural beauty that was only found
within our childhood. The core
problem of the poet is his inability to
find the bewitched feelings caused
by the beauty of Nature at his early
age. But he gets the solution in the
form of keeping his memory alive.
This is how the poet is going to
revive his mortal joy of the
immortality of Nature.
Themes
This is a large poem. So, it carries a
variety of themes. Since the poem is
about the topic of immortality, the
first and obvious theme is the soul’s
immortality. The speaker has a firm
belief in the immortality of the
human soul. It means the soul exists
long before when one is born and
when one dies, one’s soul returns
back to its eternal place. When the
poet reflects on his perception of
nature in his childhood, he finds it
different and more charming
because, in his childhood, his soul
has newly arrived from heaven.
Therefore, according to him, his
childhood had experienced the
heavenly pleasure of nature.
The second theme of this poem is
the painful growth that takes the
heavenly pleasures away. The
memories of childhood are
considered to be more enchanting
than the memories of adulthood.
Surely the charm is still there for an
adult but a child finds everything
more colourful than a grown-up. As
soon as the speaker grew up, he
could not find “celestial” joy in the
beauty of Nature.
The third yet concluding theme of
this ode is the divinity of Nature that
is linked to a person’s memory. The
poet wants to suggest that surely,
one cannot relish the childish divinity
of Nature when one grows up. But he
can still keep the divinity of Nature
alive by remembering the exact joy
he used to claim when he looked at
the grass luminated through the sun
when he was a child.
Critical Comments
Wordsworth’s ode was met with
criticism and appreciation as soon
as he published it in his poetic
collection. After a few years of
publication, many contemporary
writers turned against the
Wordsworthian ode. Byron asserted
that the poem “lacked quality” as
compared to Lyrical Ballads. Byron
called it “an innocent ode” without a
detailed matter. John Keats, from
the second wave of Romantic Poets,
was greatly moved by the ode
especially lines from 140 to 148. In
modern times, the poem is praised
for its romantic qualities. Adam
Sisman considers the ode as one of
the best works of Wordsworth in
2007.
Figurative Analysis
The poem carries a variety of literary
devices and figurative language to
increase its impression upon its
readers. There are various places in
which the poet has used
enjambments. An enjambment is the
continuation of a poetic line on
multiple lines. For instance,
To me the meanest flower blows
can give
Thoughts that do often lie too
deep for tears
The poet has used different
metaphors to heighten the poetic
excellence of the poem. The
metaphor of travelling from the east
ends on the west. Similarly, the rising
of the sun is a metaphor for the
beginning of life whereas sunset in
the West is a metaphor for death.
There are some instances of
personification in the poem. For
example, when the addressor calls
earth as mother and nurse, he is
using personification.
Setting and Imagery
The setting of this vast poem is
probably the English countryside in
the season of Spring. There are
numerous images helping readers to
join the captivating memories of the
poet. The images may include like
“Of splendour in the grass, of glory in
the flower”, “The Rainbow comes
and goes”, “Earth fills her lap with
pleasures of her own”, “birds thus
sing a joyous song”, and “The Soul
that rises with us”.
Structural Analysis
The poem is composed of 206 lines.
There are eleven stanzas inside the
poem, each varying from one
another. The poem is a free verse. Sources and Suggested
Because there is no specific rhyme Readings
scheme and poetic meter. Although
its first part follows the ABAB rhyme 1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ode:_

scheme with iambic pentameter but 2. https://poemanalysis.com/william

as the poem further proceeds, the wordsworth/ode-intimations-of-

rhyming and rhythmic patterns immortality-from-reccollections-

become inconsistent. Such of-early-childhood/

inconsistency is due to the change 3. https://literarydevices.net/ode-

of the mode from different moments intimations-of-immortality-from-

in the poem. recollections-of-early-childhood/

4. https://www.litcharts.com/poetry/
Conclusion wordsworth/ode-intimations-of-
immortality-from-recollections-of-
Ode on Immortality (as we call it) is
early-childhood
a thought-provoking poem that lends
a considerable impression for the
love of nature without the regard to
one’s age.

Critical Appreciation – Tintern Abbey Revisited –

William Wordsworth

By Asad Imran
September 6, 2021
Categories: Modern Poetry

General Introduction
Tintern Abbey is a famous poem
written by the famous Romantic
poet, William Wordsworth. The poem
is based partly on Wordsworth’s
personal experiences as well as his
new policy of making poetry capable
to be read by laymen. The poem
features Wordsworth’s visit to
Tintern Abbey with his sister when
he was twenty-three years old in
1793 (after his escape from the
revolutionized France). He also
visited the very place after five years.
He included this poem as a final
poem in Lyrical Ballads. The
complete title of this poem is: “Lines
Composed a Few Miles above
Tintern Abbey, on Revisiting the
Banks of the Wye during a Tour, July
13, 1798”.
Development of Situation
The poem begins when the poet
uses his cells of memory to recall
his visit to Tintern Abbey. The
speaker can recollect almost
everything from his early visit.
Of five long winters! and again I
hear
These waters, rolling from their
mountain-springs
The speaker asserts that it was the
memory of this beautious place that
kept him sane in “the din/ Of towns
and cities”. He thinks that he will
change from a child to a man of
maturity. He has learnt to see nature
from a larger perspective. In the
past, he could only enjoy Nature.
Now he has the ability to understand
its deep meaning.
We also find Wordsworth’s sister
along with him in his journey. The
poet suggests that although his
sister sees Nature the way he used
to in his childhood, yet she shall be
able to get a clear idea of the
connections between different
elements of Nature with each other.
Themes
This large poem carries different
themes each relating to the power of
Nature. The first theme of this poem
is the restoring power of Nature.
According to the speaker, Nature is a
healer. It heals the wounds of
weariness caused by the hustle and
bustle of city life. The poet uses
many negative phrases to describe
city life like “din”, “evil”, “lonely” and
“dreary”. It is the beauty of Nature
that keeps the spirit of the poet alive
and restores his status as a man of
instinct rather than the man of
pursuit.
It is worth noting that Romantics
were in search of discovering the
awe-inspiring powers of Nature and
this poem tries to do exactly that.
The power that unites Man with his
Natural World seems truly in works
when the poet is overwhelmed by his
second visit of the Tintern Abbey.
The third prominent theme of this
poem is the connection between
Nature and imagination. Romantic
Poets were linking and painting
Nature through their imagination.
They believed that humans only saw
a half of Nature while their minds
filled and added the rest of the
beauty to the particular scene of
Nature through imagination. The
poem also favours the idea of “half
creation” through the human “eyes
and ears”. But our mind consistently
works back and forth to fill in the
blank of beauty.
Although Nature plays a dominant
part in explaining the themes of the
poem. However, time and growth are
two other important themes of the
poem as well. The poet suggests
that as a person grows up with the
passage of time, he gets a better
understanding of life but at the cost
of a loss. The poet visits his
cherished place after a period of five
years and he notices a change. For
instance, he has lost the energy of
his youth but he has been blessed
with ample understanding to unleash
different layers of the awe-inspiring
Nature.
Symbols and Allusions
(Figurative Analysis)
Lines Written Above Tintern Abbey
boasts some serious work of
symbols that extends the meaning
of the poem. The first symbol we
encounter is Hermit. Hermits are the
religious people who live in isolation
to devote their lives for their religion.
Here, a Hermit might be used as a
symbol of spiritual quest in the
peaceful lap of nature.
The poet also uses a metaphor when
performing a comparison of his
sister’s mind with a mansion. But
this can be taken as a symbol of
wealth as well.
The (assumed) title of the poem is a
direct allusion to Tintern Abbey. An
abbey is a sacred place in
Christianity in which nuns or monks
live. Tintern Abbey was built in the
12th century by Walter de Clare. In
the 16th century, the place had
acquired a symbolic significance of
English history when it was
abandoned by Henry VIII.
Setting and Imagery
The setting of this poem is quite
evident from its title that is (the ruins
of) Tintern Abbey situated on the
River Wye. The poem abounds in
images. Some notable images of
this poem may include, “waters
rolling from their mountain-springs”,
“landscape with the quiet of the sky”,
“like a roe”, and “steep woods and
lofty cliffs”.
Structural Analysis
Tintern Abbey is composed of 161
lines. The poem is divided into five
stanzas of different lengths. For
instance, the shortest stanza
contains 9 lines while the longest
contains 53. There is no proper
rhyme scheme or rhythmic pattern.
The poem is a blank verse. The
poem contains the elements of
monologue and ode but the exact
kind is difficult to set.
Conclusion
Conclusively speaking, Tintern
Abbey Revisited is a forceful
romantic poem that highlights the
healing effect of Nature upon a
person’s heart as well as the process
of gradual learning associated with
it.
Sources and Suggested
Readings
1. https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/45527/lines-
3. https://www.shmoop.com/study-
composed-a-few-miles-above- guides/poetry/tintern-
tintern-abbey-on-revisiting-the- abbey/summary
banks-of-the-wye-during-a-tour- 4. https://www.litcharts.com/poetry/
july-13-1798 wordsworth/lines-composed-a-
2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lines_Written_a_Few_Miles_above_Tintern_A
few-miles-above-tintern-abbey

Critical Appreciation – Ode to the West Wind – PB

Shelley

By Asad Imran
September 8, 2021
Categories: Modern Poetry

that the poem was written when his

Background Information son William breathed his last. While
the allegorical significance of the
Ode to the West Wind is the most
Peterloo Massacre in August 1819 is
famous ode written by the
present inside the poem and his
revolutionary poet, Shelley. The ode
other works like “The Masque of
was published along with other
Anarchy” and “England in 1819”.
poems and a drama in four acts,
Prometheus Unbound in 1820. The
poem is said to have been written
Development of Situation
when Shelley was in Cascine Wood,
near Florence, Italy. The ode features The ode opens when the poet
a message of change (and hope) directly calls the West Wind to renew
and revolution. While some argue his spirit and power to help him
spread the new ideas. The poet
enlists a few powerful workings of
the wind to wake its powers like
setting aside the autumn leaves,
planting seeds in the earth, bringing
thunderstorms and waves in
oceans.
The addressor is desirous that the
wind would play with him like it does
with leaves, clouds and waves. Then,
he requests from the wind to play
him like a lyre to,
Drive my dead thoughts over the
universe
Like wither’d leaves to quicken a
new birth!
The poet wants his ideas to be
shared through the West Wind. And
he is hopeful that the scorching
winter shall not last long and the
season of life shall begin anew.
Themes
Death and rebirth is the dominant
theme of the Ode. The poet proudly
calls the wind “destroyer and
preserver”. The West Wind brings a
tremendous wave of snow that kills
everything that comes in its way. The
poet welcomes its death. Because
according to him, it will lead to a new
birth of life better and more learned
than the previous one.
The second theme inside the ode is
poetry and rebirth. The poet believes
that in order for life to thrive again, it
has to die itself down. He cannot
attain the destructive powers of the
wind. But he requests the wind to
make him a lyre. A lyre is a musical
instrument that poets used to play
when they recited their poetry. Here,
Shelley implores from the wind to
spread his ideas. The addressor
wants to shape a new would based
on new principles through his poetry.
Thus, Shelley wants to make his
poetry a means of rebirth.
Figurative Analysis
Shelley has used numerous literary
devices to shine through his poetic
genius. There are multiple instances
of simile when the poet compares
two things with the word “like” or
“as”. The examples from the poem
are stated below:
Loose clouds like earth’s
decaying leaves are shed
…
Each like a corpse within its grave
The poem hides many symbols to be
discovered. The West Wind stands
as a mighty symbol of the mighty
force of Nature. Dead leaves signify
the show of destruction while dying
eyes mean the end of a season. The
poet has also personified the West
Wind to add humanistic qualities to
it by calling it “destroyer and
preserver”, adding the quality of a
rider “Who chariotest” and by “waken
from his summer dreams”.
Setting and Imagery
There is no specific setting of the
poem as the West Wind goes
through the forest to the ocean. The
poem is manifested in vivid imagery
that helps a reader visualize the
destructive and constrictive power
of the West Wind. The images may
include like, “dark wintery bed”,
“Angles of rain and lightning”. The
auditory images in this poem are
“Black rain and fire and hail will
burst”, ” the trumpet of a prophecy”
and “Her clarion”. But the images do
not end there. The poem boasts a
host of kinetic imagery that
represent movement like, “Wild
Spirit, which art moving everywhere”
and “Scatter, as from an
unextinguished hearth Ashes and
sparks”.
Structural Analysis
Ode to the West Wind is composed
of 70 (14 * 5) lines. The poem is
divided into 5 Contos (Parts) while
each Conto is further divided into 5
stanzas (25 total) in which the first
four are Terza Rima and the fifth one
is a rhyming couplet. A Terza Rima is
a stanza in which the first and third
lines rhyme with each other while
the second line rhymes with the first
and the third line of the second
stanza and so on. So, the rhyme
scheme of this poem per canto is
ABA, BCB, CDC, DED and EE. The
poem follows a rhythmic pattern of
iambic pentameter and iambic Sources and Suggested
hexameter. Readings

Conclusion 1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ode_
2. https://www.shmoop.com/study-
Ode ti the West Wind is Shelley’s
guides/poetry/ode-to-west-
Romantic endeavour in raising his
wind/summary
voice against the oppressors of the
3. https://www.litcharts.com/poetry/
world. The poem is an indirect
bysshe-shelley/ode-to-the-west-
warning to the dictators of the world
wind
to correct their business or else the
4. https://literarydevices.net/ode-to-
West Wind of revolution will sweep
the-west-wind/
them away.
5. Lectures of Sir Saffi

Critical Appreciation – The Cloud – PB Shelley

By Asad Imran
September 9, 2021
Categories: Modern Poetry

From my wings are shaken the dews

Text that waken
The sweet buds every one,
I bring fresh showers for the thirsting
When rocked to rest on their
flowers,
mother’s breast,
From the seas and the streams;
As she dances about the sun.
I bear light shade for the leaves
I wield the flail of the lashing hail,
when laid
And whiten the green plains under,
In their noonday dreams.
And then again I dissolve it in rain,
And laugh as I pass in thunder.
I sift the snow on the mountains
below,
And their great pines groan aghast;
And all the night ‘tis my pillow white,
While I sleep in the arms of the blast.
Sublime on the towers of my skiey
bowers,
Lightning my pilot sits;
In a cavern under is fettered the
thunder,
It struggles and howls at fits;
Over earth and ocean, with gentle
motion,
This pilot is guiding me,
Lured by the love of the genii that
move
In the depths of the purple sea;
Over the rills, and the crags, and the
hills,
Over the lakes and the plains,
Wherever he dream, under mountain
or stream,
The Spirit he loves remains;
And I all the while bask in Heaven’s
blue smile,
Whilst he is dissolving in rains.
The sanguine Sunrise, with his
meteor eyes,
And his burning plumes outspread,
Leaps on the back of my sailing rack,
When the morning star shines dead;
As on the jag of a mountain crag,
Which an earthquake rocks and
swings,
An eagle alit one moment may sit
In the light of its golden wings.
And when Sunset may breathe, from
the lit sea beneath,
Its ardours of rest and of love,
And the crimson pall of eve may fall
From the depth of Heaven above,
With wings folded I rest, on mine
aëry nest,
As still as a brooding dove.
That orbèd maiden with white fire
laden,
Whom mortals call the Moon,
Glides glimmering o’er my fleece-like
floor,
By the midnight breezes strewn;
And wherever the beat of her unseen
feet,
Which only the angels hear,
May have broken the woof of my
tent’s thin roof,
The stars peep behind her and peer;
And I laugh to see them whirl and
flee,
Like a swarm of golden bees,
When I widen the rent in my wind-
built tent,
Till calm the rivers, lakes, and seas,
Like strips of the sky fallen through
me on high,
Are each paved with the moon and
these.
I bind the Sun’s throne with a burning
zone,
And the Moon’s with a girdle of pearl;
The volcanoes are dim, and the stars
reel and swim,
When the whirlwinds my banner
unfurl.
From cape to cape, with a bridge-like
shape,
Over a torrent sea,
Sunbeam-proof, I hang like a roof,
The mountains its columns be.
The triumphal arch through which I
march
With hurricane, fire, and snow,
When the Powers of the air are
chained to my chair,
Is the million-coloured bow;
The sphere-fire above its soft
colours wove,
While the moist Earth was laughing
below.
i am the daughter of Earth and
Water,
And the nursling of the Sky;
I pass through the pores of the
ocean and shores;
I change, but I cannot die.
For after the rain when with never a
stain
The pavilion of Heaven is bare,
And the winds and sunbeams with
their convex gleams
Build up the blue dome of air,
I silently laugh at my own cenotaph,
And out of the caverns of rain,
Like a child from the womb, like a
ghost from the tomb,
I arise and unbuild it again.
General Introduction
The Cloud is one of the famous
poems composed by PB Shelley. The
poem was published in Prometheus
Unbound in 1820. While it is said
that Shelley may have written this
poem in 1819. The poem features a
monologue of a cloud in which it
brings about its significance as an
important element in making,
moulding and maintaining Nature.

Development of Situation
The poem opens when the cloud
asserts that it brings rain, snow and
moisture, and keeps a shadow. The
cloud has electricity that keeps it
charged in the form of lightning and
thunder.
And laugh as I pass in thunder
When the cloud covers the rising
sun, it makes sunbeams spread
across the sky. During the sunset,
the clouds roam around the sun like
birds. When the wind takes the cloud
away, stars and moonshine through
the water.
Under some circumstances, the
cloud forms a ring around the sun or
the moon. When the time for a storm
arrives, the cloud spreads like a
round roof. When the rainbow
shines, the cloud marches under the
arc of the rainbow. The cloud takes
its raw materials from the
evaporating water in the river or the
ocean and the cycle of formation
and deformation keeps its kinetic
adventurous alive.
Themes
The poem carries the theme of
natural order and joy associated with
it. The first theme that is evident
from the poem is order in Nature.
The poem seems to suggest that
there is a time for everything that
happens around us. There is a time
for the water droplets to evaporate
and there is a time for the
evaporated water to take the shape
of a cloud and felling down in the
form of rain. Similarly, there is a time
for someone to be blessed with the
moments of joy while there is a time
for someone to get in the grip of
sorrows. But life is a cycle of both
sorrows and joys similar to what we
notice in the hydrocycling of water
and clouds.
Figurative Analysis
Shelley has used a number of
figurative devices in his poem to
diversify his poetic creation. There
are a number of examples in which
the poet has utilized simile. For
instance, he compares the cloud
with a swarm of golden bees. The
other moments of simile may
include,
Like a child from the womb,
like a ghost from the tomb.
The poet has personified the cloud
throughout the poem. He adds the
humanistic quality of being the
daughter of earth and water.
Moreover, the poem is a monologue
of the cloud in which the cloud tells
its tale from its birth from water to
rain.
Setting and Imagery
The setting of this poem is vast. It
spans from the dry land to the rivers
and then skies. Not to mention the
monarchy of the “cloud” itself in the
‘sky’. The images of this poem are
vividly visible throughout the text.
The images may include like, “fresh
showers for the thirsting flowers”,
sleeping “in the arms of the blast”,
and “whirl and flee”.
Structural Analysis
The Cloud is composed of seventy
lines. This poem has been unevenly
divided into 5 stanzas
(12+18+14+14+12). There is no
proper rhyme scheme and rhythmic
pattern. Therefore, it is a free verse.
Conclusion
The Cloud is a beautiful blend of
romantic as well as scientific
qualities. The monologue hints at
the cyclic growth of humanity from
the thundersome circumstances to a
blissful rain of innovation.
Sources and Suggested
Readings
1. https://literarydevices.net/the-
cloud/
2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_
3. https://www.cliffsnotes.com/litera
poems/summary-and-
analysis/the-cloud
Critical Appreciation – To a Skylark – PB Shelley

By Asad Imran
September 12, 2021
Categories: Modern Poetry

speaker calling the bird a “Spirit”.

Background Information Then the addressor shows his
appreciation of the song of the bird
The poem, To a Skylark, is written by
mentioned in the title. The poet puts
PB Shelley. The poem was published
the song of the bird side by side to a
in 1820 along with the lyrical drama,
star, Venus (the planet), a poet, a
Prometheus Unbound. Shelley wrote
maiden and a rose etc. The poet
this poem when he was walking in
asserts that all human songs are
the countryside near Livorno, Italy.
sad but the song of the skylark is of
To the Skylark is a poem that
joy. Lastly, the speaker unveils his
captures the song of the bird and
desire to sing along with the bird
turns it into a song of happiness and
with freedom,
joy – though short-lived but
memorable at best. The world should listen then, as I
am listening now.

Development of Situation Themes

The poem lacks proper continuity
that is found in Ode to the West
Wind. The poem is a combination of
different observations joined
together. The poem begins with the
Associating divine qualities with the
elements of Nature is the hallmark
of Romantics like William
Wordsworth. But Shelley, in this
poem, finds the song of the skylark
divine because of the audible beauty
it sustains even when it is flying
across the sky. According to Shelley,
the song of the skylark is divine
because its song is not
understandable by the (mortal)
humans.
The second theme of this poem is
the limit of human communications.
Because the addressor suggests
that the human form of
communications are without any
meaning for the other person of the
other race. Whereas the song of
skylark is pure and conveys the
message of joy far better than
human languages do.
Figurative Analysis
PB Shelley has used some of the
figurative devices to add a symbolic
touch to his poetic touch. Here, the
skylark has been used as a symbol
of joy and happiness. But figurative
analysis is not limited to symbols
only. There are some instances of
similes packed inside the poem. For
example, “Like a rose embower’d”,
“Like a high-born maiden” and “Like a ABABB. The rhythmic pattern of this
Poet hidden”. But the poet also
poses rhetorical questions that do
not mean any answer to be given.
The examples may include like,
“What love of thine own kind?”, “Or
how could thy notes flow in such a
crystal stream?” and “What is most
like thee?”.
Setting and Imagery
The setting of this poem is sky
because the skylark “scorn the
ground”. The images of this poem
make us fly and sing along with the
skylark. The most notable images
may include like “Makes faint with
too much sweet those heavy-winged
thieves”, *Like a star of Heaven” and
“Or how could thy notes flow in such
a crystal stream”.
Structural Analysis
To the Skylark is composed of 105
lines. The poem is further divided
into twenty-one stanzas of five lines
each, thus forming 21 quintets (a
stanza of 5 lines is called a quintet).
The rhyme scheme of each stanza is
verse is trochaic trimeter in the first
four lines in a stanza while the last
line is iambic hexameter (also an
Alexandrine)
Conclusion
To a Skylark is a poem of Romantic
Escapism into the ecstasy
(happiness) of the natural melody of
the skylark.
Sources and Suggested
Readings
1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/To_a
2. https://literarydevices.net/to-a-
skylark/
3. https://www.litcharts.com/poetry/
bysshe-shelley/to-a-skylark
4. https://www.shmoop.com/study-
guides/poetry/to-a-
skylark/summary
5. Want to hear the song of a
skylark? See this video on
YouTube

Critical Appreciation – Hymn to Intellectual Beauty –

PB Shelley

By Asad Imran
September 14, 2021
Categories: Modern Poetry

Switzerland. Shelley sent the first

General Information draft to his friend, Leigh Hunt but he
lost it. Therefore, Shelley had to
Hymn to Intellectual Beauty is yet
rewrite the draft to be published in
another famous poem written by
Hunt’s Examiner in 1817. The poem
Shelley. The poem is said to be
tries to find the lovely Spirit of
composed in 1816 with his wife,
Mary Shelley and Lord Byron in
Beauty which, according to Shelley,
was worthy to be worshipped.
Development of Situation
The poem begins with the
declaration of a strange power that
roams around, unnoticed, entering
and leaving humans. The addressor
asks from the Spirit that where is it
gone and why it has abandoned
them? Then the poet disapproves his
own question because the rainbow
appears and then disappears. The
question is not answered by the
unknown. Yet Man has tried to find it
in “Demons, Ghosts and Heaven”.
Then the poet asserts that
intellectual beauty can make people
immortal. Without it, the fear of
death shall rule the world.
The poet, in his boyhood, tried to find
spiritual beauty in ghosts but as
soon as he was touched by the spirit
of intellectual beauty, he was filled
with joy. He declared,
I vow’d that I would dedicate my
powers
To thee and thine: have I not
kept the vow?
The poet holds a firm belief that the
spirit shall liberate mankind from the
state of slavery. He is hopeful that
the spirit shall make his life
peaceful. The intellectual beauty has
made him learn to fear himself and
love mankind.
Themes
The only dominant theme of this
poem is Beauty. Shelley has treated
beauty differently. We perceive
beauty as something that is felt by
all of our five senses. Plato, in his
Symposium, declared Beauty as a
metaphysical object that exists
independently in our concrete world.
While Plato also advocated a gradual
attainment of true beauty. Shelley, on
the other hand, believes that beauty
can be felt through its earthly
presence, only by the use of
imagination. He rejected philosophy
and metaphysics as a means to
connect to true beauty. He is of the
view that beauty is felt and its which compelled him to write a
source remains unknown. poem as a dedicated worshipper of
the (intellectual) beauty. The images
Figurative Analysis used in this poem are vivid and can
easily make us feel the penetration
The poem is a continuous
of the Spirit of Intellectual Beauty
personification in which the poet has
from a tree to a singing bird, sitting
given the qualities of humans of
on the branch of that particular tree.
relieving the misery of humans.
The images may include like, “hues
Shelley even elevates the function of
and harmonies of evening”, “clouds
Intellectual Beauty above the level of
in starlight widely spread”, “wax and
personification. Due to the incision
wane in lovers’ eyes” and “winds are
of the word “Hym” in the title, the
wooing”.
Intellectual Beauty has risen to a
divine power.
Structural Analysis
There are numerous similes in the
poem highlighting the capability of The poem is composed of eighty-

intellectual beauty directly and four lines. It is further divided into

indirectly. For instance, the seven stanzas of twelve lines each.

penetration of intellectual beauty is The rhyme scheme of this poem is

compared to “the summer wind” and ABBAACCBDDEE. While the rhythmic

“moonbeams”. pattern is iambic pentameter for

longer lines and iambic tetrameter
Setting and Imagery for shorter lines.

There is no particular setting of this Conclusion

poem since a spirit can roam here
Hymn to Intellectual Beauty is a
and there without any regard to a
poem of personal reflection of an
specific place. But Shelley was
intellectual power that enhances the
marvelled by the height of the Alps
beauty (of Nature) through 3. https://poemanalysis.com/percy-
imagination. bysshe-shelley/hymn-to-
intellectual-beauty/
Sources and Suggested 4. https://www.cliffsnotes.com/litera
Readings poems/summary-and-
analysis/hymn-to-intellectual-
1. https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/45123/hymn-
beauty
to-intellectual-beauty
5. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hym
2. https://owlcation.com/humanities/Analysis-
6. Lectures of Sir Saffi
of-Poem-Hymn-To-Intellectual-
Beauty-by-Percy-Bysshe-Shelley

Short Critical Appreciation – The Waste Land – T S

Eliot

By Asad Imran
September 16, 2021
Categories: Modern Poetry

Therefore, I highly recommend you

General Introduction
There is so much to write and
debate about that I don’t know where
to start. The Waste Land is a grand
poem carrying grand subject matters
found within the famous epics most
students of literature know about.
My critical evaluation does not cover
even the surface of the Waste Land.
people to pour your heart into
skimming through different
researchers and material available
online. Relevant links can be seen at
the end of this write-up. Enough
blabbering, let’s visit the Waste
Land!
The Waste Land is the flagship
poem composed with a hard toil by
the poet of tradition, TS Eliot. The
poem was published in 1922. The
Waste Land is considered to be one
of the forceful poems of the
twentieth century. The poem
basically features the decline of the
West in its tradition and its way of
living. The poet shows his deep
concerns that the people are losing
what they struggled for centuries in
the form of World Wars. The poem
warns as thus,
I will show you fear in a handful
of dust
Let’s discover what exactly the poem
shows in its development of
situations.
Development of Situations
Yes, The Waste Land does not
contain one particular situation.
Rather it is a mixture of five different
situations mixed up together
strategically. The first one on the list
is The Burial of the Dead. The poem
begins on the note that Soring
season is not a good time of the
year. Then the poem suddenly
travels into a memory of the
childhood in which the narrator
remembers a woman known as
Marie. Then the poetic narration
shifts towards a fortune-teller whose
name is Madame Sosostris. Then
continuous the section of A Game of
Chess in which a room is seen, well
decorated and a picture of the
change of Philomel, a lady from
Greek Mythology who was raped by
the King Tereus and then she was
changed into a nightingale. This
section ends on two women, trying
to get more drinks in the most
common bar language.
The third section, The Fire Sermon
opens upon a person standing
beside the River Thames. He shows
his concern that the world has lost
its magic. Then we see the reference
to Tiresias, a blind prophet who was
turned into a woman by the goddess
Hera for a period of seven years.
Then Zeus gave him the ability to
see the future of the world at the
cost of his eyesight. He or she, tells
us a scene of loveless love-making
between a person and a woman. In
the fourth section, Death by Water,
we see a sailor whose name is
Phlebas, sinking deep in the ocean.
The final section, What did the
Thunder Said is the crux of the
poem. In which Eliot shows his
solution to the current problems of
the world. This section begins on a
land with no water. The two people
are unaware of their presence as a
person tries to see the other, the
other person vanishes from the sight
of the particular person. Then we
hear the crackle of thunder
suggesting three words from the
Hindu mythology, “Datta,
Dayadhvam, and Damyata” which
mean “give”, “sympathize”, and
“control” respectively. Then the
poem ends on the word “Shantih”
three times. (You already know what
Shanti means so I don’t have to give
its meaning to you. :-D)
Themes
The Wasteland is, undoubtedly, a
grand poem, featuring grand themes
under its disposal. One of the
prominent themes is the broken and
isolated culture of the modern times.
The world, especially the Western
society was shaken up considerably
after the horrors of World War First.
The blaze of horror had swept their
creative as well as socializing
capabilities. Isolation became a
norm because everyone was afraid
of everyone. The poem hints at the
very thing in its first section when a
bunch of zombie-like people roam
about without having a conscious
relationship with their surroundings
and the people around them.
The second prominent theme of this
poem is death and rebirth. The poem
is manifested in death. We see
common examples of the corps of
the people as the leftovers of many
unfortunate events. The poem
directly suggests that death is the
ultimate fate of everything. But one
thing to note here is that after the
deadly season of winter comes
spring, death results in a new birth
with new ideas, perspectives as well
as innovations. A common example
inside the poem, suggesting the very over negative emotions, as the
theme is the fortune-teller, Madame means of the redemption of the
Sosostris who issues a warning of befallen society.
the death by water. Another point to
note here is that all the life on earth Figurative Analysis
started in the form of tiny mutations
This is a large poem. Therefore, it
inside the water billion years ago.
contains a great number of figurative
Thereby, death by water can give rise
devices waiting to be discovered and
to new mutations and thus, new
traced. Eliot has used similes to
species.
compare two objects. For instance,
The third theme present in the poem we see a comparison between the
is religious spirituality and nihilism. chair and a throne as well as waiting
Eliot has added allusions to many of a human engine like a taxi waiting
cultures, from past and present. As for someone to get on board.
for the religion, the poem focuses on
There are plenty of metaphors linked
three religions those are, Christianity,
to other things inside the poem. The
Buddhism and Hinduism. While
cruelty of April is a metaphor of the
nihilism rejects the religious ideas
season of cruelty. The creeping rat is
and considers this world a
a metaphor of war and its disastrous
meaningless heap of a “Waste
aftermaths. The poem also boasts
Land”. Although Eliot considers
the use of personification through
religious spirituality another reason
giving the human quality of the
of isolation in the modern world, but
whining sound of a person to a
he finds the solution to modern
musical note made by a mandolin.
isolation in religious spirituality as
But the poem features irony when it
well. In the last section of the poem,
declares the month of April, a cruel
Eliot explicitly considers giving up
month. In reality, it is a pleasant
bad thoughts, sympathizing with the
month bringing about the soothing
rest of the living beings and control
summer season. But, the poet calls
it cruel because it brings back the
cruel memories of the war.
Setting and Imagery
The setting of the Waste Land varies
from section to section, scene to
scene. For instance, in section 1, the
setting abruptly changes from dead
trees into a room in which a fortune
teller is sitting. The images used in
this poem are wordly visible. The
images may include like, “pulling a
long face”, “The river’s tent is
broken”, “fishing in the dull canal”,
and “sound of horns and motors”.
Structural Analysis
The poem is composed of 434 lines.
It is divided into five sections which
are devoid of proper stanza division.
T S Eliot knowingly selected this
unpatterned pattern to showcase the
scattered but dismal atmosphere of
his Waste Land. There are no proper
rhyme schemes and rhythmic
patterns, thus making this poem a
perfect blank verse.
Conclusion
The Wasteland is truly a mini-epic
depicting the major problem of
mankind that is the decline of social
as well as moral values, not specific
to the West but prevalent in the East
as well.
Sources and Suggested
Readings
1. https://www.litcharts.com/poetry/
s-eliot/the-waste-land (This is a
heavy page. Use a high-end
desktop computer with a good
internet connection to view this
page. )
2. https://www.shmoop.com/study-
guides/poetry/the-waste-
land/summary
3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_
4. https://literarydevices.net/the-
waste-land/
Critical Appreciation – The Love Song of J. Alfred
Prufrock – T S Eliot
By Asad Imran
September 17, 2021
Categories: Modern Poetry
General Introduction
The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock
is Eliot’s earliest work that he was
striving to compose during his
college days and he was only 22
years old! The poem, at first,
appeared in “Poetry” after being
provoked by Ezra Pound in June
1915. The poem is said to be the
most “modernist” work of Eliot. The
poem somewhat mocks the modern
standards of living where people
love tea more than they love people.
Development of Situation
The poem opens up with the
invitation of Prufrock to us to come
along with him to visit the dirty
streets of a big foggy city that feels
like London. Mr. Prufrock is desirous
to show us some of the best places
of the city,
Of restless nights in one-night
cheap hotels
And sawdust restaurants with
oyster-shells:
Then we witness a bunch of women
coming and going from the room,
discussing about famous painter
Michelangelo.
Although Mr. Prufrock’s dress is
good but rest of him is not. People
comment on him that he has thin
arms and is bald. But he is proud of
his accomplishments. His
accomplishments include like having
drunk a lot of coffee, living through
mornings to afternoons and having
known a bunch of women.
Prufrock is afraid that he is growing
old. But he intends to do other
important stuff like rolling his pants
or eating a peach. Then he asserts
that he has heard mermaids singing
but their songs are not for him. He,
then, tells us that we have been
living with him in an ocean. We were
sleeping in the ocean until we were
wakened up by the human voices. As
soon as our sleep is over, we sink in
the salty ocean.
Themes
The theme of this poem concern
with the problems a modern man is
facing. The first prominent theme
inside the poem is anxiety, lack of
decision-making which leads to
inaction. There is no doubt that our
present age is marked with anxiety.
So is Mr. Prufrock. He wants love but
is anxious about his physical
features which he cannot change.
He tries to minimize his physical
limitations by styling his hair but he
is bald. His anxiety results in a lack
of decision making and he does not
know where he is heading towards.
The second notable theme of this
poem is desire. The desire of Mr.
Prufrock is already obvious from the
title of the poem, to enjoy a few
romantic moments of his already
sinking life. He longs for sexual
communication but due to his
anxious state, he cannot proceed
further which ends in hopelessness.
Prufrock himself moans,
how should I begin?
The third theme of this poem is
alienation caused by modernity. The
poet acknowledges the importance
of modern technology like lamps,
advancements in the medical
profession as well as factories. But
such growth has come with the cost
of alienation. The speaker sees
Yellow fog as more active and alive
than humans.
Criticism
As soon as Eliot hit the Publish
button, the poem was met with
severe criticism. Garrison Keillor, a
humourous communist, remarked on
the poem as thus,
 This poem pretty much killed off
the pleasure of poetry for millions
of people who got dragged
through it in high school.
Eliot was met with sharp criticism
because he made his poem public at
the time which was not suitable for
such kind of subject. Almost, the
whole world was caught under the
horror of World War 1. Therefore, it
was not a suitable time for Prufrock
to look for someone to be in love
with.
Figurative Analysis
There are many figurative devices
used in this poem at once to elevate
its poetic glamour. The poet has
used personification when he grants
the human quality of rubbing to
Yellow fog as well as waving of the
trees. Simile occurs in the poem
when the poet compares the streets
with a difficult argument with the use
of the word “Like” to indicate the
complexity of navigation. There are
many metaphors used in this poem.
For example, Hollywood is used as a
metaphor for the entertainment
industry and Washington is a
metaphor for the government. Irony
is also at works in this poem which
states the opposite of what is
actually said. For instance, when the
poet says that he has plenty of time,
he is actually running short of time
due to his growing age. Also, the title
of this poem is ironic as the poem is
not practically a love song.
Setting and Imagery
This poem takes place in the foggy
and dark city of London in the “soft
night of October”. The images used
in this poem are brilliant and vibrant.
The images may include like
“evening is spread out against the
sky”, “sawdust restaurants with
oyster-shells”, “Licked its tongue”, “a
dying fall”, “perfume from a dress”,
and “riding seaward on the waves”
etc.
Structural Analysis
The poem is composed of 140 lines.
It is divided unevenly into twenty
stanzas. There are a few rhyming
couplets at the beginning of the Sources and Suggested
poem. The poem, in parts, is a blank Readings
verse and somewhere, we hear the
rhythmic pattern of iambic 1. https://www.shmoop.com/study-

pentameter.
Conclusion
The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock
is an interesting monologue
depicting the social issues as well
as the epoch-making progress of
mankind in modern times.
guides/poetry/love-song-alfred-
prufrock/summary
2. https://literarydevices.net/the-
love-song-of-j-alfred-prufrock/
3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_
4. https://www.litcharts.com/poetry/
s-eliot/the-love-song-of-j-alfred-
prufrock

Critical Appreciation – When You Are Old – William

Butler Yeats

By Asad Imran
September 18, 2021
Categories: Modern Poetry

poem written by Pierre de Ronsard, a

General Introduction French poet of the 16th century.
Many critics argue that the poem
When You Are Old is a poem written
was written for Yeats beloved, Maud
by an Irish poet, William Butler Yeats.
Gonne, who was an Irish actress.
The poem appeared in his second
The poem features a direct address
poetic collection known as The Rose
to the reader warning him and her of
in 1893. The poem is based upon a
the possible consequences of the
old age.
Development of Situation
The poem begins on the speaker
telling us about how we get old when
our hair begins to turn grey and our
awakened condition is ruled by
sleep. The poet takes a book and
then slowly marches towards the
memory of his beloved in his youth.
He was loved because of his pilgrim
soul and the sorrows of his changing
face. Then the poet asserts the
fleeing of love and how it hides itself
in the mountains under the starry
night.
Themes
This short poem carries a
comprehensive outlook on the
complexities of maintaining a
relationship based on love. The poet
suggests that the one who is proud
of his or her youthful beauty shall
fade away as years move on. And he
or she shall look back in time to
ponder how things were so beautiful.
It’s easy to hunt for a lover in youth
but the complexity takes place when
the youthful sap fades away in the
cruel hands of time. The poem rather
exhibits a dismal approach to ageing
which constitutes in loneliness when
the glitter of youthful beauty
transitions into darkness.
Figurative Analysis
The poem contains a handful of
literary devices well suited for a
short poem like this one. Yeats
personifies love by granting the
humanistic quality of moving:
Murmur, a little sadly, how Love
fled
The verse also contains magnificent
symbols to add more meaning to the
poem. “Grey and weak” is a symbol
for an old woman. “Fire” symbolizes
for the passion of love. While the
symbol of mountains and stars
denote to the unreachable desires of
Yeats’ beloved.
Setting and Imagery
There is no particular place The rhythmic pattern of this poem is
mentioned directly and indirectly in iambic pentameter.
the poem. However, there is a time
travel to the future when the Conclusion
addressee shall lose what she is so
When You Are Old is an impressive
proud about. The images of this
poem by Yeats as a caveat (warning)
poem are obvious. Some notable
to his beloved Moud Gonne who
images of this poem may include
rejected his proposal of love.
like, “old and grey”, “full of sleep”,
“nodding by the fire”, “their shadows Sources and Suggested
deep”, “mountains overhead”, and “a Readings
crowd of stars”.
1. https://www.litcharts.com/poetry/
Structural Analysis butler-yeats/when-you-are-old
2. https://literarydevices.net/when-
The poem is made of twelve lines
you-are-old/
which are further divided into three
3. https://poemanalysis.com/william
stanzas of four lines. Thus forming
butler-yeats/when-you-are-old/
three quatrains. The rhyme scheme
of this poem is ABBA CDDC EFFE.

Critical Appreciation – Wild Swans at Coole – William

Butler Yeats

By Asad Imran
September 19, 2021
Categories: Modern Poetry

General Introduction
Wild Swans at Coole is another one
among the famous poems
composed by the Irish William Butler
Yeats. The poem is said to have
been written between 1916 to early
1917. At that time, Yeats was living
with Lady Gregory near Coole Park.
And it is said that the poem was
dedicated to her son, Major Robert
Gregory who was a British airman
who was killed in a friendly fire
incident in World War First. A literary
scholar asserts that the poem is
Yeats’ struggle to find immortal
beauty in this temporal world. The
poem features fifty-nine swans
swimming at the midnight.
Development of Situation
The poem opens on the declaration
that the season of Autumn has
arrived. The speaker eyes fifty-nine
swans in the twilight of October. The
poet has witnessed a great change
in his human world but the swans
are the same.
The bell-beat of their wings above
my head,
Trod with a lighter tread.
The swans are continuing their
march even in this cold weather. The
poet is bewitched by their flight but
he is wondering when he will get up
from his sleep, where will these
swans head towards?
Themes
The first prominent theme of this
poem is time and ageing. The poet
visits Ireland after nineteen years
and still finds the seams marching in
the same passion as they used to do
when he saw them for the first time,
before 19 years. The only thing that
has changed in between the visits is
the ageing of the speaker. The
addressor has grown much older
and the status of his life has been
changed since his first visit.
The second theme of this poem is
the difference between Nature and
humans. The concept of change
works differently between the said
contributors of the environment.
Even in a short period of nineteen
years, the suffering of humanity had
been increased due to World War
First. But Nature remained
unaffected by the humanistic
catastrophe which shook continents
after continents. Swans do not care
whether it’s World War First or the
Second, as long as they are speared,
they only know to drift across the
oceans and return back.
Figurative Analysis
The poem contains a number of
literary devices geared towards the
elevation of its scope of
interpretation. The poet has
personified swans by attributing the
humanistic quality of paddling to
them. But the swans are also implied
as metaphors of Nature, love, and
imagination.
The poet has also utilized hyperbole
(exaggeration) to exaggerate the
beauty of the flight of swans through
using “scatter wheeling in great
broken rings.” The poem contains an
allusion (reference) to death in the
form of “dry paths”.
Setting and Imagery
The setting of this poem is quite
obvious from the title of this poem
and that is the Coole Park in the
month of October. The images used
in this poem make the readers
visualize the gorgeous flight of
swans. The striking images of this
poem may include like, “But now
they drift on the still water”, “the
brimming water among the stones”,
“climb the air”, “their clamorous
wings”, and “hearing at twilight”.
Structural Analysis
The poem contains thirty lines. It is
divided into five stanzas of six lives
each. Thus making five sestets (a
sestet is a stanza of 6 lines). The
rhyme scheme of this poem is
ABCBDD. The rhythmic pattern of
this poem is iambic tetrameter in
lines 1 and 3; iambic trimeter in lines
2, 4 and 6, and iambic pentameter in
line 5, repeated in each stanza.
Conclusion
Wild Swans at Coole is a beautiful
poem depicting the bewitching flight
of swans and the unchanging routes
of Nature.
Sources and Suggested
Readings
1. Lectures of Sir Saffi
2. https://literarydevices.net/the-
wild-swans-at-coole/
3. https://www.shmoop.com/study-
guides/poetry/wild-swans-at-
coole/summary
4. https://www.litcharts.com/poetry/
butler-yeats/the-wild-swans-at-
coole
5. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_

Critical Appreciation – The Second Coming – William

Butler Yeats

By Asad Imran
September 20, 2021
Categories: Modern Poetry

The poem is written to showcase the

General Introduction anarchy caused by the aftermaths of
World War First. The poem also
The Second Coming is one of the
features the independence of Ireland
most remembered poems of William
from England. Although the title of
Butler Yeats. The poem, at first,
this poem may give it a clear
appeared in The Dial in November
Christian outlook, but the poet has
1920. Yeats initially used the title of
added political meanings to it.
“The Second Birth” but later changed
it to broaden the scope of
interpretation of this poem.
Development of Situation
The poem takes its shape from the
announcement of the lost falcon
which has no idea about its master.
In the fourth line, the scene changes
at once to the prevailing anarchy of
the time Yeats was writing about:
The ceremony of innocence is
drowned
The good ones have lost their
passion while the bad people have
been using their enthusiasm to carry
out their bad work.
Keeping the chaotic account of his
day, the poet is hopeful that The
Second Coming is on the horizon
somewhere. But his vision is
troubled by the monarchy of
darkness. Then in the third stanza,
the addressor asks a rhetorical
question that is a beast on the way
to Bethlehem, the birthplace of
Jesus.
Themes
The poem mostly contains the
religious theme of (sham) salvation
through the second coming of Jesus
but this religious theme is wrapped
in the political and social theme of
the decline of values and control
over it. The poem gives a bleak
impression upon the progress of the
human civilization. Rather the
progress has resulted in utter
anarchy due to the mass murder of
humans in the global catastrophe of
World War First. Yeats suggests that
the time for humans is up. Their
progress is nothing but an illusion.
Things have really “fallen apart”.
The second prominent theme of this
poem is the rejection of Christian
morality. In Christianity, it is written
that when humanity shall reach to
the level of utter anarchy, Jesus will
come to save them. But this did not
happen when almost the whole
world was in utter devastation and
they had crossed all possible moral
boundaries in the World War. The
poet saw no Christ but darkness
approaching at a faster pace.
Figurative Analysis
Although the poem is short. But the
figurative beauty it contains is
significant. The poet has utilized a
handful of metaphors to make this
poem more appealing to the readers.
The metaphor of “falcon” is used for
the world while the “falconer” is used
for the force(s) controlling it. While
the “rough beast” is a metaphor of
the second coming. The poet has
also used hyperbole or exaggeration
to give emphasis on the sudden
arrival of the beast (of darkness) by
saying,
Surely the Second Coming is at
hand,
The poem also contains symbols
and allusions. “Desert birds” is the
symbol of approaching death. While
The Second Coming symbolizes the
upcoming indifference and even the
World War Second. While the
allusion of “Spiritus Mundi” refers to
World’s Soul in Latin. While The
Second Coming is a biblical allusion
to the Return of Christ.
Setting and Imagery
The setting of this poem is the whole
world. While the time indirectly hints
at the post-war period. The images
used in this poem fill us, the readers,
with the horror of something deadly
approaching in a few moments. The
images may include like, “A shape
with lion body and the head of a
man”, “somewhere in sands of the
desert”, “Is moving its slow thighs”,
“The falcon cannot hear the
falconer”, and “The darkness drops
again”.
Structural Analysis
The poem is made of twenty-two
lines. Divided into two stanzas of
eight and fourteen lines. The rhyme
scheme of this poem is ABBA CDDC
that is repeated throughout the
poem. While the rhythmic pattern of
this lyrical poem is iambic
pentameter.
Conclusion
The Second Coming is truly a
modernist poem, reflecting on the
dismal atmosphere characterized by
the disbelieve in religious morality.
Sources and Suggested https://www.litcharts.com/poetry/wil
Readings butler-yeats/the-second-coming
https://www.shmoop.com/study-
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Second_Coming_(poem)
guides/poetry/second-
https://literarydevices.net/the- coming/summary
second-coming/

Critical Appreciation – No Second Troy – William

Butler Yeats

By Asad Imran
September 22, 2021
Categories: Modern Poetry

approaches and Yeats, rather

General Introduction
No Second Troy is a love poem
composed by Yeats dedicated
exclusively to his beloved Maud
Gonne. The poem, at first appeared
in 1916 in a poetic collection called
Responsibilities and Other Poems.
But this poem is not entirely about
the frustrated love affair between
Maud and Yeats, the inclusion of the
word “Troy” gives it a political
outlook. Maud was in favour of
independence with radical
unjustly, compares her with a vicious
lady, Helen in Homer’s Iliad, who was
responsible for wagging war and the
historical burning of the city of Troy.
Development of Situation
The poem basically contains four
rhetorical questions asked by Yeats.
The poem begins with the question
of the poet that why should he
blame Maud for ruining his
happiness and her actions which
aroused great emotional violence for
independence. Then he asks the
second question that whether it is
even possible for her to be a
peaceful person. Her beauty is just
an old-school means of temptation.
The poet argues that Maud belongs
to another age,
With beauty like a tightened bow,
a kind
That is not natural in an age like
this,
Lastly, the poet asserts that there
was no “Second Troy” for her to
destroy, she had to diminish other
things like the peace of the poet (by
rejecting his sincere proposal). The
first Troy was decayed due to
fighting over Helen, the second
might be lost due to ensuing political
beauty.
Themes
The first rhetorical question posed
by the poet is why should he blame
the woman for rejecting his
proposal. The theme of guilt is
inwardly present in Yeats’ treatment
of Maud. Perhaps Yeats indirectly
considers it a pang of guilt in loving
her. It is revealed that Yeats
proposed to her several times (some
say his efforts lasted for a decade).
But she rejected him every time.
Maybe Yeats is trying to assert in
this poem that he had made a
mistake in loving her. He should
have loved someone else.
The second theme of this poem is a
political one as is indicated by the
title of the poem. Both Yeats and
Maud wanted the liberation of
Ireland from the colonial hands of
England. But Maud proposed violent
means to answer the brutalities of
British colonialism. Yeats blames
her of inciting violence among her
followers. Yeats, rather, indirectly
suggests that the British version of
law and order is bearable than no
order in this poem.
Figurative Analysis
The poem contains a few literary
devices. As mentioned before, there
are four rhetorical questions asked
by Yeats. A rhetorical question is
that kind of question in which
answering is not a primary intention.
One instance may include the last
line of the poem,
Was there another Troy for her to
burn?
The poet has also used allusion. An
allusion is a literary technique in
which a poet relates to a historical
period, person or place. The last line
and the title of the poem are allusive
to Homer’s Iliad. Also, the Second
Troy is a direct metaphor used for
Ireland.
Setting and Imagery
There is no definitive place where
the poem takes place. But the time
of this poem is in between the World
War First to Post-War period when
the freedom movement caught fire.
The images used in this poem are
limited because the poem is centred
around spreading the idea than
creating a world inside a reader’s
mind. Some images like, “an age like
this” and “another Troy for her to
burn”.
Structural Analysis
The poem is composed of twelve
lines and is a one continuous stanza.
The rhyme scheme of this poem is
ABAB CDCD EFEF. While the
rhythmic pattern of this verse is
iambic pentameter. The diction is
formal, marked with a complaining
tone.
Conclusion
No Second Troy is a compelling
poem, written not only to put Maud
Goone on shame but to also
propagate the message of peaceful
movement towards the freedom of
Ireland.
Sources and Suggested
Readings
1. https://www.shmoop.com/study-
guides/poetry/no-second-troy-
yeats
2. https://poemanalysis.com/william
butler-yeats/no-second-troy/
Critical Appreciation – 1914 – Philip Larkin

By Asad Imran
September 23, 2021
Categories: Modern Poetry

war. Then time passes; shops are

General Introduction closed and children in mourning
dress play. The countryside keeps
MCMXIV is one of the most famous
growing its lush grass and fields
poems composed by Philip Larkin.
with “restless silence”. The poet,
The poem appeared in a poetic
then pictures the horror of the war in
collection known as The Whitsun
the form of the deaths of husbands
Weddings in 1964. As evident from
and garden workers. The poet cries
the title, the poem was written as a
out,
response to the chaotic destruction
caused by the World War First (in Never such innocence again!
England). The poem features
soldiers, enlisting them to fight in the Themes
war without knowing its deadly
The first notable theme of this poem
consequences. Therefore, the prime
is the simplicity of the soldiers’
subject of this poem is war.
enthusiasm. But it was a blind one.
Perhaps they had no idea what
horror was in store for them. Almost
Development of Situation
886,000 of them were killed in
The poem begins on the poet England alone. The war, as Sir Nasir
focusing on a picture of soldiers puts it, had reached out to their
who are enthusiastic to participate in homes, kitchens and wardrobes.
Their blind enthusiasm resulted in The poem contains a number of
many of their families fatherless, as literary and figurative devices which
is asserted here, beautify the internal meaning of the
poem. “Uneven lines” is a metaphor
And dark-clothed children at play
used to describe the participants
enlisting themselves for the war.
The other theme of this poem is the
While “the crown of hats” is an
loss of innocence once humanity
example of Synecdoche in which a
had. Humanity had never seen
part of the soldiers is used to
aeroplanes dropping bombs, lands
describe the whole of them. The
filled up with blistering mines,
poet has also utilized juxtaposition.
mortar shells and other chaotic
It is a technique in which two
accessories of the deadliest side of
contrasting situations are weighed.
human nature. It had shaken the
For instance, the soldiers in the
morality of the people. People could
picture are happy to do something
fight like animals for a piece of
for their country but in reality, they
bread. The soldiers who were
are enlisting themselves for a cruel
somehow saved from getting killed
death. While “Never such innocence”
had either lost their senses or were
is a refrain signifying that the people
addicted to alcohol. Before the war,
shall not be able to reclaim the level
the wheel of life was running with its
of innocence which was present
own version of cynical innocence.
before World War First.
But the atmosphere was much
peaceful as compared to what
Setting and Imagery
turmoil people experienced after the
war. Therefore, the poet indirectly The poem takes place in the
asserts that the innocence had been nomination area where soldiers are
lost in a pub. ready to participate in the war. In
later stanzas, the setting transitions
Figurative Analysis into a countryside and then the
whole England. The images used in Conclusion
this poem are bleak and remind us
of one of the catastrophic brutalities 1914 is a poem that not only gives

caused by humans against the rather an indepth view on the motive

humans. The images may include behind people’s participation in the

like, “long uneven lines”, “The crowns war but also its sordid

of hats”, “the shut shops”, “dark- consequences which almost swept

clothed children at play”, “the England away.

pubs/Wide open all day”, “With tiny

Sources and Suggested
rooms in huge houses” and “The
Readings
dust behind limousines”.
1. https://poemanalysis.com/philip-
Structural Analysis
larkin/mcmxiv/

This poem is made of thirty-two 2. http://www.askliterature.com/poet

lines. It is further divided into four larkin/critical-analysis-of-mcmxiv-

stanzas of eight lines, thus forming by-philip-larkin/

four octaves (1 octave = 8 lines). 3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MCM

There is no specific rhyme scheme. 4. https://www.poetrybyheart.org.uk/

The diction of this poem is formal.

Critical Appreciation – Mr. Bleaney – Philip Larkin

By Asad Imran
September 24, 2021
Categories: Modern Poetry

Mr. Bleaney is the defining work of

General Introduction Phillip Larkin. The poem first
appeared in 1955 in The Listener. It
was later included in Larkin’s own
collection known as The Whitsun
Weddings. The poem features the
lifestyle of a lonely person referred
to as Mr. Bleaney. One thing to note
here is Larkin had already used the
name in his first novel Jill. But it is
difficult to relate the two because
Larkin has not provided enough
details. What do we know, for sure, is
the outcome of modernity hidden in
Mr. Bleaney, the person as well as
the poem.
PS: The speaker is not Mr. Bleaney
Development of Situation
The poem opens upon the landlady,
introducing the speaker to the
previous occupant of the room, Mr.
Bleaney. She tells us that Mr.
Bleaney lived there for a serious
amount of time who worked in a car
factory “The Bodies”. The room is
thin and shabby. The scene from the
window is filled with litter and grass
clumps. She asserts that Mr.
Bleaney “improved” her garden.
The room has many shortcomings
like there is no hook to lock the door,
a chair with a straight back, a poorly
lit lightbulb and no space to fit in the
speaker’s luggage. The speaker
decides to rent the room and to
adopt every habit of Mr. Bleaney.
The addressor wonders if Mr.
Bleaney was fearful of the life of
modern people. The poet gets the
notion from the small room that it
was all Mr. Bleaney had learned in
his entire life.
Themes
The only theme this poem carries is
the loneliness of modern life. It is
well said that the big the city, the
more lonely you are. The poet
reflects on the small and untidy
room where Mr. Bleaney used to live.
The small room is his storyteller of
his habits which may only include
his work in the car manufacturing
factory, smocking while laying in bed
and listening to the radio. To simply
put, Mr. Bleaney lived a solitary and condition witch is actually an
dull life characterized by a lack of indicator of the dryness inside it.
ambition and change. But the most
disturbing thing for the addressor is Setting and Imagery
his following of the Bleaney’s ways.
The poem takes place in the room of
But it is not limited to the poet itself,
Mr. Bleaney. The possible period of
we ourselves have fallen a victim to
this poem is the 50s. The images
the limitations observed by Mr.
used in this poem help the readers
Bleaney. Due to lack of trust, we are
capture the dingy picture of Mr.
limiting our scope of intimacy only to
Bleaney’s room. The images may
ourselves and the confinement of
include like, “Flowered curtains, thin
the new generation to the closed
and frayed”, “a strip of building land”,
walls of our home will render them
“Stuffing my ears with cotton-wool”,
useless not only for themselves but
“frigid wind” and “Tousling the
also for their society.
clouds”.

Figurative Analysis
Structural Analysis
The poem contains a number of
This poem is made of twenty-eight
literary devices. It is filled with
lines. Which are further divided into
different symbols. The landlady’s
seven stanzas of four lines each,
garden has been used as a symbol
thus forming seven quatrains. The
of failure and wasted potential of
rhyme scheme of this verse is ABAB
humanity. The symbol of bed, as
which is repeated in each stanza.
suggested by the poet, is a symbol
The poem follows the rhythmic
of the consequences of the
pattern of iambic pentameter. The
mistakes previously mentioned. The
diction used in this poem is
poem also comes bundled with
colloquial.
irony. Irony occurs when the landlady
is referring to her garden’s good Conclusion
Mr. Bleaney is Larkin’s masterpiece
which showcases our own dreary
picture of unambitiousness and
confinement in our modern time.
how we live measures our own
nature
1. http://www.askliterature.com/poet
larkin/critical-analysis-of-mr-
bleaney-by-philip-larkin/
2. https://www.litcharts.com/poetry/
larkin/mr-bleaney
3. https://www.poetrybyheart.org.uk/
bleaney/

Sources and Suggested

Readings

Critical Appreciation – Ambulances – Philip Larkin

By Asad Imran
September 26, 2021
Categories: Modern Poetry

She was shifted to his home so that

General Introduction he may take care of her. Later, he
himself grew the symptoms of
Ambulances is a poem written by
oesophageal cancer and he died
Philip Larkin in 1961. The poem was
with the severe pain.
published in Larkin’s third poetic
release, The Whitsun Weddings in
1964. As is obvious from the title,
Development of Situation
the poem carries the fear of death in
it and how humans deal with it. The The poem opens on an ambulance,
poem is also said to have been going through different routes of the
written in response to the severe city. The streets on which the
illness of his friend Monica Jones.
ambulance runs are busy. It passes
through the children scattered here
and there; of ladies “coming out of
shops” and then the dead body is
placed in the ambulance. The door
of the ambulance is shut and the
dead body is on its way to be buried
in a graveyard. The speaker asserts
that everything, from “families and
fashions” to “the unique random
blend” shall come to an end because
it “dulls to distance all we are”.
Themes
The prominent theme of this poem is
the death and mortality of humanity.
Larkin wrote this poem after he
himself saw the grazing casualties
caused by the Second World War.
The horror of nuclear explosions had
shattered the romances of bravery,
honour and courage associated with
the war. All they saw was death and
ambulances.
Although the theme of death is
vividly present at the core of this
poem, Larkin gives some living
pictures of life on the way of an
ambulance, approaching for the
dead. The living and playing children
as well as the ladies coming out of
the shopping malls do not seem to
notice an ambulance crossing
nearby. But Larkin indirectly states
that those who are not taking a
notice of the ambulance should keep
in mind that one day, the same
ambulance might be at their
doorstep.
Figurative Analysis
Therr was no online source that
helped me in finding different literary
devices used in this poem.
Therefore, I am trying myself to find
a few. If some are wrongly traced,
kindly let me know.
Larkin has used many literary
devices to amplify the symbolic
meaning of this poem. Ambulance,
has been used both as a metaphor
and as a symbol of death. While the
symbols of the children and ladies
coming out of shops are symbolic of
life (awaiting death). While the “Wild
White Face” is a metaphor used for
the dead body. The simile occurs
when the ambulance workers are
compared with “confessionals”b
through the use of the word ‘like’.
Setting and Imagery
The poem takes place in an
ambulance, crossing few streets.
The images of this poem give a
morbid picture of death as a
universal force, working for the end.
The images used in this poem may
include like, “Loud noons of cities”,
“All streets in time are visited”,
“women coming from the shops”,
and “it is carried in and stowed”.
Structural Analysis
‘Ambulences’ is composed of 30
lines. The poem is further divided
into five stanzas of six lines each,
thus making a set of five sestets. A
sestet is a stanza of six lines. The
poem follows no particular rhyme
Critical Appreciation – Church Going – Philip Larkin
By Asad Imran
September 27, 2021
scheme or rhythmic pattern.
Therefore, it is a blank verse. While
the diction of this poem is formal.
Conclusion
Ambulances by Larkin compellingly
conveys the monarchy of death over
every temporal victory inside this
temporal world.
Sources and Suggested
Readings
1. https://poemanalysis.com/philip-
larkin/ambulances/
2. https://interestingliterature.com/20
short-analysis-of-philip-larkins-
ambulances/
3. http://yazdaliterature.com/ambula
critical-analysis/
4. https://allpoetry.com/Ambulances
Categories: Modern Poetry
General Introduction
Church Going is Larkin’s masterpiece
when it comes to his poetry. Larkin
rejected his own 22 pages long draft
of Church Going and then came up
with the one both you and I know.
The poem is a part of a poetic
collection known as The Less
Deceived. Church Going, well,
features the Church going of the
poet. But in-depth, it is a poetic
discussion between faith and
scepticism, a rather common
subject for the Post-war generation.
Larkin was influenced by Eliot’s play,
“Murder in the Cathedral”.
Development of Situation
The poem begins as soon as the
addressor gets into an old but
abandoned church. The speaker lets
the door shut and takes a look at the
sacred things spread around him in
the church. After a little break, he
moves to an altar and reads some
lines. Then, he walks back into the
church and places sixpence in the
collection box.
The addressor is in a fix whether he
should consider this place worth
visiting or not. But this is not the first
time he has visited the churches. He
wonders what will happen to the
churches around the globe when
there will be no believers left? Maybe
churches shall be transformed into
museums or their doors shall be left
open for the sheep.
Then the narrator ponders over the
question that what will happen when
there will be no person following any
kind of religion. What will be the
condition of the last religious person
on earth? Will he be a stern follower
of his religion? Will he be bored like
the addressor in the church who
entered without knowing what he
was doing.
Lastly, the speaker admits that he is
relieved at the presence of the
church. After all, it is a serious place
to find answers to the serious
questions like “Why we are brought
here?” and “Where we shall go after
death? “. He concludes that if
organized churches go away,
religion/spirituality shall stay there in
pursuit of answering those serious
questions.
Themes
Religion vs. Spirituality
The most prominent theme of this
poem is humanity’s penduluming
between religion and spirituality. It is
obvious that the poet does not
endorse religion. Religion is a set of
ideas in which serious questions
about the existence of life are
answered with a specific set of
beliefs. Spiritualism, on the other
hand, explores answers to those
questions on a deeper level by
adding a mix of more questions. But
Larkin asserts that religion may
decay with the passage of time but
spirituality shall bring people close
to their religion in order to get a
comprehensive answer to the
serious questions of life.
Time and Nature
Another notable theme of this poem
is how time and Nature treat mortal
humans. The poem suggests that
time is short for humans to learn
and strive for the answers to those
serious questions. Furthermore, the
poet indirectly puts forward that
people have to connect with Nature
to get answers because Nature is
immortal (from a poetic sense) and
connecting with something immortal
can provide answers to the mortals.
Figurative Analysis
The poem contains a number of
literary devices. For instance, Larkin
refrains from denoting towards the
altar directly. Instead, he uses a
metaphor “some brass and stuff/Up
at the holy end”. The title of this
poem is an irony as Church Going
signifies a regular attendance made
towards the Church. However, the
title is ironically used to demonstrate
the decline in religious activities.
While the symbol of “small and neat
organ” is used for the refinement of
the middle-class parishioners.
Setting and Imagery
The poem takes place in the ruins of
an old and abandoned church. The
images used in this poem give
ample impression on the decline of
religion and religious activities in
England. The images may include
like “sprawlings of flowers”, “looks
almost new”, “Their parchment, plate
and pyx in locked cases”, “Grass,
weedy pavement, brambles, buttress,
sky”, and “A shape less recognisable
each week”.
Structural Analysis
The poem is composed of sixty-
three lines. It is further divided into
seven stanzas of nine lines each.
The rhyme scheme of this poem per
stanza is ABABCAECE. While the
rhythmic pattern of this poem is
iambic pentameter. The poem
boasts somewhat ironic tone while
the diction used in this poem is
simple.
Conclusion
Church Going is a poem that is not
entirely about religion as Larkin
himself asserts,
It isn’t religious at all. Religion
surely means that the affairs of
this world are under divine
surveillance, and so on, and I go
to some pains to point out that I
don’t bother about that sort of
thing, that I’m deliberately
ignorant of it: ‘ “Up at the holy
end”, for instance.
Similarly, the poem does not exhibit
the atheistic outlook. Rather it draws
a line between religion and
spirituality to find answers to the
serious questions about the
existence of human life.
Sources and Suggested
Readings
1. https://sites.lsa.umich.edu/mqr/20
a-little-bit-closer-now-baby-philip-
larkins-church-going/
2. https://www.shmoop.com/study-
guides/poetry/church-
 going/summary going/themes
3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_Going
4. https://www.shmoop.com/study-
guides/poetry/church-

William Blake as a Romantic Poet

By Asad Imran
September 28, 2021
Categories: Modern Poetry

poets using them. Romantic

Introductory principles include like reliance on
imagination, subjectivity (reflection
Blake’s stature as a romantic poet
of one’s self), freedom of thought,
may first seem confusing and
and idealization and love of Nature.
illogical because his famous works
Although it is difficult to find every
do not fall in the periodic range of
romantic trait in the poetry of Blake
the Romantic period. But the more
but it is safe to say that it is Blake,
we dig deeper into the nature of his
who kick-started Romantic Poetry
works, the easier it becomes for us
through his freedom of thought,
to relate his work with the spirit of
rejection of didacticism and
Romanticism. Before diving deep
simplicity vividly present in his
into the Romantic world of William
poems.
Blake, first, we have to make it clear
that what is Romanticism?

Romanticism is to practice romantic Revolutionary Ideas

principles popularized by the
Romantic Age and the Romantic
The war between France and And be like him and he will then
England as well as French love me.
Revolution filled the Romantics with
The concept of the black boy “being
revolutionary Ideas which were not
like” the white English boy, equal (or
thought of before and Blake is no
superior) among the eyes of God
exception here. William Blake is
was, to be honest, romantic
called a visionary poet because of
(unrealistic) in the era of Blake. But
his revolutionary ideas painted along
he was able to imagine through the
with his poetry. He highlighted the
freedom of thought, a necessary
issues and problems which were not
ingredient of Romanticism.
even suitable in the time he wrote.
Another revolutionary idea that I
Some of the revolutionary ideas in
traced in Blake’s poetry is the
his poem which I have read include
unfulfilling desires of the poor
like equality of the blacks with the
chimney sweepers. It was quite
white as well as the innocent desires
unthinkable in his time that a sooty
of a little chimney sweeper who
(pardon me, poor souls but this is
“sleeps in soot”. During his time, the
the only way I can highlight my
blacks were looked down upon. They
point) chimney sweeper can harbour
were treated far below the animals.
a few innocence desires. Mostly,
But the idea presented in The Little
people believed that they were only
Black Boy was far too revolutionary
for work. But Blake, in his Chimney
in his period,
Sweeper, makes it clear that,
Ill shade him from the heat till he
And by came an Angel who had a
can bear,
bright key,
To lean in joy upon our fathers
And he opened the coffins & set
knee.
them all free;
And then I’ll stand and stroke his
Then down a green plain, leaping,
silver hair,
laughing they run,
 And wash in a river and shine in
the Sun.
Thus, through depicting the innocent
desires of a temporal but
recreational recess from the
dangerous work of chimney
sweeping, Blake proves himself as a
poet of vision and revolutionary
ideas.
Rejection of Didacticism
Classical poetry is filled with didactic
lessons. For instance, The Faerie
Queene, directly teaches its reader to simple and common words and
be virtuous. It is difficult to find
didacticism in Romantic Poetry.
Blake’s rejection of didacticism is
obvious in his Poison Tree. It is a
poem in which Blake presents the
consequences of the nurturing of
negative emotions by letting the
“foe” eat the poisonous tree and he
dies. But this does not mean Blake
endorses confiscation of anger.
I was angry with my friend,
I told my wrath, my wrath did
end.
I was angry with my foe,
I told him not, my wrath did grow.
He simply presents two contrary
conditions with consequences and
lets the reader decide which one is
good for him.
Simplicity
Romantics were against the use of
bombastic or elevated diction in
poetry. They wanted to make poetry
accessible to the common people. In
order to achieve this, they adhered to
phrases so that people should get a
clear picture of what a romantic
wants to say. Blake uses the most
simple diction among other
romantics. Rather his poems sound
like the nursery rhymes made for
children. In reality, those singy songy
poems carry some serious issues
found within every society if these
poems are weighed on a universal
level. Due to simple and short poetic-
lines, Blake’s poems are easy to
remember and require less effort to
understand the meanings hidden
inside them. That is why, his poetry Sources and Suggested
is famous to this day. Readings

Conclusion
Conclusively speaking, Blake is a
Romantic poet not in the sense of
particular years associated with the
said movement, but through
romantic traits debated above.
1. http://webpage.pace.edu/bkirschs
2. https://neoenglish.wordpress.com
blake%E2%80%99s-romanticism/
3. https://artuk.org/discover/stories/
blake-the-romantic-visionary
4. https://englishliterature24.blogspo
blake-called-precursor-of-
romantic-poetry

The Waste Land as a Modern Epic

By Asad Imran
September 30, 2021
Categories: Modern Poetry

referred as a modern epic,

Introductory competing head-to-head with other
epics like Homer’s Iliad and Milton’s
The Waste Land is an epoch-making
Paradise Lost. Before discussing
poem written by an epoch-making
The Waste Land as a modern epic,
poet, TS Eliot. The poem first hit the
first, let us clear what exactly is an
shelves in 1922. The poem
epic.
highlights the degradation of values
of the Western Culture. The poem
holds as much significance in An epic is a long narrative poem
English Literature as it is often filled with the heroic deeds of the
hero in the battlefield. War is a prime Modern Problems need
subject of an epic. For instance, in Modern Epic
Paradise Lost, there is a battle
between the forces of God and the The Waste Land was written at a

forces of Satan. An epic contains time when there was no space for

elevated diction, begins from the the glorification of wars as is shown

middle of the story, has Homeric in all the epics. The war was still

similes inside it as well as the there. But through a different form.

personages in an epic are of a high There was no man as an opponent

order, mostly taken from history. for the other person, the war was
with the inner shortcomings of the
But The Waste Land is different. It
person, his moral frailty. The Waste
does not hold the qualities of a
Land depicts the moral downfall of
generic epic. The diction used inside
the lost generation after World War
the poem is easy. Characters in this
First. Love saw itself in the brazen
poem are not derived from history
hands of temporal lust, as shown in
yet it has a firm connection with the
the loveless love-making scene
fierce history of World War First.
narrated by Tiresias. Death by water
Characters in this poem belong to
through its excess and dearness is
the common people. There is no
used as a symbol of the excessive
proper beginning of the story and the
use of human intellect for warfare.
narrator shifts from section to
Similarly, the zombie-like creatures
section, signifying the downfall of
mentioned at the end of the first
the scattered humanity. The Waste
section shows loneliness and
Land is a modern epic because it
aimlessness which is still a common
highlights modern problems, has
problem of our age. Thus, the
many allusions to the classical
depiction of modern problems
literature as well as is an outcome of
makes The Waste Land a modern
a Modernist outlook.
epic as it was necessary due to the
change of time.
References to Classical
Literature and Mythology
An epic is incomplete without
references to the classical literature
that came before it. For instance,
Paradise Lost has many references
to Greek Mythology especially when
the bulk of Satan is explained.
Keeping the “tradition”, Eliot has
used a fierce amount of references
to make his poem difficult
intensionally. For instance, he has
used the mythology of the Fisher
King who was trapped to fish in the
“dull lake” who is rescued by a knight
who is in search of the Holy Grail.
Eliot has used this myth to signify
the importance of health over
wealth. Moreover, the title of the first
section (Burial of the Dead) is
mythological which is taken from the
Anglican Burial Service, which is
used to put the idea of the wasted
land in motion. The third classic
allusion is Tiresias a blind prophet of
Thebes who has been used as a
symbol of human consciousness
and is the protagonist of this
modern epic.
An Outcome of Modernist
Outlook
The Waste Land is an outcome of
the modernist outlook of Eliot.
Modernists are a group of writers
who stood against the already
established Romantic as well as
Victorian monarchy in Literature and
they strived for something new
which, according to them, was a
public demand of that time. As
mentioned briefly in the heading
“Modern Problems need Modern
Epic”, a modernist approach was
necessary to reinvent the classical
genre of epic that was entitled to the
public. Such a democratic approach
is truly a fruit of Modernism. But it
must be noted that Eliot finds solace
and solution to the modern problems
through classical means like the
adherence to the ancient Hindu
values of “Datta, Dayadhvam, and
Damyata” which mean “give,
sympathize and control”.
Conclusion
The Waste Land is a true Modern
Epic because it shows the downfall
of the individuals in a democratic
manner while it gives solution to the
modern issues in classical means.
1. http://parmarjinal161315.blogspot
of-20th-century-in-waste.html
2. https://www.shmoop.com/study-
guides/poetry/the-waste-land

Sources and Suggested

Readings

The Waste Land as a Social Document

By Asad Imran
October 2, 2021
Categories: Modern Poetry

values of civilization as well as a

Introduction practical solution to the problems of
the post-war generation. But since
The Waste Land is one of the major
we are proving The Waste Land as a
and defining works of the twentieth
social document, we shall focus on
century. Composed by the poet of
its portrayal of the concerned
high merit, Thomas Stearns Eliot,
civilization.
The Waste Land appears before us
as a social document of the
darkness and disillusionment of the
Aftermath of War
post-war generation and society. The
poem shows the poet’s disgust with The Waste Land was primarily
the aftermaths of scientific written as an aftermath of the first
achievements, weathering of the major war of human calamity ever
witnessed and waged by humans.
The Waste Land literally signifies to
the land of ruins after the war.
Although the poem does not refer to
the war directly, however, it is
depicted through a metaphor of
rats,
I think we are in rats’ alley
Where the dead men lost their
bones.
Perhaps it really was a “rats’ alley”.
During and after the war, the
problems of Europe were increased
considerably. The establishment of
Communist Russia made many
people leave after the war. They
were scattered in different parts of
Europe. They were utterly helpless.
Even food was not given properly to
them. The poem gives those people
a considerable spotlight to those
people so that their problems, as
well as the bad consequences of the
war, must be highlighted.
Love Gets Crippled through
Lust
Another “feature” of the modern
society depicted vividly in the poem
is the passion of love being crippled
through lust. Or the worst, temporal
relationships based upon physical
‘co-operation”. This picture is painted
through the narration of Tiresias
when he or she described the
loveless sex between the typist and
a worker. This is not a healthy
activity by any means as it is a blow
of death on the development of true
love which is characterized equally
through physical as well as spiritual
connection. This part of the poem
basically tells us the deplorable
condition of the people who were
dazzled by the cruelty. They sought
refuge in sex and sexual activities to
calm themselves down from the
bloody effects of war.
Loneliness
Another major documentation
present in The Waste Land is
loneliness felt in the crowds. This
phenomenon is richly portrayed in
the zombie-march scene in the first
section of the poem in which a
crowd is moving without the
consciousness of themselves and
their surroundings. This incident is
of great significance as it hints
directly at the dull loneliness faced
by the people to this day. Keeping
ourselves locked in the context of
the poem, it becomes clear that war
is also a major contributor behind
the barren landscapes in the city.
The war had vaporized trust among
human beings when they witnessed
humans killing humans. Therefore,
the isolation of humanity within itself
has become one of the core
documenting points of the modern
epic.
Short Critical Analysis of Romantic Era in Poetry
By Asad Imran
October 3, 2021
Categories: Modern Poetry
Introductory
Poetry conveys ideas drive through
verse, form and meter. Poetry from
Conclusion
The Waste Land by Thomas Sterns
Eliot aptly documents the sordid
picture of the post-war modern
civilization that abandoned social
contact, principles of true love as
well as universal compassion.
Sources and Suggested
Readings
1. A portion of this question was
prepared by the material sent by
Muhammad Wajahat Sultan
2. https://www.englishliterature.info/
waste-land-post-war-
generation.html
different eras differs from each other
in style, subject matter, selection of
diction and figurative devices. So far,
in Sargodha University, a common
(private) student notices two
significant eras in poetry. The first
one is the classical era of poetry and
the second one is Romantic era of
poetry. For most parts, classical and
romantic poetry differ from each
other. Before drawing a small
comparison between the two
significant eras of poetry, first, we
have to trace when was Romantic
era was put into motion.
The Romantic Age began in 1798
and ended in 1824 as an answer to
classical set of rules and literature.
The word “Romantic” has been
derived from a word “Romance”
referring to the stories written in the
Roman language. Romantic literary
means something which is remote
to the realities of life. However,
Romanticism is a common term
used in literature signifying the
influence of Romantic traits in
literature. The romantic traits include
like:
Adherence to Subjectivity
(Personal Emotions)
Importance of Natural Imagery
Imagination at its Peak
Use of Simple Language
Love for Freedom and Rebellious
Outlooks
Escapism
Among the Romantic poets, we may
include:
William Blake
William Wordsworth
Samuel Taylor Coleridge (Both of
them began the Romantic
Movement through the publication
of lyrical ballads)
Lord Byron
John Keats
Percy Bysshe Shelley
Now, it’s time to critically evaluate
the traits of Romantic Poetry, one by
one.
Adherence to Subjectivity
The chief feature of Romantic Poetry
is the adherence to subjectivity. To
simply put, the presentation of
personal emotions is the defining
trait of Romantic Poetry. The idea of
the development of personal
emotions is favoured by Wordsworth
as he calls poetry “a spontaneous
overflow of powerful emotions
recollected in tranquillity (peaceful
isolation). ” For instance, John
Keats’ “When I Have Fears” is a
poem in which the poet has utilized
his personal emotions of fear.
Importance of Natural
Imagery
A Romantic poem is incomplete
without the inclusion of Nature in it.
Shifting from the classical values,
the Romantics turned their
imaginative eyes to the rural areas
which were characterized for the
natural beauty in them. Every
Romantic poet is directly or
indirectly, a poet of Nature for he
portrays the crowd of trees in the
forest, the flow of water in a river or
the bewitching moonlight
illuminating a mountain, as they
actually are or he adds more beauty
through his imaginative lens.
Wordsworth is a worshipper of
Nature as he finds living divinity in it,
These waters, rolling from their
mountain-springs
With a soft inland murmur.
Imagination at its Peak
In Romantic Poetry, the use of
imagination plays an important role
in amplifying the aspect of the
beauty of both the concrete and the
abstract. Samuel Taylor Coleridge is
the master of creating vivid worlds
which are the outcome of intense
imagination. For instance, he
establishes the dazzling and
beautiful image of the palace built by
Kubla Khan in the fictitious city of
Xanadu,
In Xanadu did Kubla KhanA
stately pleasure-dome decree:
Where Alph, the sacred river, ran
Through caverns measureless to
man Down to a sunless sea.
So twice five miles of fertile
ground
With walls and towers were
girdled round;
Use of Simple and Familiar
Diction
Romantic Poetry was written for the
common people. Therefore, to make
it appealing for the general masses
to read, Romantic poets decided to
use simple and familiar diction. The
simple poetry is considered to be a
representative of the common
people or the working class. It is true
for the poetry of William Blake. His
use of diction is extremely simple
and his poetry revolves around the
plight of common people like
chimney sweepers and black
people,
When my mother died I was very
young,
And my father sold me while yet
my tongue
Could scarcely cry ” ‘weep! ‘weep!
‘weep! ‘weep!”
So your chimneys I sweep & in
soot I sleep
Love for Freedom and
Rebellious Outlooks
The romantic Movement was greatly
influenced by the French Revolution.
Therefore, the love for freedom and
rebellious behaviour towards the
authorities as well as the classical
values is prevalent in Romantic
Poetry. Shelley is the moat rebel of
the bunch. He is against the captivity
of religion and authority. Through his
Ode to the West Wind, he wants to
spread his ideas of freedom through
the mighty West Wind,
Make me thy lyre, even as the
forest is:
What if my leaves are falling like
its own!
The tumult of thy mighty
harmonies
Will take from both a deep,
autumnal tone,
Sweet though in sadness. Be
thou, Spirit fierce,
My spirit! Be thou me, impetuous
one!
Escapism
The industrial revolution was about
to begin when the spell of Romantic
Poetry was on the horizon. Cities
were gradually becoming busy and
materialistic places to earn a
livelihood. It was fatiguing both
mentally and physically. Therefore a
temporal escape from the fatiguing
realities of life was mandatory.
Romantics used poetry as a means
of the escape and Keats was the
best. In his Ode to Nightingale, he
requests Nightingale for his escape
into her realm of solace,
Away! away! for I will fly to thee,
Not charioted by Bacchus and his
pards,
But on the viewless wings of
Poesy,
Conclusion
William Butler Yeats as a Modern Poet
By Asad Imran
October 5, 2021
Categories: Modern Poetry
Introduction
William Butler Yeats is one of the
important poets at the beginning of
the twentieth century. He ranks
along with Thomas Stearns Eliot and
Conclusively, Romantic Poetry is the
poetry for the people, by the people
to relieve themselves with the pains
of their surroundings, in a language
characterized by simplicity and
imagination.
Sources and Suggested
Readings
1. A New History of English
Literature by B. R. Mullick – Page
112
2. https://englishsummary.com/roma
poetry/
Ezra Pound through his poetic
genius. There are three main themes
in his poems which are love,
mysticism and Irish nationalism. But
the strain of modernism is also
vividly present in his works of
verses. It is said that Yeats is the
seed of modernism while Eliot is a
tree of it.
Similarity of Modernism
between Eliot and Yeats
WB Yeats and Eliot have many
similarities in their poetry when it
comes to the themes of modernity.
Much like Eliot, Yeats has used
classical mythology, colloquial
diction, symbolism and juxtaposition
to display the anxiety of modernity.
People suffered both physically and
mentally as a result of the First
World War. Yeats has utilized
different scenes and landscapes to
portray the spiritual and
psychological condition of the
modern man.
Modern Political Agenda
Like many other modernists, a shift
in political thought is obvious in his
works, especially in No Second Troy.
Yeats favoured the idea of
independence of Ireland. But on the
other hand, Maud Goone suggested
violence to achieve freedom. As is
obvious from the title of the poem,
Yeats considered it wrong and rather,
he favoured the colonialism of the
UK than utter lawlessness. The fear
of lawlessness might have sprung
from the grim exposure of World War
First, which stands in line with the
spirit of modernism.
Nature’s Indifference with War
Sometimes, we see Romanticism
mixed up with modernism in the
poetry of Yeats. Wild Swans at Coole
is one example of it. In this poem,
the poet gives the idea that Nature
remains indifferent with the war.
I have looked upon those brilliant
creatures,
And now my heart is sore.
All’s changed since I, hearing at
twilight,
The romantic notion of the
continuation of Nature is contrasted
with the modern pessimism of the
post-war generation.
Pessimism
Modernist Poetry abounds in a
pessimistic outlook of life because
of witnessing the horrors of the war.
Yeats’poetry is marked with
pessimism. Yeats himself saw many
pessimistic rejections in his life. His
proposal of love was rejected many
times by Maud Gonne. That is why,
Yeats is seen warning her about the
coming of old age when she shall be
left alone, remembering of her good
old days,
How many loved your moments
of glad grace,
And loved your beauty with love
false or true,
Another strike of pessimism in
Yeats’poetry can be traced to the
general downfall of humanity after
the war. Such a pessimistic outlook
is easily traceable in his poem, The
Second Coming,
Things fall apart; the centre
cannot hold;
Mere anarchy is loosed upon the
world,
The blood-dimmed tide is loosed,
and everywhere
The ceremony of innocence is
drowned;
The poem stands on the apex of
pessimism and it looks justifiable.
As mentioned many times before,
the First World War left a terrifying
effect on everyone. The set
standards of religious morality were
shattered. People’s expectations
were broken. That is why, Yeats
painted a grim and pessimistic
picture of his modern society.
Conclusion
William Butler Yeats is truly a
modern poet for he displays the
social anxiety of the post-war
generation along with his sincere
concern for the downfall.
Sources and Suggested
Readings
1. http://www.literary-
articles.com/2013/08/wb-yeats-
as-modern-poet.html
2. http://allrfree.blogspot.com/2019/11/william-
literature/232-yeats-modern-
butler-yeats-is-modern-poet.html poet.html
3. http://www.cssforum.com.pk/css-
optional-subjects/group-v/english-

Transitioning from Songs of Innocence to Experience

By Asad Imran
October 6, 2021
Categories: Modern Poetry

subject matter is changed from the

Introduction innocent one to the darkness of the
experience. This is how the
Songs of Innocence and Songs of
transition from innocence to
Experience are two separate
experience takes place in Blake’s
collections of painted poetry
early romantic landscape. In this
composed and sketched by William
write-up, I shall go through the duo
Blake, the precursor of the Romantic
of poems that are included in the
Movement in Literature. Both of
syllabus of Sargodha University and
these books appeared in 1789 and
shall present how they transition
1794 respectively. Those two
from the murmur of innocence to the
collections of poetry strive to strike a
shriek of experience.
difference between the “two contrary
states of human soul” which are
innocence and experience. The two
The Chimney Sweeper
collections contain some poems
with the same title but their tone and
In the innocent version of The
Chimney Sweeper, a “little black
(sooty) boy” narrates his sooty
adventures while cleaning up the
chimneys. The grimness of the
condition is almost alleviated
through the innocent tone of the
poem. But the poet manages to
convey the innocent desires of the
little chimney sweepers to roam
about and to relax in the open air in
of course, the form of an innocent
dream,
And by came an angel, who had a
bright key,
And he opened the coffins, and
set them all free;
Then down a green plain, leaping,
laughing, they run
And wash in a river, and shine in
the sun.
But the second version of the poem,
also titled as The Chimney-Sweeper
shatters everything which is
associated with the innocent cries of
the chimney sweepers to be
temporarily liberated from the
dangerous work. The poem abruptly
changes from the “innocent cries” to
the “notes of woe”. In the
experienced version of the poem,
Blake directly attacks religion and
monarchy as the key factors
responsible for the plight of the
chimney sweepers who put
themselves in danger because they
are forced by their social and
financial circumstances to endanger
their lives,
And because I am happy and
dance and sing,
They think they have done me no
injury,
And are gone to praise God and
His priest and king,
Who made up a heaven of our
misery.
Holy Thursday
Holy Thursday is a poem that
depicts the procession of the
orphans on The Ascension Day. The
day which is renowned for the march
of the orphans to the Cathedral of
Saint Paul. The poem does not hit
directly at the authorities who are
responsible for the dismal condition
of the orphans. Rather it focuses on
the innocent march of the multitude
of children which looks like the
strong flow of the river Thames.
O what a multitude they seemed,
these flowers of London town!
Seated in companies they sit,
with radiance all their own.
The hum of multitudes was there,
but multitudes of lambs,
Thousands of little boys and girls
raising their innocent hands.
But it is in the experienced version of
the Holy Thursday in which the satire
and the true meaning behind the
innocent version of Holy Thursday
are revealed. In this poem, Blake
explicitly hits at religious authorities
and institutions along with the
people in the highest hierarchy of
authority for the hunger orphans
have to face. Blake mocks that in
this land of prosperity, how can
John Keats as a Writer of Odes
hunger prevail? He also questions
the religious rite the orphans are
compelled to perform that is it a
song of joy when their lives are
marked with suffering.
Is that trembling cry a song?
Can it be a song of joy?
And so many children poor?
It is a land of poverty!
Conclusion
The transitioning from the poems of
innocence to the notes of experience
display a person’s growth to the
innocent myths to the reasons
behind the harsh realities of life. But
such an experienced transition also
helps us in getting the true meaning
behind the innocent lines of the
poet.
Source
1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Song
By Asad Imran
October 7, 2021
Categories: Modern Poetry
Introductory
A poet of stature like John Keats
does not require any introduction.
Keats is a very famous poet of the
second wave of the Romantic era.
He is best known for his odes.
Before discussing John Keats as a
writer of odes, first, we have to make
it clear that what exactly is an ode.
In its original form, an ode was a
lyrical poem that was meant to be
sung along with a musical
instrument known as a lyre. But
when the ode appeared in the hands
of English writers, they removed the
elements of music from it and kept
its lyrical quality within itself. Today,
an ode is expected to have the
following characteristics:
An ode is an address to an
abstract object.
Ode is a natural and spontaneous
flow of the emotions of the writer.
An ode is expected to be serious.
An ode can be composed of any
form or poetic meter but it should
be a complex one.
The odes of John Keats are known
for the dramatic elements, negative
capability, the immortality of art and
lyrical flow.
Dramatic Elements
Drama is characterized by the action
it unfolds. However, in Keats realm
of odes, dramatic action is not a
direct action. But it is rather a
development of the action that may
come out as a result of the contents
of a particular ode. Almost all of the
famous odes written by Keats have
this characteristic of the
development of action. For instance,
in Ode to a Nightingale, Keats is
desirous to get out of his world of
melancholy into the peaceful realm
of Nightingale (or he just wants a
beaker “full of warm South” ). But,
later, we see a dramatic movement
of the poet or the nightingale, when
the presence of the forest is felt
through the fragrance of the flowers.
Similarly, in Ode on a Grecian Urn
the urn itself is shown as a
spectacle on which something
“unheard” is being played by the
pipers engraved on it. In both the
examples, there is no stage to
perform the dramatic action, rather
the action is performed in our
imagination through the use of vivid
imagery.
Negative Capability
To simply put, Negative Capability is
the removal of self. Or becoming the
protagonist or the centre of action in
a work. This term was also coined by specifically mentions,
John Keats. His odes are known for
the negative capability in them. For
instance, in Ode to a Nightingale,
John Keats himself becomes a
nightingale through the “viewless
wings of Poesy”. In Ode on a Grecian
Urn, we notice Keats as one of the
listeners of the “unheard music” or a
jealous spectator watching two
lovers running after each other. Or in
Ode to Autumn, the poet becomes
the autumn itself watching the
storehouse being filled with grains.
,
Immortality of Art
The main theme of the odes
composed by John Keats is the
immortality of art. According to
Keats, art and Nature shall continue
to evolve and thrive respectively
regardless of the mortality of human
beings. The song of the nightingale
shall be heard forever which is a
wonder of Nature. Keats suggests
that man can become immortal
through his work of art. This
suggestion is strongly traceable in
Ode on a Grecian Urn which
Sylvan historian, who canst thus
express
A flowery tale more sweetly than
our rhyme:
Perhaps the engraving on the urn is
an indirect symbol of the immortality
of art as the ancient customs and
people are long gone. But the urn Conclusion
has kept their way of living.
John Keats is a great writer of odes
Lyrical Flow on the basis of turning his personal
emotions into universal ones and
As mentioned in the characteristics
suggesting ways of being immortal
of an ode, lyrical flow is an important
through the work of art. Keats’odes
element of it. Keats’ odes are
are a suitable means of escapism
marked with a lyrical flow which,
for the general readers because of
then, turns his personal emotions
moderate diction and plenty of vivid
into universally acceptable ideas.
imagery.
Take, for example, Ode on a
Nightingale. It is an outcome of his Sources and Suggested
pure emotions of the desire of Readings
escapism. This personal escape
becomes universal because such a 1. A Critical Evaluation of Selected

desire for escape is not limited to Poems of John Keats – Famous

Keats himself but is observed in Products – Page 54

every person living on the planet 2. https://sarkariguider.in/keats-as-

earth who is fatigued by the a-writer-of-odes/

responsibilities of the world,

regardless of his or her gender.

Philip Larkin as a Poet

By Asad Imran
October 8, 2021
Categories: Modern Poetry
Introduction Hardy. How? His poems are as short
as the ones by Frost and as sceptic
Philip Larkin is an English poet, as the works of Hardy. Despite the
novelist and historian. He was born hidden morbidity in his poems,
in 1922 and breathed his last in Larkin does appreciate the little
1985. His stature as a poet is a offerings of life.
debatable question as many critics
are fond of finding faults in the Prominent Themes
poetic compositions of Larkin.
The poetry of Larkin is known by a
However, there are also a host of
handful of the selection of themes.
critics who come and defend Larkin
Some notable themes of his poems
as a great poet. The subject of his
may include like death, melancholy,
poetry is the social and political
time, isolation, love, war and religion.
effects of the great wars on
The theme of melancholy is the
England.
most dominant theme in his poetry,
mostly motivated by pessimism. The
theme of death comes as an
outcome of the theme of pessimistic
A Movement Poet
melancholy which is very obvious in
his poem 1914 in which soldiers
Larkin is considered to be a great
literally sign themselves up for
Movement poet. Movement poets
death. Time, according to him, is a
was a group of poets whose subject
force that uses its influence to
matter of poetry was to sketch up
destroy the mortal men and their
the dull, drab and sordid picture of
important places, as suggested in
the humanity after World War
the ruins of a church in Church
Second. B. R. Mullick, in his book A
Going. Isolation is the main problem
New History of English Literature,
in this crowded modern life as is
asserts that Larkin has the genius of
obvious in Mr. Bleaney. He considers
both Robert Frost and Thomas
love an illusion. While he thinks
religion will decay with the passage
of time as humanity progresses but
he finds spirituality promising.
Opinion of Critics
Due to the sad and pessimistic
outlook of Larkin, he is regarded as
“the saddest heart in the post-war
supermarket” by Eric Homberger.
Larkin is often referred as “the
reluctant poet of the drab and
austere surfaces of post-war
Britain”. While his supporters see
social realism and the acceptance of
the actual but dismal condition of
the post-war generation. His narrow
selection of ideas was the main
reason behind the groaning voices of
critics against him. But as he
published more collections of poetry
like High Windows, the voices
against his work seemed to fade
away. The following comment
appropriately sums up the whole
discussion of criticism,
Regarded for much of his career
as a minor poet with a narrow
range of subject matter, Larkin
now seems to dominate the
history of English poetry in the
second half of the (twentieth)
century much as T.S. Eliot
dominated it in the first. Though
detractors continue to speak of
his gloom, philistinism, insularity,
and anti-modernism, the authority
and grandiloquence of his long
poems, and the grace, sharpness,
or humour of his shorter ones
now seem indisputable, as does
his clear-eyed engagements with
love, marriage, freedom, destiny,
ageing, death, and other far from
marginal subjects.
Conclusion
Thus, Larkin is a great poet of the
second half of the twentieth century.
Though at times, he may look
pessimistic but he actually portrayed
what was felt for real.
Sources and Suggested
Readings
1. A New History of English
Literature by B. R. Mullick – Page
 308 3. https://neoenglish.wordpress.com/
2. Notes provided by Sir Saffi larkin-as-a-poet/

Critical Appreciation – The Prelude (Line 1 to 100 –

Book 1) – William Wordsworth

By Asad Imran
October 10, 2021
Categories: Modern Poetry

poem, The Recluse, which remained

Important Note: This Critical
Analysis (except background
information) only focuses on The
Prelude from its book one and line 1
to 100. Therefore, this article is only
useful for the students of Sargodha
University.
Background Information
The Prelude is an unfinished epic by
Wordsworth which is also known as
Growth of the Poet’s Mind; An Auto-
biographical Poem. As is obvious
from its long-tail title, the poem is an
autobiography that Is highly personal
and it was intended to be an
introduction for a more philosophical
unfinished. One thing to be noted
that Wordsworth did not give his
poem a title because he continued to
work on it from 1798 when he was
28 till the rest of his life. The title
was given by Mary after his death.
So far, three different versions have
been published of The Prelude. The
first one appeared in 1799; the
second one was found and printed in
1826 (The 1805 version) containing
13 books and the third one was
published in 1850 after his death in
14 books of which the first 100 lines
of The Book 1 are a part of the
course of MA English Literature in The poet is overwhelmed by the
Sargodha University. gentle breeze which is overpowering
his poetic thoughts. Wordsworth
addresses Coleridge and tells him
Development of Situation how he is overjoyed on the
recollection of poetic emotions upon
The poem opens on the gentle
looking at a field. He, then, marches
breeze, soothing the speaker. The
towards a shady tree in Racedown to
poet is unaware of the purpose of
control his poetic turmoil. The gentle
the breeze but he is happy on his
sunshine of the autumn was suitable
successful escape from the hustle
for the previously mentioned task.
and bustle of the urban life. The
He decides to go to the cottage near
speaker is unsure which place shall
Racedown valley which he might
welcome him. Maybe a valley, a
have seen before.
forest or a stream of clean water.
He finds the scene of the Racedown
Perhaps he is free to roam about the
valley to be the most beautiful one
whole earth. He is happy that
he has ever seen. The poet’s flow of
nothing can endanger his freedom.
poetic thoughts is disrupted by the
He is hopeful that “long months of
falling of the fruit of oak. He is
peace” are ahead. But the poet does
reluctant to leave the soft grass but
not know which way leads to his
is compelled by the sunset. The
peaceful abode.
poetic thoughts rise up like storm
The speaker addresses that such
and begin playing with his soul like
peaceful liberty is of no worth unless
Æolian playing on harp but soon, the
it is turned into the gift of poetry,
storm is weathered by the inner
silence and the poet focuses on
Dear Liberty! Yet what it would
enjoying the beauty of Nature.
awail
But for a gift that consecrates the
Themes
joy?
The poem speaks volumes of the
Wordsworthian spirit of
Romanticism. The prominent
themes of this part include
escapism and Nature as an
inspiration of art.
Escapism
Just like John Keats, Wordsworth is
also desirous of his escape from the
noise of the city life. But the
difference between the two stars of
the constellation lies in the duration
of escapism. Keats shows his desire
for a temporal escape in Ode to a
Nightingale (as nightingale deserts
him in the middle of his imagination)
but Wordsworth shows his desire for
a permanent escape. This idea is
openly supported in the text of The
Prelude,
Long months of peace (if such
word accord
With any promises of human life),
Long months of ease and
undisturbed delight.
But the reason of escape is as
interesting as the (long) duration of
escape.
Nature as Inspiration for Art
The core reason behind the escape
of Wordsworth into the lap of Nature
is not just to relish its unparalleled
beauty and charm but to utilize its
beauty for the sake of poetry. At the
beginning of the poem, Wordsworth
mentions the blowing of gentle
breeze which stirs up his poetic
insight. He, obviously, wants to
compose something big that he
intends to compete with Paradise
Lost. In order to recollect those
intense poetic thoughts, he draws
inspiration from the objects of
Nature, i.e. The Racedown Valley and
the sunset. But it is worth noting that
when Wordsworth is unable to keep
the flow of his poetic thoughts, he
just concentrates on enjoying his
moments among the objects of
Nature.
Figurative Analysis
The poem contains a number of
figurative devices like
personification, simile, metaphors
and allusion. He uses personification
to showcase the trial of his soul.
Also, giving the sense of
consciousness to the gentle breeze
is the use of personification. Simile
occurs when the poet compares his
freedom with the flying of a bird by
using the word “as”. The poet has
used the metaphor of the gift of
freedom for poetry. While the
allusion of Æolia denotes to the god
of wind who uses the harp to play
music.
Setting and Imagery
This part of the poem begins with
Bristol and ends in a valley known as
Racedown. This part of the poem
takes place in the season of autumn.
The images used by the poet are so
wordially appealing that a reader
finds himself in the company of
Wordsworth. The images of this part
may include like: “fans my cheek”,
“wandering cloud”, “trackless field”,
“beneath a tree”, and “Of city smoke,
by distance ruralized”.
Structural Analysis
The whole poem contains more than
10,500 lines. Although the part
included in our syllabus at Sargodha
University only contains the first 100
of it. The poem does not follow any
rhyme scheme and rhythmic
patterns. Thus, the poem is a blank
verse. The language of this poem is
simple and the tone is somewhat
meditative.
Conclusion
The Prelude by Wordsworth
beautifully displays the poet’s love
for Nature, not for the sake of
escapism but for the pursuit of
inspiration.
Sources and Suggested
Readings
Apart from the background
information, the whole critical
analysis of the first 100 lines of The
Prelude is an interpretation based on
my own limited understanding of the
text. However, the translated version
of The Prelude by a lecturer at
Heritage College Okara Muhammad
Mussawar helped me a great deal in
getting closer to the poem. Click
Critical Appreciation – Endymion (Lines 1 – 50) –
John Keats
By Asad Imran
November 10, 2021
Categories: Modern Poetry
Background Information
Note: Being a student of Sargodha
University, my analysis only covers
the first fifty lines of Endymion, apart
from the background information.
Endymion is a poetic romance which
was first published in 1818. The
poem is famous for its opening line,
“A thing of beauty is a joy forever”.
The poem is based upon the Greek
Mythology of Endymion. Endymion is
a shepherd who chose sleep to
remain youthful always. He is loved
by the goddess of the moon, Selene.
However, in this poem, Selene is
replaced with Cynthia. Keats wrote
here to view its translated version.
this poem to dedicate it to Thomas
Chatterton.
Development of Situation
The poem begins with the immortal
significance of a beautiful ‘thing’.
The poet considers sleeping a useful
tool for dreams based on
imagination. The speaker of this
poem is quite happy to narrate the
romantic mythology of Endymion. As
soon as the poet thinks about the
story, everything attached to the
story is brought fresh before his
eyes.
 each pleasant scene
Is growing fresh before me as the
green
Of our own valleys:
The poet is hopeful to compose this
long poem before the blooming of
daises (flowers with white petals).
Themes
I was able to extract the following
themes from these lines.
Immortality of Beauty
The opening theme of this poem is
the immortality of beauty. Keats is
the poet of beauty as he is an ardent
preacher of beauty. In this poem,
Keats openly asserts that joy is
brought through beauty. And this joy
is immortal. Beauty and joy are
interconnected. Once our body feels
the pulses of a beautiful spectacle,
the joyful feelings take over our
world of gloom.
Escapism
The second theme sprouting from
the first theme of these lines is
escapism. Beauty, both imaginative
and concrete, is a means of the
escape from the “fears and fret” of
life. Although the intention of the
poet is to narrate the mythological
story of the shepherd Endymion,
Keats wants to narrate it in an
atmosphere that is far from the cries
of life. However, a careful reading of
the text reveals that Keats has
already escaped into the countryside
for the purpose of poetic narration,
so I will begin
Now while I cannot hear the city’s
din
Thus, Keats is emphasizing that a
pastoral escape is essential to write
something beautiful.
Figurative Devices
This small portion of Endymion also
has some notable figurative devices
waiting to be discovered. The poet
has used similes to compare the
freshness of the recollection of the
story of Endymion with greenery
near the valley. Keats has used the
metaphor of beauty for joys and
happiness. However, the “flowery
band” has been used as a symbol of
beauty that unites us all and makes
life colourful. As far as the whole
poem is concerned, it directly
alludes to the mythology of
Endymion, thus using a literary
device known as an allusion.
Setting and Imagery
The setting of this patch of the
poem is pastoral. However, the time
period of this poem is the beginning
of the season of Spring. (Correct me
if my assumption is wrong). Even in
this small piece of poem, Keats has
used striking imagery. The images
may include like, “A flowery band”,
“clear rills”, “early budders are just
new”, “streams that deepen freshly
into bowers” and “vermeil rimm’d
and white”.
Structural Analysis
Endymion is a long poem. The poem
consists of 4,000 lines, divided into
four books or sections of 1,000 lines
each. However, in the course outline
of Sargodha University, only the first
fifty verses are included. The poem
is made of the continuous pairs of
heroic couplets. Thus, following the
rhyme scheme of AABBCCDD… The
poem follows a rhythmic pattern of
iambic pentameter.
Conclusion
Endymion is a beautiful poetic
romance that appropriately amplifies
the role of beauty in eliminating the
sorrows of life and making it joyful
‘forever.
Sources and Suggested
Readings
1. https://www.britannica.com/topic/
Greek-mythology
2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endym
3. https://literarydevices.net/from-
endymion/
List of Important Long Questions of Modern Poetry in
2022 for MA English Literature Part 2 – Sargodha
University

By Asad Imran
December 12, 2021
Categories: Modern Poetry

1. Endymion (1-50 lines)

Critical Appreciations
William Blake
1. The Divine Image
2. Holy Thursday, I
3. The Little Black Boy
4. The Chimney Sweepers
5. A Poison Tree
William Wordsworth
1. The Prelude Book-I,(Lines 1-100)
2. Tintern Abbey, Revisited
3. Ode on Immortality
2. Ode to Autumn
3. Ode to a Nightingale
4. Ode on a Grecian Urn
T. S. Eliot
1. Love Song of J.Alfred Prufrock
2. The Waste Land
William Butler Yeats
1. Wild Swans at Coole
2. When You Are Old
3. No Second Troy
4. The Second Coming

Shelley Philip Larkin

1. Ode to the West Wind 1. Mr. Bleabey

2. The Cloud 2. Church Going
3. Hymn to Intellectual Beauty 3. Ambulances
4. To a Skylark 4. 1914

John Keats
Other Necessary Topics
1. William Blake as a Romantic Poet
2. The Waste Land as a Social
Document of the ills of Modern
Life
3. Critical Evaluation of Romantic
Age
Modern Poetry – Past Papers – MA English Literature
– Part 2 – Sargodha University
By Asad Imran
December 27, 2021
Categories: Modern Poetry
Time Allowed: 3 Hours
Total Marks: 100
Passing Marks: 40 (As of 2020)
Note: Objective part is compulsory.
Attempt any four questions from the
subjective part.
2021
Short Questions
1. Describe the distinctive features
of Romantic Poetry.
4. WB Yeats as a Modern Poet
5. Transition from Songs of
Innocence to Songs of Experience
6. Keats as an Ode writer
7. Philip Larkin as a (Sad) Poet
8. Shelley’s Religious Views
2. Define alliteration. Give an
example
3. What is the central idea of the
poem “The Chimney Sweepers” by
William Blake?
4. What type of memories
Wordsworth recalls in the
“Prelude”?
5. Why does John Keats call the
Grecian Urn Sylvan Historian”?
6. What is the theme of poem “When
You are Old” by WB Yeats?
7. What type of impression we
gather about Philip Larkin’s
personality after reading his poem
Mr. Bleaney”
8. What does “West Wind”
symbolize?
9. Explain the given lines with
reference to the poem and the
Port
And the round ocean and the living
ait,
And the blue sky, and in the mind of
man
A Motion and a Spirit, that impels.
10. Explain the given lines with
reference to the poem and the Poet
My heart aches, and a drowsy
numbness pains
My sense, as though of hemlock I
had drink
Long Questions
1. Examine Compton Ricket’s view
that “it was Words Worth’s aim as
a poet to seek for beauty in
meadow, wood land and the
mountain top and to interpret this
beauty in spiritual terms. He is
forever spiritualizing the moods of
nature and winning for them
moral consolation”.
2. Philip Larkin is often criticized for
his pessimistic view of life. What
is your opinion’? Give arguments
from his poems.
3. William Blake’s poetry presents a
moral code to live life peacefully
and successfully. Elaborate
4. How does TS Eliot point out the
moral decadence of the society of
his time in his poem “The. Waste
Land”
5. Critically evaluate the poem “The
Wild Swans at Coole” by W.B.
Years,
6. Write a critical note on Keats’
sensuousness.
2020
Short Questions
1. Define Romantic age in your own
words?
2. What is the major theme in the
poem THE LITTLE BLACK BOY?
3. What is the central idea of the
poem TO A SKYLARK?
4. What type of memories linked to a place in a superb
Wordsworth recalls in TENTERN language.
ABBEY? 2. John Keats is in his apex of poetic
glory in his poem ODE ON A
5. Explain the given lines with the
GRECIAN URN. Explain.
name of the poet and the poem in
3. TS ELIOT represents the dilemma
your own words
of the present age with all its dark
A Thing of beauty is a joy forever
features in the WASTE LAND.
Its loveliness increases, it will never
Elaborate
pass into nothingness
4. Critically analyze the poetic
6. Explain the lines with name of the
qualities of W B YEATS in the light
poet and the poem in your
of the poem NO SECOND TROY?
own words
5. Elucidate the salient features in
Where are the songs of the spring?
the Ode to the West Wind in your
Ay where are they?
own perspective? How far it
think not of them thou hast thy
represents the rebellious nature of
music too
P B SHELLEY.
7. Write a note on the poetry of Philip
6. Critically estimate William Blake
Larkin in your own words?
as a Romanic precursor in the
8. What is central idea of the poem
light of his poems that you have
Church Going?
studied?
9. What is the central idea of the
poem When You are old?
2019
10. What is the main idea of the
poem THE DIVINE IMAGE Short Questions

Long Questions 1. Define Romantic age in your own

words?
1. Analyze the significance of the
2. What is the major theme in the
poem TINTERN ABBEY as a
poem THE DIVINE IMAGE?
poetic creed and sweet memories
3. Explain the given lines with the
name of the poet and the poem in
your own words
A bower quiet for us and a steep
But still will keep
Full of sweet dreams and heath and
a quiet breathing
4. Explain the lines with name of the
poet and the poem in your own
words
Where are the songs of the spring?
Ay where are they? think not of them
thou hast thy music too
5. What is the central idea of the
poem Wild Swans At Coole?
6. What is central idea of the poem
Mr. Bleany?
7. What is the central idea of the
poem TINTERN ABBEY?
8. What type of memories Words
Worth recalls in the PRELUDE?
9. Write a note on the life of Philip
Larkin in your own words?
10. What is negative capability?
Long Questions
1. Critically analyze the poem The
Prelude in your own words. What
is the significance of the poem for
the readers of 21″ century?
2. Critically elucidate the salient
features of the ROMANITC AGE in
your own perspective?
3. Critically analyze the poetic
qualities of WB YEATS in the light
of the themes of his poem THE
SECOND COMING?
4. John Keats is in his apex of poetic
glory in his poem ODE ON A
GRECIAN URN. Explain. How does
TS ELIOT represent the ills of the
modern age in his epic poem THE
WASTE
5. LAND. Elaborate
6. Critically elaborate the poem THE
POISON TREE in your own words.
2018
Short Questions
1. What is dualism in Blake’s poetry?
2. Define symbolism.
3. Define realism.
4. Why does Shelley call the West
Wind “destroyer and preserver”?
5. Define “Spiritus Mundi” in “The
Second Coming” by W.B.Yeats.
6. How does Larkin show his 6. “Ode to Autumn” is considered as a
disrespect to church? consummate picce of art.
7. Why does T.S.Eliot call London Elaborate your views.
“Unreal City”? OR
8. But those unheard are sweeter”. “Church Going” by Larkin shows the
9. Why did Wordsworth visit Tintern poet’s agnostic beliefs. How?
Abbey in 17987
2017
0. Explain “Heard melodies are
sweet Short Questions
1. Explain the term “experience”
used in Blake’s poetry. 1. What is mysticism?
2. What do “Songs of Innocence”
Long Questions signify?
3. Define romanticism.
1. Discuss Blake as a romantic poet
4. Define pantheism.
with reference to his poems
5. Why did Wordsworth pay his first
included in your course of studies.
visit to Tintern Abbey in 1793?
2. Trace out Wordsworth’s
6. Define Ode.
development of love for nature as
7. Why does Keats call urn “Sylvan
revealed in “Tintern Abbey”.
Historian”?
3. “The Wasteland” ruthlessly
8. Explain “Those were pearls that
describes the moral bankruptcy of
were his eyes”.
the modern man. Discuss.
9. What is the significance of
4. Shelley’s God is the God you and I
“Uneven Lines”?
worship, yet he is branded as an
10. Why does Shelley call the west
atheist. What is your opinion after
wind “destroyer and preserver”?
reading “Human to Intellectual
Beauty”? Long Questions
5. Discuss W.B.Yeats as a modern
poet.
1. Bring out clearly the transition
from the “Songs of Innocence” to
the “Songs of Experience”.
2. Critically examine Wordsworth’s
poem “Ode: Immortality”.
3. “Shelley’s poem “Hymn to
Intellectual Beauty” reveals his
rejection of orthodox belief”. What
is your opinion after reading this
poem?
4. Discuss Keats as a writer of Odes.
5. “The Wasteland” by T.S. Eliot
reveals moral bankruptcy of the
modern civilization. Elucidate.
6. Critically examine “The Second
Coming” by W.B. Yeats.
OR
“Philip Larkin is the saddest soul on
the modern world’s supermarket”.
(Eric Hamburgar). Elucidate.
2016
Short Questions
1. What is the four divine qualities in
the “The Divine Image”?
2. Define mysticism.
3. Why did Wordsworth visit Tintern
Abbey in 1793?
4. What does Wordsworth mean by
Nature?
5. What is the underlying message in
“Ode to the West Wind”
6. How is the Urn “Sylvan historian”?
7. Define escapism
8. What type of man is Prufrock?
9. How does Yeats compare Ireland
with Troy?
10. What is Larkin’s attitude to World
War-I in 1914?
Long Questions
1. Discuss William Blake as an early
romantic poet.
2. Illustrate the difference between
Wordsworth’s two visits to Tintern
Abbey in 1793 and 1798?
3. What attitude to religion does
Shelley reveal in “Hymn to
Intellectual Beauty”?
4. Discuss “The Wasteland” as a
modern epic.
5. Critically analyze “Ode on a
Grecian Urn” By Keats.
6. Evaluate either “Church Going” by
Larkin or “The Second Coming” by
Yeats.
2015 1. Discuss William Blake as an early
romantic poet.
Short Questions 2. “The Prelude” is a poem on the
growth of the mind of the poet
1. Define mysticism.
(Wordsworth) Illustrate.
2. Define romanticism
3. Critically analyse “Ode to the West
3. Why is Blake called a visionary
Wind” by Shelley.
poet?
4. “The Wasteland” is cold sigh on
4. Define ode
the modern civilization (I.A
5. Define pantheism
Richards) Discuss.
6. Define absurdism.
5. Give a critical appraisal of “Ode to
7. What is negative capability?
a Nightingale” by Keats.
8. Why does Eliot call the modern
6. “W.B. Yeats translates Irish
civilization ‘Wasteland’?
history, Patriotism and struggle
9. What do the ‘dark-clothed’
for freedom into his poetry”.
children signify in Larkin’s poem
Elucidate.
MCMXIV (1914)?
OR
0. Why does Keats call the Urn
Discuss the focal theme in “Church
‘Sylvan Historian’?
Going” by Larkin.
Long Questions 2014
 Moder
nNovel
MAEngl
i
shLi
ter
atur
e-UoS
TheAs
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at sbyAs
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mranShah

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Facebook:
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ite:
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50
Virginia Woolf – An Introduction
By Asad Imran
February 18, 2021
Categories: Modern Novel
Virginia Woolf changed the novelistic
landscape from a chronology to a
psychological interconnection.
She was born in the Victorian Era in 1882.
Leslie Stephen was her father while Julia
Jackson was her mother.
Her father was a literary person and he was a
fast friend of Thomas Hardy.
Woolf was physically and mentally weak and
when her family died when she was just
thirteen, she began to suffer mental
breakdowns.
As her final mental breakdown went so severe
that she proclaimed that she would not
recover from it and committed suicide in
1941.
She formed her own group known as
Bloomsbury Group of Cambridge graduates.
She was married to Leonard Woolf in 1912. He
was an aspirant in the Civil Services Academy
but he was a simply educated person who
helped Virginia write her novelistic genius.
They found their own publishing house named
The Hogarth Press by Leonard in 1917. The
main goal of this publishing house was to
publish Virginia’s novels and the novels of
those who were young artists. Her first novels
were also rejected by the publishers so her
husband founded one for his wife and the
young novelists who strived for a
recognization of their works.
Prominent Features of Virginia’s Novels
Most of her novels take place in the city of
London.
She depicts the complex mental battles of the
city people.
Her philosophy is hard to understand by a
common rustic people. However, the city
people can easily get a hold of her
philosophy.
Most of her knowledge was derived from
books, not from the contacts of people.
It was only two years of her happy married life
and the First World War broke out. It destroyed
her mental peace and routine of London. The
war shattered all the good values and brought
about devastation of ideas.
Her last novel The Years was published in
1937 and it proved a fatal failure. Some
researchers argue that this might be the cause
behind her final mental breakdown. Some
suggest more reasons. But her last letter to
her husband suggests that the reason behind
her suicide was the acute relapse from “which
she could not recover anymore”.
Source
Lecture of Sir Faisal

Stream of Consciousness
By Asad Imran
February 22, 2021
Categories: Modern Novel

Stream of Consciousness is an unbroken

Stream of Consciousness is also known as
interior monologue. Interior monologue is a
character’s flow of thoughts without the
author’s interruption.
William James, a psychologist, invented this
term in his book The Principles of Psychology
in 1920.
flow of thoughts and feelings in the waking
mind.
A way of narration that attempts to give
writers equivalent to the reader’s mind, in a
loose interior monologue.
In this process, sense mingles with
conscious memory, feelings and random
thoughts.

James Joyce first experimented with this

technique in his novel Ulysses that appeared
Examples
in 1922. Then Virginia Woolf followed suit as
1. Portrait of Artist as a Young Man by James
Mrs. Dalloway.
Joyce
2. To The Lighthouse by Virginia Woolf
Georgians perceived men as complex
3. Molloy by Samuel Beckett
psychological beings. Their influence
4. Jazz by Toni Morrison
indirectly helped to forge the very concept.

Definitions Salient Features

 1. Marked by Incoherent Thoughts
2. Occasional Sudden Rise Of Thoughts
3. Lack of Punctuations
4. Used by 20th Century Novelists and Short
Story Writers
Character Analysis of Mrs. Ramsay in To The
Lighthouse by Virginia Woolf
By Asad Imran
March 18, 2021
Categories: Modern Novel
Who is Mrs. Ramsay?
Mrs. Ramsay is the uniting force in the first
phase of the novel. She is not only beautiful
but a kind-hearted lady, for she helps the
family and the guests anchor under one ocean
of social uniformity. She is charitable. But she
is the mother of eight children. But she is
given her due importance in the novel by
Virginia Woolf as she is not only the central
figure of it but is liked by almost every
character.
A Unifying Anchor
The most striking quality of Mrs. Ramsay is
her actions of uniting people. The novel is
repeated with a variety of people who exhibit a
variety of thoughts and instructions. This
Source
Lecture of Sir Faisal
difference is equally present in the husband,
wife, children and guests. Making a get
together like the dinner scene does need an
extra level of courage and understanding of
the people and their psyche to establish an
unbreakable link. We find her establishing a
link between her children, especially James
and their emotionally weak father for he
rebukes them almost daily. We also see her
uniting the scattered guests in the dinner
scene, especially when Mr. Tansley taunts Lily
Biscoe in particular and women in general.
A Match-Maker
It is evident that Mrs. Ramsay likes uniting
people in different ways. One of them is her
positively negative approach to marriage and
marital life. She wants all men and women to
be married but she notices shortcomings in
her own marriage. She works her best to dilute
her husband’s stern words and she becomes
embarrassed in public when Mr. Ramsay
reads out some lines of poetry loudly.
Returning to the subject of marriage, she
wants to see Lily marrying Mr. Banks after
seeing them walking together. But later, she
even approves the idea of Lily to marry
Charles Tansley. But the real case of her
matchmaking occurs when she attempts a
successful match-making between Paul and
Minta. She is overjoyed and proud of doing so
but this match making of her does not end
well. In fact, Paul comes back to Mrs. Ramsay
complaining to her about her unsuccessful
union of them. But Mrs. Ramsay likes making
a match for she wants people to live in
harmony and peace.
Her Urbane Manners
Mrs. Ramsay shares the blood of an Italian
family who is scattered in English families.
This Italian family is known of having well-
polished and urbane manners as compared to
the sluggish English families. The family was
reputed to spread its charm in the drawing-
room through the psychological wit. Mrs.
Ramsay is seen showcasing the very trait of
her ancestors of throwing a grand gathering of
guests and her family in the summer.
Her Kind and Sympathetic
Nature
Kind-heartedness is the major quality of Mrs.
Ramsay that sets her apart from the rest of
the characters. She feels sympathetic towards
the poor and the needy. For instance, she knits
a pair of socks for the son of a poor keeper at
the lighthouse. She knows that the keeper
leads a life of loneliness and this present
would add a moment of delight to him.
Her kind nature is equally bestowed upon her
small children, Cam and James who are
verbally slammed by their father. When James
longs for a visit to the lighthouse, he is sternly
prohibited from visiting it as “the weather
would not be fine” that day. When James is
psychologically mistreated by his father, it is
only his mother that comforts him and
promises him that they will go to the
lighthouse.
Although Mr. Ramsay is a stern person, he still
longs for sympathy that is duly helped out by
his wife. As he stretches his arms, as a
gesture to show his need of sympathy, these
arms are grabbed by Mrs. Ramsay in order to
fulfil his sympathetic needs.
Her Charming Figure
Mrs. Ramsay comes as one of the most
charming figures of the novel. Thus shaping
herself as a dominant and propelling
personality.
Indeed, she had the whole of other
sex under her protection. Towards
her, their attitude was trustful and
reverential.
The novel is filled up with many references to Joan Bennett concludes appropriately as
her beauty. One thinks that how does a mother below,
of eight children can retain her beauty. But her
physical charm might be used as a symbol for Mrs. Ramsay, Mrs. Dalloway,
her good nature. Eleanor Pargiter, each of the main
personalities in Between the Acts ,
Her Everlasting Personality and many others from her books,
inhabit the mind of the reader and
Mrs. Ramsay dies in Part II but her personality
finds its way into the hearts of the living
enlarge the capacity for sympathy. It
people. Lily Biscoe is profoundly influenced by is sympathy rather than judgement
Mrs. Ramsay. In Part III, Lily is “haunted” by that she invokes, her personages
the everlasting personality of Mrs. Ramsay are apprehended rather than
and she misses her a great deal. In fact, she comprehended.
cries for the deceased lady by calling her while
painting “Mrs. Ramsay, Mrs. Ramsay”. Lily Sources and Suggested
imagines her sitting on the table.
Readings
Conclusion 1. http://myenglish62.blogspot.com/2016/12/
sketch-of-mrs-ramsay-to.html
Although Mrs. Ramsay comes as a knitting
2. https://www.shmoop.com/study-
thread for her family and the guests in the
guides/literature/to-the-lighthouse/mrs-
novel but Virginia Woolf portrays her not
ramsay
without the faults of women. For example, she
3. KM Critical Studies of To The Lighthouse –
could be easily flattered. The reason behind
Page 192
this might be her desire to be praised for the
4. Lectures of Sir Faisal
good deeds she accomplishes. Overall, Mrs.
Ramsay marks herself as a central character
due to her sympathetic and kind nature and
her unique qualities. E. M. Frosters comments

She could seldom so portray a

character that it was remembered
afterwards on its own account, as
Emma is remembered.
Character Analysis of Mr. Ramsay in To the
Lighthouse by Virginia Woolf
By Asad Imran
March 19, 2021
Categories: Modern Novel
Who is Mr. Ramsay?
Mr. Ramsay is the head of, well, his whole
Ramsay family. His character has been a
source of dispute among many critics. Some
even call him a villain of this great novel. In
fact, the initial angry remarks of Lily Biscoe
also betray us of the true character of Mr.
Ramsay,
That man, she thought, her anger
rising in her, never gave; that man
took.
But before discussing in length about his
character, first, we have to get a little glimpse
of his personality. He is an intellectual figure in
England, made a significant name in the field
of literature and philosophy. But he lacks
emotions. His acute obsession with reality
makes him a stern head for his family.
Dearth of Accomplishments
Mr. Ramsay has acquired a big name in
England due to his contribution to literature
and metaphysical philosophy. But he still
wants to achieve more; to become as
successful as Shakespeare. But his last and
toilsome contribution to philosophy does not
attain the level of success and recognition
among his contemporaries that he expected.
Therefore, an anxious sense of failure comes
over him,
Mr. Ramsay is dogged by a sense of
failure. He has a feeling that ‘he had
not done the thing he might have
done.
He thinks that the immortal success lies in the
letter Z while he is only stuck at the alphabet
Q. This makes him sad but he relieves himself
by gesturing that he has rendered an honest
contribution with hard work in his cherished
field.
In Need of Sympathy
His immense sense of failure becomes a
major cause behind his immense hunger for
sympathy. Virginia Woolf occasionally refers
to his need from the mouthpiece of different
characters. But, sometimes, his want of
sympathy shapes his character in a ludicrous
and pathetic manner. In fact, Tansley’s great
admiration does not satisfy his crave for
assurance. He desperately wants sympathy
from his wife that she must assure him that
his work shall not be forgotten in the clutches
of time. And Mrs. Ramsay does fulfil her
‘duties’ to satisfy his need for sympathy. But
the bay widens when Mrs. Ramsay passes
away. He, then, looks at Lily and Cam to get
back the lost wealth of sympathies but in
return, it only makes him a pathetic character.
A Hard Realist
Mr. Ramsay is a pure realist and he wants to
see the same in his children. He does not
entertain any illusions and myths about life.
His stern realism is immediately shown when
he asserts straight to his little son James that
the weather will not be fine and suitable for
them to make their voyage to the lighthouse. A
child is not expected to get him introduced to
the harsh realities of life but rather a life of
illusions and magic. Or at least, Mr. Ramsay
could have refused differently and
accordingly. When Mrs. Ramsay tries to
comfort James with pleasant, childlike myths,
Mr. Ramsay is annoyed by this and behaves
rudely with her. But what is his rhetoric behind
his firm belief in realism? The answer is
simple. He wants to make his children
acquainted with the hard truths of life at an
age that is not appropriate for the purpose of
taking them out of their childlike myths.
Manifestly, Mr. Ramsay “pursue truth with
such an astonishing lack of consideration for
other people’s feelings.”
Egoistic and Tyrant
Ego is one of the chief traits in Mr. Ramsay. It
is abruptly portrayed when he rebukes James
for not harbouring any false hopes of visiting
the lighthouse. His ego is also shown when
Mr. Carmichael asks for the soup again in the
dinner scene. His ego, then transforms into a
tyrannical dictator towards his children. He
wants them exactly like him. In response, his
kids grow a silent but violent hatred of their
father. For instance, James is so annoyed by
Mr. Ramsay’s commanding behaviour that he
develops an Oedipus Complex against his
father to stab him with a knife or a poker.
James even recalls him as a “sarcastic brute”.
But he, then, adds,
He is intolerably egotistical.
Mr. Ramsay’s emotional weakness is the only
reason that has created a lack of
understanding between their father and
themselves. But it is somewhat corrected in
the deciding visit to the lighthouse.
Some Positive Traits of His
Character
Mr. Ramsay is not entirely a character of bad
qualities. He is, at heart, a human. But in the
end, he is changed entirely. He speaks
realistically because he wants his children to
be powerful enough to stand against the
biting challenges of life with courageously. He
is sympathetic by heart but he does not have
enough power to express it directly. For
example, when his wife is alone reflecting on
something,
It saddened him, and her
remoteness pained him, and he felt,
as he passed, that he could not
protect her. He could do nothing to
help her.
And later, his desire to protect also helps him
win back Cam when they are rowing towards
the lighthouse. He even praises his son whole-
heartedly for steering of the boat like a “born
sailor”. Thus burying a long hatchet (hatred)
between father and son.
Conclusion
The character of Mr. Ramsay is a complex
blend. On one end, he seems an intellectual
Treatment of Time in To the Lighthouse by
Virginia Woolf
By Asad Imran
March 20, 2021
Categories: Modern Novel
Introductory
tyrant who is profoundly affected by his sense
of failure and of losing his readers and who is
fiercely obsessed with pure truth. But on other
end, we can trace out his human heart who
wants to establish a good connection with his
children. Conclusively, the portrayal of Mr.
Ramsay is drawn with both blacks and
whites.
Sources and Suggested
Readings
1. https://neoenglish.wordpress.com/2010/12
characters-in-to-the-lighthouse/
2. https://www.shmoop.com/study-
guides/literature/to-the-lighthouse/mr-
ramsay
3. KM Critical Studies of To The Lighthouse –
Page 192
4. Lectures of Sir Faisal
To the lighthouse is one of the flagship novels
written by Virginia Woolf. This book hit the
shelves in 1927. The novel revolves around
the psychological complexities of modern
times. Just like many modern novelists,
Virginia Woolf deals with time differently. In
this novel, time is not moved forward straight
like the movement of a clock. But Woolf
moves it with the modes of her characters of
the novel. For instance, in the first and last
parts of the novel, time is slowed significantly
in accordance with the needs of the
characters. But in part 2, ten years are skipped
with the blink of an eye or more specifically, on
twelve pages. Moreover, time is perceived
differently through the eyes and thoughts of
different characters.
Mrs. Ramsay, The Sea and
Time
The sea and its ongoing waves are used as a
symbol of the tyrannical and unstoppable
movement of time. Mrs. Ramsay does seem
dependent on the movement of time in
general. She looks at time as a source of
emotional stability in the present time and a
hope of retaining the same level of stability in
future. A critic highlights,
Woolf suggests that a concentrated
focus on commonplace objects
releases a series of memories and
ideas with important psychic
resonance.
The above-mentioned phenomenon is
consistently practised by Mrs. Ramsay as a
dutiful supporter of her family. That is why,
she feels concerned about the future of her
children and how the uncontrollable force of
time will mould them in future. She wants her
children “never to grow up”. Because she fears
that her children shall suffer without an
escape from such a suffering of time. That
explains why Mrs. Ramsay wants to stay in
the present moment of time.
Mr. Ramsay and Time
Mr. Ramsay has a different approach towards
time as compared to Mrs. Ramsay. He does
not seem to care of the present moment, but
he looks concerned about his future as a
philosopher. It is obvious through his gestures
that he wants to break the chains of time but
he is afraid after the failure that comes as an
unsuccessful publishing of his book. But he
still has a notion in his mind,
It is permissible even for a dying
hero to think before he dies how
men will speak of him hereafter.
Thus, showcasing Mr. Ramsay’s long
viewpoint of time and his desire to be
remembered well after his death through his
contribution to philosophy. The character of
Mr. Ramsay exhibits Woolf’s consciousness of
time “also within the life of the body, moving
from moment to moment towards that final
obliteration of consciousness which is
death.”.
Independent Outlook on Time
A critic demonstrates Woolf’s independent
outlook of time as thus,
The notion of time as a linear and
Conclusively, Virginia Woolf treats time in a
modern manner by going out of the
chronological aspect of it to the psychological
recollections that are independently called
upon by the characters individually. A critic
beautifully sums up,

diachronic entity of homogenous

As a novelist centrally concerned
and measurable quality, as
with how to represent
instanced by clock and calendar
consciousness and subjectivity, was
time, comes under severe scrutiny.
intensely aware of time, both as an
In simple words, Virginia Woolf configures the impersonal force and as a personal
rate of time in accordance to the minds of experience.
characters in the novel. Each character clearly
shows the concept of time, not measured by Sources and Suggested
the passing seconds or through a specific
Readings
unit, but by the achievements and failures of a
particular owner . The moments of great
1. https://www.shmoop.com/study-
achievements are felt at a considerable
guides/literature/to-the-
amount of time and pages while the moments
lighthouse/themes/time
of insignificance are passed within the blink of
2. https://www.enotes.com/homework-
an eye. For instance, Lily’s achievement of
help/examine-concept-time-virgina-wolfs-
completing her long attempted painting is felt
light-house-375874?__cf_chl_jschl_tk
in a deeper length of time by Lily. Thus,
3. https://jenniferhamiltonblog.wordpress.com
shaping this novel as an experiment of
concept-of-time-in-to-the-lighthouse/
independence from the traditional
4. https://www.litcharts.com/lit/to-the-
chronological timeline of the novels before
lighthouse/themes/time
Virginia Woolf.

Conclusion

Themes of Love, Identity and Victory in To the

Lighthouse by Virginia Woolf
By Asad Imran
March 21, 2021
Categories: Modern Novel
Introductory
Woolf’s To the Lighthouse is about the
psychological and intellectual gap between
the Ramsay family. First appeared in 1927, it
marked Woolf’s shift from showcasing the
historical account of a person’s life to his
internal and psychological side of it. To the
Lighthouse is a story of rebuked desires,
unsatisfying accomplishments and last but
not the least, psychological victory. The story
is vividly presented through the themes of
love, identity and reality. Let’s crack them one
by one.
Love
Love is presented in variety of different
characters. The love between Mrs. Ramsay
and James is familial; based on lust between
Paul and Minta and between Mr. Ramsay and
Mrs. Ramsay in accordance to the martial
needs. Almost every character deals with love
and loss differently. Most of them miss the
opportunity to express their love for each
other. But it remains present in the conscious
stream of a character.
A prime example can be cited from Chapter
19 of The Window in which Mr. Ramsay
desires from his wife to say “I love you. ” direct
and straight. But Mrs. Ramsay lacks the
courage to express her love bluntly and
directly, instead, she impresses her love for
her husband by agreeing to his statement that
the weather won’t be fine that day. That is not
what Mr. Ramsay demands at that time but
her ‘love’ remains present in her conscious
mind.
Identity and Internal Life
The theme of identity and internal life go hand
in hand in this novel. But since this novel is
also based on the stream of consciousness
technique, the plot shapes itself in the minds
of the characters, not through external
actions. External actions have hardly
occurred. This phenomenon can be easily
traced in the character of Mrs. Ramsay whose
internal and external life. Not only she is
conscious of her identity, she is seen musing
about her inner character. When people are
around her, she becomes a different one. And
that external difference is mostly known as a
devoted mother, caring neighbour and
sympathetic wife. But when she is alone, her
true internal identity is revealed that is brim-
full with complications and psychological
battles. For instance, when she is preparing
for the famous dinner party scene, she feels
internally disconnected from it. She questions
herself about what she has done with her life.
Another character that appears in this list is
Mr. Ramsay. He is internally insecure about his
accomplishments and he consistently wants
surety from the people around him. He is
internally dissatisfied. He fears that his limited
intellect will make him and his contribution
mortal. That is why, his outward identity is
stiff and coarse.
Victory
Victory or more specifically, psychological
victory is scattered in different segments of
the novel. Initially, it is depicted over life but
after some careful tracing, we can easily
notice victory over people. The first prime
example of this victory is claimed by Mrs.
Ramsay, who says “I love you” without saying
“I love you”. In simple terms, she shows her
love in a victorious manner by not actually
proclaiming it. But by agreeing with her
husband.
Lily and James are both seen struggling hard
for their goal of completing the painting and
visiting the lighthouse respectively. The
former is not satisfied by her art while the
D. H. Lawrence – An Introduction
By Asad Imran
March 29, 2021
Categories: Modern Novel
latter is psychologically prohibited by his
father. Both of them score a victory in the end
when James has not only reached the
lighthouse but also by psychologically
connecting with his father. While Lily stands
victorious by drawing a line in the centre to
create a balanced painting.
Conclusion
To conclude, To the Lighthouse by Virginia
Woolf is a beautiful blend of external
unfulfillments and internal conflicts,
beautifully marked with the themes of love,
internal life and victory over some conflicts of
life.
Sources and Suggested
Readings
https://www.shmoop.com/study-
guides/literature/to-the-lighthouse/themes
https://www.coursehero.com/lit/To-the-
Lighthouse/themes/
Basics
D. H. Lawrence is a renowned essayist,
novelist and short-story writer of the 20th
century
Birth
D H Lawrence was born at Nottinghamshire
on 11 September 1885. He was a son of a
coal miner named Arthur Lawrence while his
mother, Lydia was a school teacher. Lawrence
died in 1930 due to TB.
Family Life
Lawrence’s mother was in love with a man of
letters but he died. She was from a wealthy
family but she married a coal miner out of her
adventurous nature but their marriage life was
devoid of any affection. She looked for her
lost affection towards her elder son but he
died. Then she shifted her desire to D. H.
Lawrence. In return, Lawrence could not
maintain his balance of relationship with his
mother and his beloved, Jessy when he left
school in 1901. Both of them had some
hidden literary sparks to shine but after the
death of his mother due to cancer, Lawrence
could maintain his relationship with Jessy and
she provoked him to write.
His Writing Career
Early, he joined a medicine manufacturing
company but then, he became a teacher. But
Jessy encouraged Lawrence to write. His first
span of writing begins from 1909 and ends in
1913. During that phase, he published his first
novel known as The White Peacock that
appeared in 1909.
After even the death of his mother, her
influence remained persistent upon him and
he left Jessy Chambers as soon as he left
school.
Marriage Life
After saying Goodbye to Jessy, D. H. Lawrence
eloped with Frieda but soon, he was captured
by the police and she had to disclose her
elopement with D. H. Lawrence with her father
to get him out of the jail. Both of them were
married on 19 July 1914. Their marriage life
was both a happy experience as well as was
marked with quarrels. He wrote a poem for his
wife that was titled as “Look, We Made it
Through”.
In 1913, Lawrence published one of the most
renowned novels, Sons and Lovers. One
special thing about this novel is that both
Jessy Chambers and Frieda contributed their
share in the novel.
Then began the First World War in 1914 and
his second phase of writing,
Rainbow: Published in 1915, this novel was
confiscated and was met with severe charges
of sexual obscenities as the British Public was
not ready to accept this novel out of their
stern Victorian morality.
Women in Love
In the third phase of his writing career, both
Lawrence and Frieda travelled in different
countries and they settled in New Mexico. The
third phase began on 1920 and ended in
1925.
Oedipus Complex in Sons and Lovers by D. H.
Lawrence
By Asad Imran
March 30, 2021
Categories: Modern Novel
Introductory
Sons and Lovers is one of the controversial
novels by D. H. Lawrence that hit the shelves
in 1913, the very time when Sigmund Frieud
was experimenting with his new theory
Oedipus Complex. The very novel is based
upon the concept of the Oedipus Complex.
But before jumping to a lengthy discussion of
the Oedipus Complex in Sons and Lovers, first,
we have to make ourselves acquainted with
the story and the term itself.
The story of Sons and Lovers revolves around
a lady named Gertrude who is enchanted by
the hard-working caricaturing of a coal miner
known as Walter Morel. Their marriage is
marked by a psychological turmoil and she
detests her husband because of his bad
tongue and excessive drinking. She tries hard
The final phase was a fatal one. Despite his ill
health, Lawrence kept on writing. Lady
Chatterley’s Lovers was his last novel and he
breathed his last on March 2nd, 1930.
to find love in her elder son, William but he
dies. She, then, shifts her attention to her
other son, Paul but the consequence of this
relationship comes at the cost of Paul, not
mixing with the girls of his age.
Oedipus Complex
Oedipus Complex is a psychological theory
presented by Sigmund Freud. The theory is
based upon a classical Greek tragedy on a
Theban king known as Oedipus who
unknowingly kills his father, marries his
mother and gets children from her. But Freud
uses this myth to illustrate the subconscious
desire of having an un-natural relationship
with the opposite sex of one’s parents. This
psychological complex can be defined as thus,
Oedipus Complex is a state in which
a person shows excessive affection
 for the parent opposite in sex to him
or herself, and a corresponding
distaste for his or her other parent.
In simple terms, Oedipus Complex is an un-
natural relationship of love between a son and
his mother while detesting his father or vice
versa. Let’s explore about the same complex
in Sons and Lovers by D. H. Lawrence.
Autobiographical Complex
Lawrence’s life was itself a complex matter of
psychosocial limitations. His mother, Lydia
was in love with a school teacher but she
could not continue her relationship with him.
Later, she found Arthur Lawrence, a coal miner
and was married to him. But their marriage life
proved to be a glaring failure. Lydia could not
receive the amount of love that she expected
from Arthur, that is why she turned her
affections to her elder son but he kicked the
bucket. Then she turned to D. H. Lawrence
and he was enthusiastically attracted to his
mother so that so he rejected Jessy’s
proposal, the one who helped Lawrence
emerge as a writer.
Sons and Lovers is the most accurate
representation of Lawrence’s autobiographical
complications and the characters of the novel
do seem to parallel each other. Thus it is
evident that Lawrence had developed an
Oedipus Complex towards his mother and
against his father. That is clearly visible in this
novel.
Relationship between Paul
and Mrs. Morel
The relationship between Paul and Mrs. Morel
was not like a natural bond that naturally
exists between a mother and her son. But their
relationship was more than an ordinary
relationship. Gertrude was seeing Paul as a
substitute to her husband. Who had failed in
providing her her sexual as well as
psychological needs. The relationship
between the two grew stronger when Paul
was attacked by pneumonia and she nursed
him with “great” care just because she did not
want to lose her other son.
The incidents showcasing their un-natural love
shock us but it was one of Gertrude’s weapon
to show her hatred towards her husband
through Oedipus Complex. For instance, in
Chapter VIII, Mrs. Morel expresses her lack of
control on her husband to Paul as thus,
And I’ve never__ you know,
Paul___I’ve never had a
husband___not really___
To comfort his mother, Paul comes ahead and
strokes her hair and kisses on her throat like a
lover. She, in return, kisses him long but is
watched by Walter who scolds Paul,
At your mischief again?
In another incident, both of them are depicted
walking in Mrs. Leiver’s Farm, Paul sticking a
flower in her coat also can be regarded as his
gesture of Oedipus Complex. He, infact, is not
happy in having his old mother as his
“sweetheart”. Says he,
Why can’t a man have a young
mother? What is the old for?
Well, she scarcely help it.
And why wasn’t I the oldest son?
Look… they say that the young ones
have the advantage… but look, they
had the young mother. You should
have had me as your oldest son.
This example clearly shows Paul as a
character exhibiting Oedipus Complex. But
such an influence of his mother over him
creates different stunning blocks for him to
find his true life partner.
unable to satisfy. He, indeed, loved both but he
was not in the mode of marrying them. He
explained his reason to his mother aa thus,
I never shall meet the right woman
while you live.
This quote vividly demonstrates how well he is
glued to his mother due to his Oedipus
Complex.
Conclusion
Freud gave his theory of the Oedipus Complex
in 1912, thus making Sons and Lovers the first
novel to showcase Oedipus Complex in
action. But it must be noted that Freud’s
theory did not motivate Lawrence to align his
story to the very theory but he had
experienced the very phenomenon in his own
life.

Sources and Suggested

Paul’s Relationship with
Readings
Miriam and Clara Daves
1. Sons and Lovers – Study Guide by Famous
Paul is unable to maintain the balance
Products – Page 114
between his beloved(s) out of the strong
2. Lectures of Sir Faisal
influence of his mother over him. As for
3. https://englishhonshelp.wordpress.com/20
Miriam, she was a religious-minded girl but as
complex-in-sons-and-lovers/
she would try to kiss his hand, he would
withdraw it back abruptly. As for Clara Daves,
she is hungry for having sex that Paul is
Character Sketch of Walter Morel in Sons and
Lovers by DH Lawrence
By Asad Imran
March 31, 2021
Categories: Modern Novel
Who is Walter Morel?
Walter Morel is one of the complex characters
of the novel. But it is Walter’s auto-
biographical counterpart who makes him a
special character in the novel? Which auto-
biographical counterpart you may ask? Of
course, it is D. H. Lawrence’s own father,
Arthur Lawrence of whom the character is
based and shares quite similar traits.
Walter Morel is a coal miner with some decent
looks but “loud” manners that sow a seed of
hatred in his wife’s heart. But he is not entirely
an evil character or a noble-hearted one but
his character is a complex blend of both
primary qualities. Lawrence detested his
father but when his father breathed his last,
Lawrence realized that he was mistaken. He,
later, confessed that if he ever wrote this novel
again, he would have been kind in portraying
Walter’s character.
His Physical Charm
Walter Morel was twenty-seven years old and
Gertrude only twenty-three when they first saw
each other in the party. Gertrude fell in love
with Walter on the first sight due to his
appropriate and tempting posture. Lawrence
introduces us to the physical beauty of Walter
Morel as thus,
He was well set-up, erect and very
smart. He had wavey black hair that
shone again and a vigorous black
beard that had never been shaved.
His cheeks were ruddy and his red,
moist mouth was noticeable
because he laughed so often and so
heartily.
He is not only physically beautiful but
aesthetically captivating. He dances as if it
were natural and joyous in him to dance. Thus
exhibiting a glamorous show of his lively
heart. Although she rejects his proposal of
dance in the Christmas party but she is deeply
enamoured of his humour and his specific but
typical dialect of speaking things.
Unsuccessful Marriage Life
Gertrude and Walter get married but the spell
of physical beauty is broken immediately. In
the romantic heat of their ‘love’, they do not
realize the difference of their personalities.
Gertrude is an intellectual lady who likes to
question religion, politics and other social
matters philosophically to an educated person
but these concepts hardly get into the mind of
the coal miner. Walter, sometimes, listens to
her talks eagerly without understanding the
subject matter of her talks.
Their marriage grows really unhappy when
Gertrude learns that her husband has not paid
the bills of the furniture and the house in
which he lives does not belong to him. She
begins despising him for keeping her in ‘the
dark’ through such lies. But what she djd not
realize was the fact that he did not want to
disclose about his poverty to her since he
belonged to the middle class. As days went by,
Gertrude grew more indifferent to Walter and
it affected their children’s life very badly.
Strangeness
When children are begotten, the significance
of Walter Morel seems to shrink a great deal.
The indifferent Gertrude finds solace in
William and later, Paul. Such level of
indifference shown by his wife enrages Walter
and he is again tempted to drink before he
(temporarily) quit for the sake of his wife. He
becomes ill-tempered and scolds his children
too often. Therefore, his children grow
Oedipus Complex against him. But in reality,
he is a miserable creature.
For instance, one day, he returns home hungry.
But Gertrude has already eaten her meals. He
says that she, being his wife, had to wait on
him but her cold reply enrages and saddens
him. Says she,
Never, milord, I’d wait on a dog at
the door first.
After hearing such revolting remarks, he flings
a drawer at her, wounding her brow. But he
quickly puts a bandage on the wound. Later, it
is depicted that he lies miserably on the bed
for the whole day,
Walter Morel lay in bed next day
until nearly dinner time. He lay and
suffered like a sulking dog.
But that was not enough. Gertrude sowed
seeds of hatred in the heads of her children.
For instance, once Paul won a prize and he
showed it only to his mother, not to his father.
Some Noble Traits
Despite Lawrence stern caricaturing of
Walter’s character, he portrays Walter with
some positive qualities. First noble quality of
Mr. Morel is that he feels for both his wife and
his children. For example, when Gertrude is on
her death bed, he feels very anxious about her
but his weeping before Gertrude’s relatives is
his pretension. But his love for his deceased
son and Paul is genuine. He does not come on
the way to where William’s grave is situated or
the office in which he worked. He remains
worried about Paul when he gets pneumonia.
He inquires after his health but he does only Conclusion
get a cold indifference in return.
Conclusively, D. H. Lawrence has successfully
Another noble quality present in Walter’s
created a character who exhibits one of the
character is his love for self-work. He does not complex sides of the human psyche through
like to rely on others other than his own the simple and basic instinctions of Walter
hands. In fact, the happiest moments of his Morel who suffers indifference from his family
life occur when he works through his own members for being poor.
hands. Since he is a coal miner, so working
through his own hands makes sense.
Sources
Laat but not the least, he is a simple person
1. Sons and Lovers – Study Guide by Famous
living his life instinctively. His actions are not
Products – Page 91
pre-planned or well thought. But rather simple
2. Lecture of Sir Faisal
and direct in his approach. In simple terms, he
is an unaltered person.

Character Sketch of Gertrude Morel in Sons

and Lovers by D. H. Lawrence
By Asad Imran
April 6, 2021
Categories: Modern Novel

one can easily guess her shortcomings when

Who is Gertrude Morel? the story of love progresses further. She is
dissatisfied from her husband; tries to find
Gertrude Morel is the central character of the love in her sons and pretty much destroys
novel Sons and Lovers. She wife of Walter them. But her character is made of both good
Morel and the mother of Paul and William and bad qualities.
Morel. But D. H. Lawrence draws her character
after his own mother, Lydia, so there is a
strong autobiographical connection that is
seen throughout the novel. Although Lawrence
mostly portrays her as a positive figure but
Her Physical Appearance and Her Disillusionment of the
her Hollowed Middle-Class Marriage
Values
Gertrude Morel exhibits a decent physical
appearance. She is short-statured. Her hair is
as bright as copper and gold. Her eyes are
clear and defiant blue.
Mrs. Morel comes from a noble middle-class
family known as Coppards. Her father is an
engineer. After Gertrude marries a coal miner,
she does not consider it a noble value to mix
up with a ‘poor’ person who can barely get
enough income to pay a house rent. She feels
pride in her own middle-class values. She lives
in a house that is situated in the end of a
street, while not hesitating to pay a higher
rent. Her snobbish attitude is not limited to
herself but she tries to transfer her thinking to
her children by isolating them from mining.
She feels contented on giving them a job with
white collar.
Her Romantic Nature
Gertrude is moved by John Field when she is
in her nineties but he rejects her in favour of a
wealthy landlady. But this leaves an
everlasting scar in her mind. When she is 23,
she sees Walter Morel in a Christmas party.
He is in his 27 and she likes his way of
speaking and his unintellectual simplicity. In
next Christmas, they are married.
We are introduced to Gertrude when she is 31.
She has been leading a disillusioned martial
life because has not claimed the romantic
bliss that she initially thought of. In fact, they
could only enjoy the first three months of a
happy married life.
Her romantic bliss is transformed into
disillusioned agony when she discovers that
the house does not belong to Walter and the
bills if the furniture have not been paid. She is
also dismayed by his excessive drinking. But
she is annoyed most when she is unable to
exchange her philosophical, religious as well
as political views with him because he is a
simple person. Although he listens to her
conversation but he cannot answer her
because he cannot understand.
Her Responsibility in
Destroying their Marriage
It becomes clear in the novel that it is she who
is responsible for the destruction of her
marital life. Before, she chooses Walter
because he is unlike her but later, she abhors
him as he is unlike her. It is simple that she did
not adapt herself to the new situation that
would appear in her marriage life. She should
have changed herself according to thr time
but she tried to change her husband and it
brought a significant ruin to her life,
 The pity was, she was too much his
opposite.
The result came in fierce quarrels between the
couple. Walter used to bully her and even beat
her. But his beastly man was awakened by her
provoking nagging. For instance, he once,
walked twelve miles with Jerry Purdy and
when Gertrude knew about this incident, she
made a storm out of it. In another occasion,
when Walter returns home hungry and
demands food from his wife, she replies coldly
that she had better wait for a street dog. On
hearing such remarks, he flings drawer at her,
thus wounding her eyebrows. But, later, he
deeply feels sorry for his misconduct and
does not sleep for days. In simple words,
Walter wants to lead a happy life with his wife
but it is she who enrages him again that
destroys their martial peace.
Her role in Making Husband-
substitutes of her Sons
As soon as her children grow up, she gradually
casts off her husband to a side and shifts all
her attentions to her sons. In their childhood,
their relationship is healthy. She feels as proud
as a queen when William beings a prize for the
first time. She even get them jobs in co-
operate office for William and goes with Paul
in Nottinghamshire for his interview at
Jordon’s.
It is when her sons reach adulthood when
their relationship grows unhealthy. For
instance, she says to Paul that she did not
have any husband. Thus, making her sons a
substitute for her husband. But it ruined their
emotional lives. William died in Hospital
jumping back and forth between Jim and his
mother. And Paul could not get away from the
influence of his mother even after her death.
He was neither able to get the hand of Clara,
nor Miriam.
Some Positive Traits
Despite the huge havoc that she brought upon
her husband and her sons’ emotional life, she
had influenced their domestic lives in a
positive manner. Firstly, she brought decent
job opportunities to her sons. Secondly, she
managed to stabilize the financial condition of
their house. But in the end, it all ended on her
tragic death that came silently. She kept her
cancer a secret but her death was an intense
suffering caused by cancer. Paul was so
disheartened by her final scene that he gave
her morphia to hasten her death. Indeed, her
life ended on her tragic death.
Conclusion
The character of Gertrude Morel is something
that highlights how emotional distances can
lead to an utter destruction. She had some
obvious shortcomings but at heart, she was a
devoted mother who suffered throughout her
entire life.
Sources and Suggested
Readings
Character Sketch of Paul Morel in Sons and
Lovers by D. H. Lawrence
By Asad Imran
April 7, 2021
Categories: Modern Novel
Who is Paul Morel?
Paul Morel is the most important character of
the novel, Sons and Lovers. The character of
Paul is highly autobiographical because he
mirrors D. H. Lawrence himself. Lawrence
himself had an Oedipal relationship with his
mother, Lydia Lawrence. He rejected Jessie
Chambers out of the strong influence of his
mother. Paul suffers the very complexes that
Lawrence himself suffered. Let’s explore in
detail about Paul.
His Sickly Posture
Paul is the third child. He is born in the midst
of harsh quarrels between Gertrude and
Walter. Gertrude even thinks that she does not
want any children anymore. When the child
1. Sons and Lovers – Study Guide by Famous
Products – Page 94
2. Lecture of Sir Faisal
(Paul) is born, his knitted and heavy eyes may
signal the concept of ‘pain’. His mother is
extremely moved by his facial expression and
she resolutes that “with all her force, with all
her soul, she would make up to it for having
brought it into the world involved”.
Paul Morel was a lean and delicate child in his
childhood. When he grew up a bit, he waa
transitioned into “a rather finely boy, with dark
brown hair and light blue eyes” that last its
brightness and animation throughout his life.
Unhealthy Domestic
Atmosphere and its Adverse
Effects in Paul’s Life
As Paul grows on in years, he is greeted by the
frequent quarrels between his father and his
mother. This leaves a significant mark in
Paul’s childhood. He is forced to side with his
mother. He remains afraid throughout the day
and night, thinking and praying about the
safety of his mother. In his upstairs lodgings,
he remains anxious about the business
downstairs. He even prays that his father
should stop drinking. The unhealthy domestic
atmosphere affects him in three ways,
Firstly, he gets depressed for no obvious
reasons and begins crying bitterly. His mother
tries her best to console him but it does not
help him either. When his father threatens
Paul that he will beat him if he does not stop
crying. It hurts Paul more.
because of the vulgar language of the
workers. Similarly, when he is climbing stairs
in the Jordan’s to appear in the interview,
Lawrence depicts Paul’s internal agony as
thus,
Charles 1 mounted his scaffold with
a lighter heart than did Paul Morel
as he followed his mother up to the
dirty steps to the dirty door.
A Budding Artist
Paul is a skilled painter. This is the only art

Secondly, Paul grows an uncontrollable hatred that makes both of his parents proud. It is to
be noted that one of his paintings get featured
for his father. He cannot even bear the sight of
in Nottingham Castle Exhibition and is sold
his father. When he wins a prize for the first
out in return of a handsome amount. Paul is
time, his mother asks him to show it to his
fond of painting. He is solemnly absorbed in
father but he replies that he would rather hide
painting and does not even know what is
it.
happening in his surroundings. He talks
Thirdly, this situation creates an unhealthy endlessly of his sketches to Miriam.
dependence of Paul upon his mother that
Paul is not only well versed in the art of
creates a significant rift between his
painting, but also he is good at French and
emotional life when he is pursuing Miriam and
Algebra. He teaches Algebra to Miriam and
Clara Daves.
they both discussed about the books they
read.
Self-Conscious

From his childhood to his adulthood, Paul Paul and Gertrude

remains occupied in his own self. That is
Paul’s relationship with his mother can be
because he is allergic of the world outside him
and he does not feel compatible with his divided into two major periods. Of his
childhood and his adulthood. In Paul’s
society. Resultantly, his first day at school is a
childhood, his relationship with his mother
nightmare for him. His experience of
was based upon healthy intentions. He was
collecting wages in the pit is not good
lonely so he got an outlet for his inner
conflicts in the form of his mother and in
return, his mother used to transfer her
attention away from her husband to her son.
They used to visit forests and exhibition
centres. But as Paul grew up into his
adulthood, the mother-son relationship grew
unnatural. Gertrude used her son as her
husband’s substitute. She once said that she
never had a husband and in return, to console
his mother, Paul put his face on her throat and
she gave him a long kiss. Similarly, when Paul
was born, Gertrude thought that the navel
string had not been broken that connected her
body with his frail organs. Such a relationship
adversely affected Paul’s ability to mix up with
the girls of his age.
Paul and Miriam
The friendship between Paul and Miriam is
established when they are quite young. The
friendship is initially based upon Paul’s need
for criticism of his paintings. Miriam is
religious and romantic but not sexually
attractive. Paul mostly brings his paintings to
Miriam for criticism and she eagerly waits for
him to learn something new about life. But
Paul is unsuccessful in arousing her sexual
instructions out of the strong influence of his
mother. For instance, when both of them are in
bed, Paul feels extremely dissatisfied with her
and he leaves her.
Paul and Clara
Paul Clara relationship is quite an opposite of
Paul Miriam connection. Clara is hungry for
sex. Her body is an invitation card for having
sex. Paul is immediately charmed by her
swelling breasts and plump arms. For a short
period of time, Paul believes that he has
attained an absolute bliss but he cannot get
his intellectual demands fulfilled from Clara
and she returns to her husband as Paul
cannot satisfy her sexual hunger while her
husband can.
Conclusion
After the death of his mother, Paul is left alone
and broken. He has no one to share his
feelings and ideas. He has left Miriam and
Clara leaves him. Although he tries in vain to
go back to the village and start painting. But
he has lost the courage to do so. He is
left”with a drift towards death”, as Lawrence
puts the final ending of the hero.
Sources and Suggested
Readings
1. Sons and Lovers – Study Guide by Famous
Products – Page 97
2. Lecture of Sir Faisal
Paul Miriam Relationship – Sons and Lovers –
D. H. Lawrence
By Asad Imran
April 11, 2021
Categories: Modern Novel
Introduction
Paul Miriam relationship is considered to be
the core of the novel. Why, because it is one of
the favourite topics of Lawrence to talk about
complexities of relationships between men
and women. He has discussed the very
subject in a number of his novels. So, Sons
and Lovers is no exception. We find four knots
of relationships in this novel.
For instance, Walter Gertrude Relationship
that is initially based upon romantic ideas of
Gertrude and upon their unfulfillment, it
transforms into a heating mess of quarrels
and of misunderstandings. Then, there is
Gertrude William (and then Paul) relationship
that is totally based upon making sons as
husband substitutes which wreaks havoc in
the emotional upbringing of her sons and their
relationship with the girls of their age
eventually fails. Then we have Paul Miriam
Relationship which is to be discussed at
length in this article and then Paul Clara
relationship that was established temporarily
to extinguish the sensual desires of Clara but
it also ends in vain.
Paul Miriam Relationship, on the other hand, is
based upon Miriam’s spiritual ideals that Paul
seems to detest. But Paul learns from the
crirical remarks of Miriam on his paintings and
he teaches her Algebra and French. Thus, he
has an outlet for his intellectual thoughts to
get distributed through Miriam. But their
relationship does not go well on good terms
as time goes by.
The First Meet-Up
The first meeting between Paul and Miriam
takes place when Paul, with his mother, goes
to the Leiver’s Family at the Willey Farm. Paul
Morel is deeply enchanted by the broad
landscapes and beauty of Nature. At first, Paul
mostly spends his time with the brothers of
Miriam but later, he gradually starts taking
interest in Miriam.
Miriam’s Romantic Nature and
Her Spiritual Constraints
It is difficult to deny that Miriam has a
romantic nature and she often considers
herself a “Walter Scott Heroin”, in simple
terms, sensitive and over-refined. Miriam
detests vulgarity that is found in her brothers.
She finds Paul a different man. Different in a
sense that he has a different taste, an
intellectual one like his interest in algebra,
painting, poetry and French and “a man who
had death in his family”.
Miriam draws her spirituality from the
metaphysical outlook of her mother. But her
over-turned spirituality becomes a stout hurdle
in continuing her relationship with Paul. As
mentioned before, Miriam has developed
hatred for sex and its implications. This
makes her different from the girls of her age.
But Paul thinks Miriam like a common girl. He
needs her for his sexual gratification but
Miriam resists his sexual advancements, thus
making Paul annoyed by her spiritual
stubbornness. For instance, Miriam folds her
arms around her five-year-old brother and
sways him. This agitates Paul and he bitterly
questions,
Why do you make such a fuss for?
Paul wants to say that when Miriam can show
her affections towards her brother, why not
Paul?
First Phase of Relationship
Owing to Miriam’s overtly religious outlook,
the Paul Miriam Relationship grows on an
abstract plane but its growth is slightly visible.
This is the phase when both of them realize
their worth for each other. Paul learns the
critical significance of his paintings while
Miriam uses Paul as a means to give vent to
her inner-most emotions. In fact, it is Paul that
makes a flower sink into the soul of Miriam,
Only he could make it her own.
One day, there is an Orange Moon situated at
the top of the sky and such a romantic scene
boils the blood of Paul’s chest. He wanted to
crush Miriam upon his chest but non of them
even tried to kiss each other.
Second Phase
The second phase of the Paul Miriam
Relationship becomes a litmus test for Miriam
and her controlled love for Paul. Paul is
determined to get Miriam introduced to the
sexual life of a normal girl in love. Miriam too
decides to submit to Paul’s sexual desires. But
it does not come as Paul plans to. Whenever
Paul tries to have sex with her, she
immediately recoils. When Miriam lives with
her grandparents, Paul gets a chance to do
whatever he likes but her immolating
response disappoints Paul and he wishes he
were sexless or dead. Thus, her indifference to
sex gradually makes Paul bade a goodbye to
Miriam.
Final Rejection
After such a cold spiritual connection, then
come the death of Paul’s mother and her
death by cancer leaves a significant effect on
him. Miriam has grown into a stiff woman with
her youthful bloom gone. She thinks that Paul
is wasting his life and offers her proposal of
marriage. But Paul immediately rejects her
proposal. He says that she loves him so much
that she wants to put him in her pocket. She
could only sacrifice herself to him every day.
Her sacrifice was unacceptable to him so Paul
bade a cold farewell to Miriam.
Who is Responsible for the
Failure of Relationship?
Miriam stubbornly clings to her rigid spiritual
ideas. That collectively brings about their
separation.
Conclusion
Conclusively, Paul Miriam Relationship
demonstrates physical as well as spiritual lack
of understanding. It is something that is hard
to achieve but it surely depicts how much
damage it may cause if natural desires are
dealt with unnatural ways.

This question, as difficult as it may sound, has

been debated by critics to a great degree. Sources and Suggested
Some argue Gertrude is responsible for the Readings
spilt between the two while others point their
fingers at Miriam’s rigid spirituality. Mike 1. https://www.literaturewise.in/mdl/mod/pag
Sprika puts the burden of the spilt upon id=218
Miriam’s shoulders, 2. Sons and Lovers – Study Guide by Famous
Products – Page 120
Miriam’s frigidity is rooted in her 3. Lectures of Sir Faisal
own nature, and not in the mere
ignorance of sex. Her purity is
nullity rather than innocence; she
lacks real warmth, and Paul in his
youthful inexperience is unable to
rouse in her.

So, the person equally puts the responsibility

of the spilt on both Paul and Miriam. But there
is an equal share of Gertrude also in bringing
about the separation. Gertrude Morel has
tightened her emotional grip upon Paul and
she is unable to realize how much havoc she
has wrecked in Paul’s youthful life. He fails to
get the nerves of Miriam’s limitations and
Modern Novel – Short Questions and Their
Answers (From Sargodha University Past
Papers) MA English Literature Part 2
By Asad Imran
August 26, 2021
Categories: Modern Novel, Short Questions
2021
Q1: What is the symbolic significance of the
lighthouse in the novel To the Lighthouse?
The lighthouse serves as a symbol of human
desires that can only be fulfilled at an
appropriate time.
Q2: Comment on the economic condition of
Mr. Morel at the time of his marriage.
Being a coal miner, the financial condition of
Walter Morel was not good during the time of
his marriage. He was under debt and the rent
of the furniture had not been paid.
Q3: What is the symbolic significance of the
Congo river in Heart of Darkness?
The Congo River signifies as a symbol of a
channel that connects a civilization with
‘primitiveness’. However, the river also
doubles as a driving force that strives its best
to send the civilized Europeans away from the
darkness.
Q4: How are Africans and the Europeans
presented in Hean of Darkness?
The Africans are presented as the ones who
lack language, culture and thoughtfulness.
Whereas, the European (imperialists) are
portrayed as manipulative and exploitative.
Q5: What are the reasons for Nwoye’s
conversion to Christianity?
Nwoye concerts to Christianity to atone for his
father’s unjust butchery of his adopted son,
Ikemefuna.
Q6: Who rescues the boys from the island in
Lord of the Flies?
It is a naval officer who rescues the lost boys
from the lost and unknown island.
Q7: Who is Ezinma in Things Fall Apart?

Ezimna is the daughter from Okonkwo’s
second wife, Ekwefi. Ezimna is greatly
favoured by Okonkwo because of her ‘menlike’
nature.
Q8: Who was Simon in Lord of the Flies?
Simon was the voice of reason and rationality
in Lord of the Flies. It was he who identified
the boar’s skull as the lord of the flies during
his hallucination.
Q9: Who is Gertrude Morel in Sons and
Lovers?
Gertrude Morel is the wife of Walter Morel.
She belongs to the noble middle class. She is
the driving force in the establishment of the
Oedipus complex in her sons.
Q10: List the names of three sections of To
the Lighthouse.
Already answered
2020
Q1: Give a brief character sketch of Lily
Brisco as presented in the novel To the
Lighthouse.
Lilly Brisco is one of the guests in To the
Lighthouse. She is a painter. From the
beginning of the novel till the end, Lily
preoccupies herself with painting. View
Source
Q2: Why is Mr. Morel despised by his
wife?
Paul Morel is hated by Gertrude on
account of his excessive drinking, his
being poor and his unurbane language.
Q3: What was the reality of the beast in
Lord of the Flies?
The reality of the beast in Lord of the Flies
was Simons who was confused for the
beast by the pack of Jack. He is killed.
Another mistaken instance of the beast is
observed when the boys consider the
dead body of the piolet, a beast. View
Source
Q4: State the dominant traits of Jack in
Lord of the Flies?
Jack, the opponent to Ralph, is a
determined, jealous and power-seeking
boy. He is violent by temperament and
knows the art of taming small boys for his
own purposes. View Source
Q5: What are some of the major themes
in the literary works of D.H. Lawrence?
The major themes in the novels written by
D. H. Lawrence are issues related to
emotional as well as mental health,
relationships and sexuality. Source
Q6: Why was Ikemefuna killed in the
novel Things Fall Apart?
Ikemefuna is killed because his killing was
part of a promise and treaty. Also,
Okonkwo kills Ikemefuna in order to prove
his manhood before his tribe.
Q7: Define stream of consciousness.
Stream of Consciousness is a literary
technique in which the events are narrated
as they appear in one’s mind without any
chronological sequence.
Q8: How is Nwoye different from his
father in Things Fall Apart?
Novoye is entirely different from his father
because he inherits his traits from his
grandfather Unoka. He is usually a weak-
hearted person but when Okonkwo kills
Ikemefuna, Novoye is utterly dismayed by
his father and joins missionaries to show
his vengeance. Source
Q9: What were the last words of Kurtz?
What do they mean?
The last words of Kurtz were “Horror!
Horror! ” Kurtz basically accepted his
demonic endeavours in the dark continent
of Africa and accepted the horrors
associated with it.
Q10: Who is the narrator in Heart of
Darkness?
We do not know much about the un-
named narrator who opens the novel but
the second narrator who tells us about his
adventures in Congo and in the Sea. He is
Marlow and he is said to be the voice of
Conrad.
2019
Q1: How did Marlow manage to get a job
with the Belgian company?
Marlow managed to get the job as a
captain in the Belgian company through
the influence of his aunt.
Q2: What is the name of the ship in the
Thames where Marlow tells his story?
The name of the ship is The
Nellie. Source
Q3: What is the reason of the inhibited
relationship between Mr. and Mrs.
Morel?
Already answered
Q4: How would you describe the
relationship between Paul and Miriam?
Paul Miriam relationship is a complex
affair. On one side, we see Miriam
showing her desire to learn and be
educated through Paul. While Paul is
agitated by her aggressive “chastity”.
Q5: Who is Ikemefuna in Things Fall
Apart?
Ikemefuna is a fifteen years old boy who
is given to the Umofia tribe as a sacrifice
for killing a woman from Umofia. Source
Q6: How is Mrs. Ramsay’s outlook
towards life different from that of her
husband in To the lighthouse?
Mrs. Ramsay’s outlook for life is much
different and even opposite to what we
observe through Mr. Ramsay. Mr. Ramsay
is utterly realistic and does not want any
mingling of *hopeful” lie in it. While Mrs.
Ramsay can consider adding a hopeful lie
to console someone.
Q7: Give a brief character sketch of Mr.
Tansley.
Charles Tansley is the student of Mr.
Ramsay who is invited as a guest. He
remains insecure of his humble
background. Although Mrs. Ramsay do
not like him, still her magic works on him
and he begins to like her. Source
Q8: Who are the Littluns in Lord of the
Flies?
Littluns are a group of small kids. They
represent helpless members of a society.
They are used to gain more authoritative
power. Source
Q9: Give some traits of the character of
Ralph in Lord of the Flies.
Ralph is the voice of wisdom, order and
authority. He is elected as the leader of
the boys in the beginning. He is sensible,
caring, wise and authoritative. Source
Q10: Why does Okonkwo kill himself in
Things Fall Apart?
Okonkwo kills himself because of the
grief of betrayal from the members of his
tribe who refused to fight against the
Englishmen. Out of his stern values of
manhood, Okonkwo commits suicide.
2018
Q1: Describe the picture painted by Kurtz
in Africa.
Kurtz painted a picture at the front of a
house that depicted a lady carrying a
torch. Here, the torch has been used as a
symbol of spreading the light of
civilization by Kurtz. Source
Q2: What do the two ladies Marlow met at
Brussels symbolize?
Two knitting women whom Marlow saw in
Brussels were knitting through a black
thread. The two women symbolize for the
Fates in Greek mythology, spinning their
thread of life and cut it at their own
will. Source
Q3: What is ‘The Bottoms’ in ‘Sons and
Lovers’ by D. H. Lawrence?
The Bottoms is a neighbouring place of
Bestwood. This place is particularly
known for the residence of the Morel
family. Source
Q4: Describe the setting of the novel
‘Sons and Lovers’ by D. H. Lawrence.
The novel mostly revolves around
Bestwood, the mining area and the Willy
Farms in which Paul, for the first time,
eye-witnesses his beloved for the first
time.
Q5: What is the age of Lily Briscoe when
the novel opens?
Lily is 34 years old when the novel opens.
Q6: How did Prue Ramsay die?
Prue Ramsay died during a disease while
giving birth to her child.
Q7: When and why was the Feast of the
New Yam held?
The Feast of the New Yam was held
before harvest to honour the goddess of
the earth. Source
Q8: What advice was given to Okonkwo
by Ezeudu?
Ezeudu, a village elder gave advice to
Okonkwo to abstain from killing
Ikemefuna because the boy regarded
Okonkwo as his father. Source
Q9: What is the role of Simon in ‘Lord of
the Flies’?
The role of Simon in Lord of the Flies is to
depict the religious saintness of truth and
light.
Q10: When and where was William
Golding born?
William Golding was born in Newquay,
United Kingdom in 1911.
2017
Q1: What is the symbolic significance of
the voyage of Marlow into the heart of
Africa?
According to some critical estimates, the
journey of Marlow into the darkness of
Congo can be considered as a symbol of
the redemption of evil or sin through the
light of goodness (mainly for
Kurtz). Source
Q2: How does Marlow dispose of the
African helmsman’s body?
Marlow disposes the dead body of the
helmsman to the side of a ship. His action
results in the morning of the cannibals for
the loss of meal. Source
Q3: How did Mrs. Morel die?
Gertrude Morel was given a medicine by
her children that ended her life because
her children, especially her son could not
see her in pain.
Q4: Why does Paul waver in his feelings
toward Miriam?
Paul puts a halt to his feelings towards
Miriam due to his close association with
his mother and Miriam’s inability to fulfil
his sexual needs.
Q5: Who is William Bankes in To The
Lighthouse?
William Bankes is a friend of Mr. Ramsay
who knows about Mr. Ramsay from his
childhood. He has no children and is a
widower. He befriends Lily Briscoe while
inwardly, he ‘adores’ Mrs. Ramsay. View
Source
Q6: Write the title of the three sections in
to The Lighthouse.
The sections in To the Lighthouse are
written below:
The Window
Time Passes
To the Lighthouse
Q7: What was the most significant trait of
Mr. Brown in Things Fall Apart?
Mr. Brown was the first white Englishman
who began Christianity missions in
Umophia. He was a kind person who paid
respect to the religious customs of the
Umophian people than the new
missionary leader. Source
Q8: What does Okonkwo think about his
son Novoye?
Okonkwo thinks that his son lacks the
traits of masculinity.
Q9: What is the use of Conch for the boys
is Lord of the Flies?
Conch has been used as an indication for
the call of assembling the lost boys and
children in the lost island. The Conch shell
also symbolizes for power and authority.
Q10: Who killed Simon?
The pack of Jack killed Simon by taking
him for the ‘concerned’ terrifying beast.
2016
Q1: Why was Marlow’s aunt triumphant?
Marlowe’s aunt was triumphant on the
colonization of the Congo. She believed
that the savages were being made
civilized through the colonial power of
Europe. Source
Q2: What was Marlow referring to when
he said that there was a touch of insanity
in the proceeding?
Marlowe was referring to the captivating
madness of the African jungle which lured
the colonizing powers to lose their minds
and their plung into “the horror”. Source
Q3: What advice did Okonkwo give to
Ezinma when they were in Mbanta?
Okonkwo advised his daughter not to
follow the footsteps of Novoye by
changing the religion. He also asked her
not to marry until they return
Umophia. Source
Q4: What were the name given to the first
two children, Okonkwo got in Mbanta?
The first child was given the name of
Nneka which meant “Mother is Supreme”
while the second child was named Nwofia
which translated as “Born in the
Wilderness”.
Q5: Who were the important intellectuals
included in the Bloomsbury group?
The important intellectuals who were
included in the Bloomsbury group were
Virginia Woolf, her husband Leonard
Woolf, a biographer Lytton Strachey,
Virginia’s sister Vanessa Bell.
Q6: After Mrs. Ramsay’s death, who
seemed to be the uniting force in “To The
Lighthouse”?
It was Lily Briscoe who seemed to be a
uniting force after the death of Mrs.
Ramsay because she rather kept the
presence of Mrs. Ramsay through her
painting.
Q7: What was Ralph’s father?
According to Ralph, his father was a
commander in the navy. He thought that
his father would come there and rescue
them as he took a leave from his
job. Source
Q8: What was the significance of the
shell according to Piggy?
According to Piggy, the conch shell can
serve as a tool to ‘call an assembly’ of the
lost boys. Piggy sees the Conch as a tool
of democratic gathering.
Q9: What did Mrs. Morel discover about
her husband after marriage?
After marriage, Gertrude Morel discovered
that her husband had not paid rent of the
house and did not clear the bill of the Q5: List the name of three sections of To
furniture. She also learned that her the Lighthouse.
husband was badly in debt and he was See Q6 in 2017.
not a wealthy person. Q6: How did the Children feel about Mr.
Q10: How did Mrs. Morel die? Tansley?
Already answered Children felt as if Mr. Tansley was in a
miserable condition or a “sarcastic brut”.
2015 Children used to mock Mr. Tansley
because of his funny appearance. Source
Q1: Why does the Russian nurse Kurtz Q7: Concisely describe the argument of
through two illnesses in Heart of boys regarding beast in Lord of the
Darkness? Flies?
The Russian harlequin nurses Kurtz during Kindly refer to Q3 in 2020
his illness because he is a great admirer Q8: Why is Simon the only one to doubt
of Kurtz. According to him, Kurtz is the existence of the beast?
civilizing the African Natives. Therefore, Simon is the only one in the pack who
he does not want to let Kurtz die. uses his ‘thinking hat’ for the critical
Q2: Why does Kurtz give Marlow papers evaluation of certain situations. Therefore,
before he dies? he is quick to think of the doubt because
Kurtz gives Marlow some confidential he does not deem its presence
papers to be kept safe because Kurtz logical. Source
does not want his leftovers to be Q9: Why doesn’t Okonkwo have any
occupied by the manager. More Short patience with his father in Things Fall
Questions Apart?
Q3: What first job did William get? Okonkwo does not show any patience for
William got appointment as a clerk in his father due to his excessive drinking
London at first. Source and lack of masculine traits.
Q4: Why doesn’t Mrs. Morel get any help Q10: Evaluate Okonkwo’s reputation in
from her in-laws? the nine villages of Umuofia.
Gertrude Morel does not seek financial aid Okonkwo is known as a powerful person
from her in-laws because of their dismal who is good at wrestling. He once threw a
financial conditions as her in-laws already seven year champion Amalinze the Cat
think that Morels are leading a good which further increased his reputation as
financial life. Source a strong wrestler. Source

Character Sketch of Kurtz in Heart of

Darkness
By Asad Imran
October 11, 2021
Categories: Modern Novel
Who is Kurtz?
Kurtz is the protagonist of importance in
Heart of Darkness. He works as an agent to
collect ivory from the dark heart of Africa,
Congo. Mr. Kurtz is known for his sheer
strength of ambition (of collecting ivory
obviously) as well as his refined eloquence.
He is overly greedy in his shade of ambitions.
His character is important in this novel
because it is his character, which is used to
display the inner darkness of the human soul.
Let us discuss in detail about Mr. Kurtz.
His Reputation
Kurtz’ reputation is mostly positive but it
differs from character to character. The
accountant considers Mr. Kurtz as a “first-
class agent” as well as a “very remarkable
man”. According to the manager of the trading
company, Mr. Kurtz is the best agent of the
company. The Brick-Maker ranks Kurtz as a
wonderful man. He asserts that Kurtz is a
representative of pity, of science, of progress,
and “devil knows of what else”. The narrator of
the story (Marlow), at first, is annoyed by the
constant mentions of the importance of Kurtz
for the company and for the natives, but, later,
he grows his own interest to see and know
about Mr. Kurtz. But the narration of Marlow
reveals that Mr. Kurtz is “hollow at the core”.
In the next heading, we shall try to gauge why
Mr. Kurtz is hollow at the core.
His Sense of Ownership
We are told by the manager that Kurtz is highly
possessive. He is heard many times saying,
My ivory, my intended, my station,
my river, …
From this dialogue of Kurtz, it becomes
obvious that he is deeply trapped in his dark
sense of ownership of almost everything at
his disposal. And he can go to every length to
protect what he “owns”. Another thing to note
is that Kurtz mentions the ownership of ivory
before his intended. Thus, showing his
immense passion to collect ivory as much as
he wants. But it is much more than what Mr.
Kurtz owns. He owns the souls of the natives.
For instance, the skulls hanging in front of his
cottage are of those people who went against
his wishes or revolted against him. The
hanging skulls are his symbol of his godly
power over people and their property. Marlow
wonders when everything of the jungle
belongs to him, to whom Mr. Kurtz belongs to?
See the fourth heading for the answer.
His Pathetic Physique
Kurtz physical inflation is revealed when he is
being shifted to the steamer Marlow is the
captain of. His physical condition is quite
contradictory to his stouter reputation and
influence. He is even unable to walk. When he
rises up a little from his stretcher to disperse
the crowd, he looks like a ghost in a shroud.
From his raised hands, the bones are clearly
visible like ivory. Thus, all his might crumble
under his pathetic physique, signalling at his
fatal illness.
His Acclamation of Darkness
(in him)
Kurtz last words before dying are “Horror!
Horror!” and these words are of great
significance. His last words clearly hint at
something terrible and dark witnessed by Mr.
Kurtz during his last minutes of life. His final
words are the declaration of his dark and
devilish adventures his soul had gone through.
Such a profound level of possession over
people and property; his uncontrolled passion
for ivory and his lusty adventures during the
Marlow as a Narrator of Heart of Darkness
By Asad Imran
October 12, 2021
Categories: Modern Novel
Who is Marlow?
“unspeakable rites* had made him a demonic
figure. Perhaps every aim of his life was
fulfilled, including his ivory, his river and his
station. What remained unfulfilled was his
marriage with his intended. Manifestly
speaking, his last words signify his affirmation
of his evil and primitive endeavours in the dark
continent of Africa.
Conclusion
The character of Kurtz is truly a complex one
who is evil both inwardly and outwardly yet his
soul cleans itself from its evil endeavours by
just uttering two words.
Sources and Suggested
Readings
1. Critical Studies of Heart of Darkness –
Famous Products – Page 233
2. https://www.shmoop.com/study-
guides/literature/heart-of-darkness/mr-
kurtz
It is through the narration of Marlow we come
across the story of Heart of Darkness. He is
the second narrator of the novella after the
unnamed one who introduces Marlow to the
readers. Marlow is a seaman and takes a
fancy to wander into the depths of the seas.
His passion leads him to Africa to take the
ailing Kurtz away from Congo. He narrates his
experience, problems and challenges which
were being faced by him during his voyage to
the dark continent of Africa. His narration is
considered to be the mouthpiece of Joseph
Conrad, the author of this novella.
A Mouthpiece of Conrad
Heart of Darkness is based upon the
experience of Joseph Conrad during his own
voyage to the African continent. Although the
story of the darkness is told by Marlow, it is
Conrad who is speaking in the guise of
Marlow. That is why, Marlow is referred to as
the mouthpiece of Conrad. But it must be
noted that there are certain differences
between Marlow and Conrad. Therefore,
Marlow should not be considered as a
complete replication of Conrad.
He Brings Kurtz to Life
The character and narration of Marlow is more
important than the unnamed narrator because
he is the one who brings the character of
Kurtz to life as the character of Kurtz is
important to highlight the meaning of the
novella. At first, he is rather annoyed by the
consistent mentions of Kurtz importance in
the field of collecting ivory. But as he learns
more about Kurtz, his interest in him grows.
When he first sees Kurtz, he sees him as the
“only white man” among the black Africans.
This remark comes out as Marlow’s
admiration for Kurtz. But it should be noted
that Marlow does not “idolize” Kurtz like the
Russian and does not hesitate to find faults in
Kurtz.
Marlow bluntly gives a sneak peek at the
horrible deeds done by Kurtz in exploiting the
natives and their property, not to mention the
“unspeakable rites”. Yet Marlow appears as a
controlling force for Kurtz when Marlow drags
him back to his tent and he is “not much
heavier than a child”. It is difficult to assess
that whether Marlow admires Kurtz or not
because his judgement of Kurtz continue to
change as he comes by another trait of Kurtz.
But Marlow’s judgement of Kurtz’ last words is
significant because according to him,
Kurtz was a remarkable man,”
Marlow says, because he “had
something to say” and simply “said
it”.
Thus, Marlow not only gives the readers a
chance to look into the life of Kurtz but also
into his character.
His Experiences in African
Congo
Marlow not only gives us a picture of Kurtz but
of his experiences in Africa as well. His
narration gives an ample amount of life and
challenges at work in the African Congo. He
vividly describes how Nature exists there and
how natives lead their lives remaining
uncivilized. Marlow describes the beauty of
African Nature as thus,
The edge of a colossal jungle, so
dark-green as to be almost black,
fringed with white surf, ran straight,
like a ruled line.
Marlow’s accounts of his confrontation with
the natives is also important because it shows
the natives’ devotion (or fear? ) for Kurtz. For
instance, when his steamer arrives and when
he is about to take Kurtz away, his boat is
attacked by the natives (through arrows).
Therefore, Marlow is not only a narrator, but
also moves the plot of the novella with his
actions.
As a Philosopher and
Psychologist
Another notable trait in the character of
Marlow is his philosophical and psychological
caricaturing of the people he met during his
voyage. Marlow’s ability to use his
psychological and philosophical analysis
enables him to see what exactly is in the
Significance of the Title in Heart of Darkness
minds of the characters he meets and to
speculate about the inner truth respectively.
For instance, when Marlow is knowing about
Mr. Kurtz through the brick-maker, he remarks
that through the remarks of the brick-maker,
he is unable to visualize the true picture of Mr.
Kurtz and his personality looks like a dream to
him. But, on a philosophical level, Marlow
asserts that it is impossible to sense the
essence of life at a given moment.
Conclusion
The character of Marlow is marked by his vivid
narration about his experiences in Africa, his
description of Kurtz’ character and his
philosophical and psychological analysis of
the people he saw. Therefore, it is safe to say
that without the narration of Marlow, there
would have been no Kurtz.
Sources and Suggested
Readings
1. Critical Studies of Heart of Darkness –
Famous Products – Page 246
2. https://www.shmoop.com/study-
guides/literature/heart-of-
darkness/charlie-marlow
By Asad Imran
October 14, 2021
Categories: Modern Novel
Introduction
Heart of Darkness is a flagship novella written
by Joseph Conrad. It hit the shelves in 1899.
The novel basically narrates the story of
Belgian Imperialism upon the African natives.
The author has subtly utilized the title of the
novel which is multi-dimensional. Apparently,
the title of the novel hints at the darkest heart
of African Congo (which is the centre of
Africa). But the title is also used as a
metaphor of the destructive force of the evil.
Evil here means a number of things, like the
evil of imperialism, the evil of passion, the evil
of greediness. Moreover, Kurtz’ last words are
also important as they are directly interlinked
with the title.
Appearant Meaning
The literal meaning of the title of this novel
points at the continent of Africa and especially
its territory of Congo. The name of the dark
continent was first used by Henry Morton
Stanley. He is the man who voyaged through
the dark bushes in Africa. Due to his
contribution, the word “dark” was widely used
to refer to the continent of Africa. Although
Conrad had himself voyaged to the dark
continent in 1890. Yet he kept the dark name
despite more discoveries of the places in the
African continent. Therefore, on account of
Stanley’s contribution, Conrad named Heart of
Darkness to literally signify the dark Congo
and the dark people living in it.
Metaphorical or Symbolical
Interpretation
The second layer of the title rests in its
symbolic or metaphorical interpretation and
there are many of them. As mentioned in the
introductory paragraph of this question, the
metaphorical meaning of the title is the
destructive nature of the dark forces of the
evil. Which leads us to another rabbit-hole of
symbolic interpretation.
Firstly, it symbolizes for the evil force of
imperialism. It is obvious from the novella that
Conrad condemns imperialism. It was due to
imperialism the natives and their property was
exploited and they were kept in the dark about
it. Secondly, the title can be used as a symbol
of the evil of passion which destroys the soul.
It is vividly portrayed through Kurtz’
uncontrollable lust to collect ivory. The third
implication of the title lies in the greediness of
the Western colonizers who, in their greed to
extort as many resources as possible, destroy
the freedom of the people who are ruled by
them.
Kurtz’ Dying Words
Kurtz’ dying words allude to the corruption of
the human soul after an excessive exercise of
passion. This is exactly what the title of the
novella is referring to. It is to be noted that
heart and soul are often interlinked. Kurtz was
all after ivory and he could go to any length to
extort as much ivory as he liked, even at the
expense of the lives of the people. It must be
noted that before the arrival of Kurtz in Africa,
he was a man of fine manners. But after
stepping Into Africa, he lost every civilized part
of him for the sake of fulfilling his passion and
his primitive desires. The truth dawns upon
him as soon as the angel of death approaches
him. Therefore, his last words are of
considerable importance in the context of the
title of this novella.
Heart of Darkness as a Condemnation of
Imperialism
By Asad Imran
October 15, 2021
Categories: Modern Novel
Introduction
Heart of Darkness is a defining work of
Joseph Conrad which appeared in 1899. After
the publishing of this novella, it has received a
fair share of admiration from the literary
Conclusion
The title of the concerned novella
appropriately conveys both its literal
significance to the dark heart of Africa
(Congo) as well as its symbolic adherence to
the darkness of the soul during its stay in the
human flesh.
Sources and Suggested
Readings
1. http://www.cssforum.com.pk/css-optional-
subjects/group-v/english-literature/10184-
heart-darkness-significance-title.html
2. https://www.shmoop.com/study-
guides/literature/heart-of-
darkness/analysis/title
giants like T. S. Eliot and Ernest Hemingway.
The novella is famous for its distinctive
treatment of colonialism and imperialism of
Belgium over the dark continent of Africa. On
one side, the novella is praised for the
condemnation of Imperialism while the
opponents find this novella favouring the
European Imperialism. Before discussing at
length about the particular problem in the
novella, first, we have to make it clear that
what imperialism actually is. In simple terms,
imperialism is the utilization of the resources
(both people and their property) of the weak
nation by the strong and developed nation. A
common example of imperialism is the British
colonization of the Indian Subcontinent.
Examples against
Imperialism
The very first example of Conrad’s
condemnation of Imperialism is the title of the
novella. He indirectly considers imperialism as
a heart of darkness. It is a heart of darkness
because it ultimately leaves both the
colonizers and the colonized in the deepest pit
of the darkness of failure and problems. For
instance, the Britishers came to the Indian
Subcontinent as traders and reformers but
when they left, they left with an egg on their
face and the rushed division lead to a mass
massacre that history seems unable to forget.
And there have been three major wars
between the two who were once one.
Turning back to the novella, it condemns
colonization of the African people and the
Belgian exploitation of their ivory and the
people. The Belgian trade masters arrived at
the African continent to ‘civilize’ the natives
but they themselves became the victims of
primitive desires. Conrad condemns their
merciless killing of the natives and extortion
of ivory for their own luxury.
Examples in Favour of
Imperialism
The other side of this novella is rather
controversial as it displays Conrad favouring
imperialism. Kurtz’ dying words are a great
contribution to it as Marlow, the narrator of the
novel suggests that his dying words denote to
the purgation of his soul. The very idea of the
purgation of Kurtz’ soul from his evil doings
gives a slightly stouter affirmation of Marlow
(or Conrad) favouring imperialism. Another
instance comes in the form of the painting on
Kurtz’ cottage painted by himself. The painting
shows a woman holding a torch. This painting
is a direct symbol of the spreading the light of
civilization to the ones who are not cultured. It
is one of the prime motives behind
imperialism and the painting of Kurtz openly
supports it. Due to the very examples from the
text, this novella is regarded as a piece of
work that favours imperialism.
Conrad’s own Experience of
Imperialism
Conrad grew up in Russian Imperialism on
Poland. His parents were an active members
of the movement of freedom. Therefore, he
and his family were exiled to Siberia. Such
banishment must have left a lasting hatred for
imperialism. Therefore, he chose the
profession to voyage on the sea because he
found openness and freedom in it. He
voyaged to Africa in 1890 at a time when it
was ruled by many colonial powers but his
cannon of critique was pointed at Leopold, a
ruthless Belgian ruler who used the Central
African portion as his personal property. Upon
seeing the plight of the natives and having
himself experienced the cold banishment, the
writing of this novella is surely an outcome of
his detest of imperialism to a greater extent.
Conclusion
Symbols of Knitting, River and Fog in Heart of
Darkness
By Asad Imran
October 16, 2021
Categories: Modern Novel
Introduction
Heart of Darkness is a novella that features
the primitive darkness of the African tribes
during the 1890s under the Shadow of
darkness in England in “yesterday”. The
novella carries a number of symbols to
highlight the themes of imperialism and
greediness. Before tracing out symbols in
Heart of Darkness, we have to discover first
that what is a symbol exactly. A symbol is a
It is difficult to reach to a definitive conclusion
that Heart of Darkness favours imperialism or
is against it. But it surely portrays the sombre
picture of the colonized natives.
Sources and Suggested
Readings
1. Critical Studies of Heart of Darkness –
Famous Products – Page 264
2. https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/1995
trouble-with-heart-of-darkness
literary device that uses common things to
denote to someone or something. Like rose is
a symbol of love. Here are different symbols
are hidden in this novella to be traced.
Women
The women of significance in the novella are
Kurtz’ intended and the African woman. Both
of them have been used as the symbol of the
blank canvas on which their culture and
wealth is displayed.
Knitting
Two women knitting through black threads in
the office of the Company at Brussels have
been utilized as the symbol of the upcoming
darkness in the novella. The women are
depicted knitting the shrouds, thus suggesting
the ultimate darkness is death. While their
indifference towards Marlow hints at the
indifference of the colonizers with the
colonized and death.
Fog
The season of fog is just a month away. When
fog envelops everything on its way, it is
difficult to find a way out. But unlike darkness,
it gives slight information on where to
navigate. Fog, in this novella, is a symbol of a
mild obstruction, signalling at the movement
but does not tell what exactly lies ahead. For
instance, Marlow’s steamer is caught in the
fog and he is unable to see whether the sea is
before him or something else.
River
The symbol of the river hints directly at the
Congo River which connects Europe with the
middle of Africa without having them to cross
the sea. The river streams upwards, thus
making sailing from Europe to Africa, a
difficult task. Thus, trying to keep the
European intruders away and to send them
back to the “civilization”. But its upward flow is
also a symbol of Kurtz’ inability to understand
the gravity of his wrong-doings. Thus, keeping
him in the dark until his soul surrogates itself
from “the horrors” practised by its human
flesh.
Darkness
Darkness not only lies in the title of this
novella but also in its core protagonist (Kurtz).
The character of Kurtz has been used as a
symbol of the darkness of the ruthless
colonizers. But it lies in the heart of Kurtz as
well who is unable to realize his ill-doings in
the guise of his uncontrollable passion for
collecting ivory. Thus, the symbol of darkness
has multiple interpretations.
Drums
The “weird, appealing, suggestive, wild” sound
of the drumbeats symbolize the celebration or
a signal of the arrival of something or the
signal of the war. It is difficult to get the exact
meaning of the drumbeats being pounded in
the novella but they vaguely denote to “war,
peace, or prayer”
Ivory
The dark continent of Africa had a great
appeal for the extortors of ivory. In this
novella, ivory has been utilized as a symbol of
the greed of the Western colonizers. It is
suggested that the wild passion for the
collection of ivory is the primary reason
behind the evil-doings of Kurtz. Therefore, the
lust for ivory has been used as an indirect
symbol of the motive behind imperialism.
Conclusion
Conrad has appropriately utilized the symbols
of knitting, river, ivory and darkness which
nicely extends the scope of the interpretation
of Heart of Darkness.
Character Sketch of Ralph in Lord of the Flies
By Asad Imran
October 17, 2021
Categories: Modern Novel
Who is Ralph?
Ralph is a protagonist of great significance in
Golfing’s novel, Lord of the Flies. He is a boy of
twelve years who is selected as a leader of the
other boys who were cast upon the unknown
island. He is wise, brave and somewhat
authoritative. As far as his physical traits are
concerned, he has ‘fair hair’ and is physically
‘attractive’. His character has been used as a
symbol of law and order in the civilized world.
A Fine Leader
Sources and Suggested
Readings
1. https://www.coursehero.com/lit/Heart-of-
Darkness/symbols/
2. https://www.sparknotes.com/lit/heart-of-
darkness/symbols/
Ralph emerges as a fine leader of the boys
when the leadership is thrust upon him (due to
his good looks?). As he himself thinks, his
concept of leadership goes like this:
if you a chief, you to think, you to be
wise you to grab at a decision.
Under his leadership, Ralph strives to unite
every boy under his umbrella. As soon as he
gets the charge, he orders to build a shelter to
protect the kids, to light up the fire at the top
of the hill so that they might be rescued. He
uses a conch shell to summon up other boys
for a meeting. He befriends Piggy to seek
intellectual guidance when it is needed. Thus,
Ralph proves to be a fine leader but his
leadership is constantly challenged by his
antagonist, Jack.
A Courageous Child
Ralph is quite courageous when it is
demanded by the occasion. His courage is
shown by his authoritative confidence when
the signal fire goes off and he chides the ones
who are responsible for it. But he is a child
with a mild temperament and he wants a
peaceful community because peace is
necessary for them to come out of the trouble
of being separated. But his peaceful order is
consistently challenged by the pack of Jack
and consequently, Ralph is left alone because
his mates are fond of primitive rituals.
A Savage from the Inside
Ralph, the apostle of civilization has some
serious shortcomings. When time goes by,
Ralph himself launches into the primitive
mindsets when he is left alone. It is worth
noting that when the boys were left scattered
in the unknown island, Ralph was quite happy
to find himself free to do “anything” but he
was caged in the responsibilities of being a
leader. But when he is free from the burden of
the leadership, the first thing he accomplishes
is to undress himself naked,
He became conscious of the weight
of clothes, kicked his shoes off
fiercely and ripped off each
stocking with its elastic garter in a
single movement. Then he leapt
back on the terrace, pulled off his
shirt, and stood there among the
skull-like coconuts with green
shadows from the palms and forest
sliding over his skin. He undid the
snake-clasp of his belt, lugged off
his shorts and pants, and stood
there naked, looking at the dazzling
beach and the water.
Ralph’s tearing of his wardrobes is the first
step in savagery. But when Ralph’s body is
stained by the blood in the process of hunting,
he finds pleasure in hunting.
Hunting was good after all.
The beast inside him lives in the full swing
when he, along with the pack of Jack “hunts”
Simon. After being acutely ashamed of his
savagery, Ralph becomes aware of the fallen
and primitive nature of the whole mankind and
he thinks only the naval officer has the ability
to rescue him and the other boys who are
surrounded by the “Lord of the Flies”.
Conclusion
Despite his serious flaws, Ralph is still an
important personage who denotes the
Kurtzian as well as Marlowian trait of
humanity.
Sources and Suggested
Readings
1. https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zgfcxsg/revision/2
Character Sketch of Jack in Lord of the Flies
By Asad Imran
October 18, 2021
Categories: Modern Novel
Who is Jack?
The complete name of Jack is Jack Merridew.
Jack emerges as the antagonist of Golding’s
novel, Lord of the Flies who strives to fail
every constrictive task of Ralph. As far as his
physical features are concerned, he has red
hair, blue eyes and he is the tallest of all the
boys lost in the unknown island not to
mention his bony posture. He is “iron-willed”
and authoritative. Before being lost on the
island, Jack is the head boy of his school.
Therefore, he does not want his authority to be
challenged by Ralph. The character of Jack
has been used as a symbol of savagery and
lust for power.
An Apostle of Evil
Jack is the voice of the primitive desires and
the evil associated with it. His spree of evil
2. https://www.shmoop.com/study-
guides/literature/lord-of-the-flies/ralph
3. https://lotf.fandom.com/wiki/Ralph
begins when he is not chosen as the head of
the English boys. Although he seems to be a
civilized kid when he, himself asserts that,
We’ve got to have rules and obey
them. After all, we’re not savages.
We’re English, and the English are
best at everything.
This is a problematic statement as it puts
Jack among the civilized people who follow
law and order. But the problem is solved in
“English are the best at everything”, indirectly
saying that he was worthy of the power
because he was good at singing “C sharp”. In
order to claim the power, he utilizes horse-
trading and other uncivilized tactics like
painting himself. Jack’s evil nature is further
amplified due to his red hair (a symbol of evil)
and angry, and vengeful eyes. But is Jack
thoroughly evil? Perhaps he played a game
which went wrong,
 He laid the conch with great care in his order. Ralph carries everyone along with

the grass at his feet. The him while Jack carries his own desires with
others. But their difference ends Ralph tears
humiliating tears were running from
his clothes apart and paints himself like Jack.
the corner of each eye.
Both of them try to extend the limit of
“I’m not going to play any longer. savagery. Therefore, Jack’s influence of
Not with you.” savagery is much stronger as it holds a child
of reason, Ralph.
Perhaps Jack is shameful of things getting
out of control from his hands.
Conclusion
His Ruthless Ruling For the most part, Jack lacks the innocence of
a child which turns him into a savage beast.
Jack gains power over Ralph by hook and
But, in the end, he shows his childish mildness
crook. But he proves to be a ruthless ruler who
when he announces to end the “game” which
can do everything for blood. He keeps a knife
went out of his hands.
with him. At first, he feels hesitant to kill the
pig. Yet he gathers the courage to pierce his
Sources and Suggested
knife into it. It is his love for blood that attracts
more boys because the other ones are Readings
profoundly drawn by the slogan,
1. https://lotf.fandom.com/wiki/Jack_Merridew
2. https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zgfc
Kill the pig, cut his throat, spil his
3. https://www.eng-
blood.
literature.com/2021/01/jack-lord-of-the-
flies.html
He is rather intoxicated in his power and
4. https://www.shmoop.com/study-
primitive desires. He sits like an “idol”. And he
guides/literature/lord-of-the-flies/jack
is unable to realize the gravity of the feast of
killing which leads to the murder of Simon.

An Antithesis of Ralph

Jack is quite an antithesis of Ralph. Where

Ralph stands as the voice of civilization and
reason, Jack emerges as a symbol of evil and
not-so-urban nature. Ralph uses Conch to
unite his boys, Jack uses his knife to impose
Significance of the Title in Lord of the Flies
By Asad Imran
October 19, 2021
Categories: Modern Novel
General Introduction
Lord of the Flies is a notable work of a British
novelist, William Golding. The book hit the
shelves in 1954. Golding won Nobel Prize for
Literature in 1983 on the basis of the very
novel. The title of the novel has a multi-
dimensional significance. The first title of this
novel was Strangers from Within. Later, it was
changed with Lord of the Flies. Although Lord
of the Flies is used as a literal translation of a
devil Beelzebub, who is also known as Lord of
the Dirt, the novel derives its title from the
molested skull of a pig that is surrounded by
the flies. After breaking the title apart, we
come to know that the word ‘Lord’ is
associated with power while flies are often
used as a symbol of decay and death. Thus,
the collective and literal meaning of the title is
decay and death with competition for power.
Thematic Significance
The title of the novel plays a central role in
explaining the theme of the novel. The central
theme of the novel is the evil associated with
power and authority. This theme is further
made clear by Jack who is depicted adoring
Satan. He is hungry for power and authority,
and can go to any length to claim his order.
Perhaps he is like the Satan in Paradise Lost
who wages a battle against God. But this time,
God can be taken for civilization. His attempt
to claim power is made successful by his
brutal lust of blood which attracts more boys
and even Ralph. The theme of the conflict
between evil and good is transitioned into
rescuing of evil through the feast of evil when
a naval officer comes for them to rescue.
Allegorical Significance
The title is allegorical in the sense of
illustrating evil as a primary driving force of
humanity. It must be noted that Golding wrote
this novel at a critical time when the whole
world had barely come out from the
tremendous damage caused by the humans to
the humans and their properties, and the cold
war between Russia and the US was in its
action. The two tribes may allegorically signify
the conflict between the Capitalists and the
Socialists through Ralph’s ‘civilized’ rule and
Jack’s uncivilized rule respectively. The boys
allegorically stand for the whole of humanity
and the island as the whole world.
Simon’s “Realization”
The realization of Simon plays a key role in
explaining the nature of the title of this novel.
In his hallucination, Lord of the Flies orders
him not to stay there and join the hunting
party because Simon belongs to them. Simon,
who can be considered as the inner voice of
civilization, later emerges as the inner voice of
the evil, spanning over the whole of mankind.
You knew, didn’t you? I’m part of
you?
Just after the realization of “Simon”, a pack of
the boys misunderstand him as the breast and
kill him in the most uncivilized and animalistic
ways possible. His murder signifies that the
values of civilization end when the evil
becomes an inherent part of humanity.
Naval Officer’s Limitations
At the end of the novel, a naval officer
happens to rescue them through the smoke
when the whole jungle is set on fire. He is
flared up to witness the savagery of the “most
civilized nation”. He scolds all the boys for
forgetting the civilized ways of leading their
Lord of the Flies as an Allegory
lives. He fails to get the wind of the terrible
experience the boys had gone through. He
even fails to recognize the evil lingering inside
him because he is a soldier who fights wars
and war is the ultimate showdown of the evil
living inside humans. Because,
Wars don’t decide who will win. It
only decides who is left.
Conclusion
The title of this novel is so important that
without the title, it is difficult to understand the
central idea of the novel that is the
development of the evil inside the flesh of
humanity.
Sources and Suggested
Readings
1. https://www.shmoop.com/study-
guides/literature/lord-of-the-
flies/analysis/title
2. http://pinkmonkey.com/booknotes/monkeyn
3. http://yazdaliterature.com/lord-of-flies-by-
william-golding-meaning-of-the-title-
allegorical-novel-title-significance-and-
themes/
4. https://www.literaturexpres.com/justify-
the-title-of-the-novel-lord-of-the-flies/
By Asad Imran
October 20, 2021
Categories: Modern Novel
Introductory
Lord of the Flies by William Golding is a novel
that is known by the stinky flies as well as the
allegory it keeps. An allegory is a story within
a story. Which means it contains different
layers of stories and meanings into it.
Apparently, Lord of the Flies looks like a gorey
adventure of the little boys who were just
“playing games”. But on a deep and allegorical
level, Lord of the Flies connects itself to the
inheritance of the evil in all of mankind, an
actual tussle between different governments
around the world and lastly, with a
mythological touch to it. Let us explore the
Allegorical realm of Lord of the Flies below:
Surface Allegory
As mentioned before, an allegory carries
different layers of meanings and/or stories
inside the outward mask of the actual story.
On the surface and symbolic level, Lord of the
Flies stands as the growth of evil and anarchy
among all human beings. The naked boys
carrying spears represent the whole of
humanity. The unknown island allegorically
stands for the whole world. While the “pig-
hunting” can be termed as a general allegory
of wars and the evil associated with it.
Political Allegory
The second peculiar layer of allegory in
Golding’s novel is rather political. Golding
wrote this novel at a time when the whole
world was struggling to recover from the fatal
wounds of the Second World War and the cold
war began to pierce its lethal paws around the
globe. The war was basically between the
Capitalist United States of America and
Communist Russia. Political allegory in this
novel is made evident through the consistent
fight between the league of Jack and Ralph.
Ralph and his team (Piggy and Simon)
showcase the rule of civilization and
democracy. Whereas the league of Jack (and
Roger) politically allegorizes for a totalitarian
regime where the ruler decides what is best
for the public. From the very analysis of the
political allegory hidden inside the novel, it
becomes clear that the league of Ralph stands
for the democratic ruling of the USA while the
violent league of Jack may stand for the
communist rule of Russia.
Mythological Allegory
The third and rather inobvious layer of allegory
in this novel relates to the mythological
interpretation of the novel. As mentioned in
the Significance of the Title in Lord of the
Flies, the title refers to Beelzebub whose name
translates to Lord of the Flies. But the conduct
of Jack amplifies the significance of
mythological allegory as he directly adores
Satan who went against the decree of God
and attempted to enflame a battlefield against
Him. Thereby, Satan is considered a direct
symbol of evil and the Good wins against the
evil. But the allegorical difference is further
made clear by the victory of evil through the
means of evil as Ralph falls a victim to the
web of savagery Jack knitted for him and the
other boys to amplify his power and authority.
Conclusion
Conclusively asserting, Lord of the Flies is an
exceptional allegory which not only highlights
Character Sketch of Okonkwo in Things Fall
Apart
By Asad Imran
October 21, 2021
Categories: Modern Novel
Who is Okonkwo?
Okonkwo is the sole protagonist of
importance in Achebe’s novel, Things Fall
Apart. Okonkwo is a fierce warrior with three
skulls hanging on his belt. He is the son of a
person known as Unoka who used to borrow
and spend money without much
consideration. Okonkwo earns his name in
the darkness of the evil hidden inside human
beings, but also demoting to the political crisis
of the time when this novel was published.
Sources and Suggested
Readings
1. https://www.coursehero.com/lit/Lord-of-
the-Flies/context/
2. https://www.sparknotes.com/lit/flies/mini-
essays/
3. https://www.shmoop.com/study-
guides/literature/lord-of-the-
flies/analysis/symbolism-imagery-allegory
Umophia and Mabanta on the basis of hard
work and his strong powers. He gives
unnecessary importance to the values of
manhood. As far as his physical features are
concerned, he is tall, strong and looks exactly
like a person always in anger. Okonkwo is so
bad-tempered that he uses his fists before he
talks. Let’s explore his character in detail:
Made by Himself through
Action
Okonkwo is a person who is known for his
own efforts. He, by any means, did not like to
be an exact disciple of his father who was a
lazy person and he was fond of drinking.
Okonkwo, on the other hand, is quite opposite
to the lazy image of his father. He believes in
the values of manhood which are courage and
bravery like the lion, in the battlefield, marrying
as many wives as possible, acquiring a high
status in society. It must be noted that
Okonkwo’s father was not a respected
personality among Umofians and he had won
no titles. Therefore, to climb the social ladder,
Okonkwo had to start from scratch to build up
his reputation in the Umofian community.
The first important milestone in rising to high
orders came in the form of Okonkwo throwing
a seven-year champion, Amalinze the Cat, out
of the wrestling ring. Such a victory alone
awarded him with a distinct title of “Roaring
Flames”. Okonkwo, then, emerged as a
wealthy farmer of yams and then, a
messenger to Mbaino, Okonkwo not only
“won” a boy known as Ikemefuna, but also a
beautiful virgin who became his third wife. It is
baffling to see how his father was ignored by
the Umofian tribes but Okonkwo not only got
himself noticed, but also climbed the social
leader with such a great success that
Okonkwo was chosen to be one of the
egwugwu.
A Consistent Hard Worker
Okonkwo utilizes his physical might to turn
him into a wealthy person. Okonkwo does not
inherit any piece of land from his father. He
gets one based on his own image. He works
tirelessly from dawn to dusk on his farms and
considers it a kind of worship. His first
attempt to attain a hefty crop of yams is
marred by long droughts. While his second
attempt is swept by fierce rains which compel
a farmer to hang himself but Okonkwo is not
demotivated by it,
Since I survived that year, I shall
survive anything.
And his hard work is finally paid off in a
handsome amount of money.
His Stern Belief in the Values
of Manhood – His Tragic Flaw
Okonkwo gets what he desires for, wives,
children, social status, health and wealth. But
his social influence slowly adds pride in him.
But still this does not contribute as a tragic
flaw in him. His actual tragic flaw is his stern
adherence to his own values of manhood. For
instance, Okonkwo is consistently advised by
Ezeudu not to kill Ikemefuna,
That boy calls you father…. Bear no
hand in his death.
But Okonkwo murders his son only to prove himself assuming he is the only man left in the
his “manhood”. village who can do nothing.

In order to make his son Novoye, as good a Conclusion

‘man’ as Okonkwo is, Okonkwo treats his
family strictly. If someone goes against his Okonkwo wins the hearts of the readers
wishes, he does not even hesitate from through his unparalleled hard work but he also
beating, even his own wife. Due to Okonkwo’s disappoints them with his lack of compassion
hostile behaviour, Novoye gradually turns for his family, only to show his love for the
against his father and when he learns that values of manhood.
Okonkwo is the murderer of his brother friend,
Ikemefuna, he converts to Christianity. Sources and Suggested
Okonkwo’s tragic finale occurs when he, along
Readings
with other reverend people of the Umofian
tribe are arrested, beaten and released.
1. https://www.shmoop.com/study-
Okonkwo motivates his people to fight a final
guides/literature/things-fall-
war against the English missionaries for
apart/okonkwo
molesting their gods and for arresting, and
2. https://www.eng-
beating the respectable members of the
literature.com/2019/04/okonkwo-as-
Umofian clan. But in return, his own people
tragic-hero-in-chinua-achebe-things-fall-
back himself out. He is saddened to see the
apart-character.html
“feministic” traits in his ‘men’ and he hangs

Symbols and Themes in Achebe’s Things Fall

Apart
By Asad Imran
October 22, 2021
Categories: Modern Novel

Things Fall Apart is one of the defining works

General Introduction of an African author, Chinua Achebe. The
novel hit the shelves in 1958. The novel
showcases life in Africa before English
colonization as well as how English colonizers
occupied and destroyed the Igbo culture. The
book became a tremendous success and
received a positive appraisal around the globe.
A contributing factor behind the success of
the book lies in the skilful use of symbols to
highlight different themes in Things Fall
Apart.
Symbols
Fire
Fire is one of the important symbols of the
novel as this symbol is directly linked to
Okonkwo. It must be noted that one of
Okonkwo’s titles is “Roaring Flames”.
Therefore, the symbol of fire signifies
Okonkwo’s rage and his physical vigour. When
Okonkwo is short on words to show off his
wrath, he does not hesitate from using his
fists first. Okonkwo also terms his son,
Novoye, an ash that has come out of the fierce
fire, thus hinting at Okonkwo’s disregard for
his own son.
Locusts
The arrival of locusts plays an important role
in highlighting the arrival of English
missionaries. Thus, locusts have been used as
a symbol for the arrival of the English people.
Just like locusts cover the sunlight and bring
darkness in broad daylight, Englishmen bring
despair and decision to the Igbo culture. But it
must be noted that the natives are fond of
enjoying locusts as a snack which can signify
the establishment of schools for the natives.
Yams
Yams are difficult and challenging to grow and
to make a profit from. Yam is utilized as a
symbol of manly-vigour and respect. Okonkwo
sows the seeds of yams, hoping to climb the
social ladder from it. But two attempts are
brutally quashed by droughts and heavy rains
respectively. But on his third attempt, he
becomes successful in scoring a handsome
amount of yams, which enables him to climb
the social ladder.
Themes
Cultural Change
It depends on the reader of the novel whether
Things Fall Apart denotes to the cultural
change or cultural destruction. However, the
title of the novel denotes to the destruction of
the Igbo culture through colonial powers and it
is the main theme of this novel. The Umophian
clan has a distinct culture to observe like the
harvest festival, their distinctive system of
justice via Egwugwus, their dance, proverbs,
music and folklore. But when English
missionaries arrive, the outcasts convert to
Christianity. But it takes no time for reverend
people of the Umofian clan to embrace
Christianity and Christians don’t hesitate to
unmask an egwugwu which is quite a criminal
act in Igbo culture. But no one resists.
Betrayal
Betrayal is another notable theme of this
novel. Continuing the evaluation of the
previous paragraph, the most prominent
betrayal comes in the form of cancelling the
resistance against the Englishmen who
disrespected their gods by unmasking one
egwugwu. This betrayal results in the suicide
of Okonkwo as he is utterly dismayed by the
inaction from the reverend members of his
clans. But Okonkwo himself commits the
serious crime of betrayal by killing Ikemefuna
who called him his father even when Okonkwo
was killing him. But his own son betrays him
for murdering Ikemefuna by abandoning the
Igbo religion and converting to Christianity.
Fate vs. Free Will
This novel also sets the stage between the
battle between fate and free will. In the
religious beliefs of Igbo culture, it is believed
that a person’s fate is determined and
controlled by a personal god, formally known
as chi. Okonkwo dares to go against his chi by
Things Fall Apart as a Social Document of
Igbo Culture
By Asad Imran
working hard and through his free will, he
acquires respect, wealth and a higher social
status. However, on Ezedu’s death, Okonkwo
accidentally shoots his son and is expelled
from Umofia. Okonkwo curses his chi for
ruining his good life. This thought of his
haunts him when he is arrested and released.
Thus, Okonkwo rises through his own will, but
his downfall is concocted by his chi or fate.
Conclusion
The meanings of Things Fall Apart are made
alive through the symbol of fire which
highlights the theme of Okonkwo’s free will to
climb up in his social circle as well as with the
symbol of locusts to illustrate the theme of
the destruction of culture.
Sources and Suggested
Readings
1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Things_Fall_A
2. https://www.coursehero.com/lit/Things-
Fall-Apart/symbols/
3. https://www.coursehero.com/lit/Things-
Fall-Apart/themes/
October 23, 2021
Categories: Modern Novel
Introduction
Africa and African people have been a
tempting subject of the extorting and
analytical eyes of the high people in Europe.
The ones with authority were attracted by the
abundance of material resources to quench
their uncontrollable thirst of luxury and the
ones with pen in their hand stood against their
own imperialism over Africa, but they painted
African people as mere savages who were
devoid of any trait of civilization.
But Things Fall Apart, which is written by a
native African writer presents African people
and their society like any other human society
on the planet earth. They have a different sets
of traditions and customs to celebrate. They
worship their own gods. They have their own
system of justice and government. They have
families to support. All of this looks quite
opposite to what is shown in Heart of
Darkness. Things Fall Apart depicts the
customs and traditions of the Igbo people.
The novel paints both the good as well as the
bad sides of the Igbo culture but also how it is
shattered by the English missionaries.
Individuals and Families
Although almost every African Clan or Tribe is
divided into different sub-tribes and villages,
yet a family system is observed so that more
children are produced. The concept of school
education is unknown before the arrival of
English missionaries. A male individual can
become a fierce warrior, a wrestler and a
farmer. Through the rise of Okonkwo, it is
revealed that everyone can climb up the social
ladder. But in order to acquire a good name as
a man, he must marry more than two wives;
he must throw a known and powerful wrestler
(also determines the number of wives) and
lastly, he should successfully harvest the crop
yams.
Speaking of harvest, the Umofian people are
fond of festivals and one of them is the
Harvest Festival. This festival is celebrated in
honour of their earth goddess and for the
successful cultivation of the crops of yam.
The festival is also characterized by the
wrestling matches it holds as well as the
marriages taking place in it.
Status of Women
It is difficult to estimate the comprehensive
status of women in Umofian Society because
of the prevailing contradictions. But for the
most part, the status of women is not good.
For the men of Umofia, the very term, ‘woman’
or ‘Agbala’ is the symbol of weakness and
manly disgrace. A male person who is referred
to as Agbala is considered as a person of
lower significance. But it must be noted that
women in Umofia are treated as the property
of men than the women. They can be
purchased through (bride money), they can be
won by soldiers or Messengers (just like
Okonkwo won a virgin when he was sent as a
great messenger to Mbaino). A Umofian
woman has to fulfil the basic duties of
cooking the meal, taking care of her husband
but the third one is quite interesting, to search
for another wife for her husband. If there are
two or more wives living in the same house,
they live with mutual co-operation. Harming
women is strictly prohibited during the Peace
Week. That is why, Okonkwo is punished by
the priest for beating his wife.
While women are reverend and adored in
Umofia as well. Their grand goddess of earth
and fertility is a woman as well. Thus, the
status of women varies from the creature to
the “benevolent”.
Importance of Religion
Religion plays an important role in
establishing the course of action for men. In
simple words, Umofians believe that their
actions are already determined by their chi or
their personal god. But sacrificial of children is
rather a dismal trait of their religion. As
mentioned before, the Umofian people pay
tribute to the earth goddess during the
Harvest Festival. Their justice is put into
motion through egwugwus, the masked spirits
(basically, they are the highly respected people
of the village).
Crumbling of Umofian
Society
The novel not only showcases the climax of
Umofian traditions, but also their downfall.
Umofian society crumbles under the influence
of white missionaries. People gradually
convert to Christianity when missionaries
remain unhurt during their one month stay in
the Evil Forest. The Englishmen slowly and
gradually divide the Umofian people and
Novoye gets separated from Okonkwo as a
result of converting to Christianity. The
mission transitions into government. Mr.
Smith, a dogmatic believer of Christianity
commits the most “unforgivable” crime of
blasphemy by unmasking one of the
egwugwus. The natives are arrested and
beaten up by kotmas for taking action against
the blasphemy. The rule of the English is so
strong and influential that the respected
people of Umofia back out of Okonkwo’s call
of war. Okonkwo’s friend Obierika
appropriately asserts,
He has put a knife on the things that
held us together and we have fallen
apart.
Conclusion
In documenting a realistic caricaturing of the
social life of Igbo people, the novel helps
achieve a more human approach towards the
perception of the life of African people which
was stained by the spot of primitiveness and
savagery, especially levelled by Heart of
Darkness
Sources and Suggested
Readings
1. https://www.diva-
portal.org/smash/record.jsf?
pid=diva2%3A648320&dswid=-8470
2. http://askliterature.com/novel/significance-
of-things-fall-apart-as-a-social-document-
traditional-igbo-life/

Comparison of Things Fall Apart with Heart of

Darkness
By Asad Imran
October 24, 2021
Categories: Modern Novel

against the African land by calling it a heart of

Introduction darkness and evil.

Both Things Fall Apart and Heart of Darkness

present the outcome of the evil of colonialism
Things Fall Apart, on the other hand, is written
in Africa. But there is a critical difference
to heal the reputation and identity of the
between the two as Things Fall Apart is
African people which is wounded by the
written in response to Conrad’s Heart of
narratives of European authors. The Igbo
Darkness. Achebe, the author of Things Fall
people not only have a distinct culture, religion
Apart, accuses Conrad to be “bloody racist” in
and role of men and women, but they also
his Heart of Darkness. It is, no doubt, a grand
lead their lives like normal human beings. But
claim. But upon a closer inspection of
the focus of attention in Things Fall Apart is,
Conrad’s novel, it is revealed on the readers
well, demoting to the imperialistic influences
that despite condemning Belgian imperialism,
which shattered their culture and life apart.
Heart of Darkness shows the African nation
Let’s explore the nature of both of these works
reduced from their human stature to the
in detail:
savages and companions of the evil. Even the
title of this novel possesses colonial bias
Cultural Exposure
As far as Heart of Darkness is concerned,
there is little to nothing portrayed regarding
the natives of Congo that may highlight the
culture of the people living in Congo other
than their “unspeakable rites”. The novella is
notorious for its racist treatment of the
natives by indirectly referring to them as being
primitive and savages. Also, their language
remains in the shadows of the dark as only
two words are spoken by the natives which
are “Mistah Kurtz – He dead. ” and “Catch im
Eat im” (uttered by a Cannibal). Thus, in Heart
of Darkness, the Africans are portrayed devoid
of expression, intelligence and vigour.
Things Fall Apart gives a much clearer and
detailed picture of the life of African people,
especially of the ones associated with the
Igbo clan. Instead of aimlessly following
orders, the African people follow the oracle of
their gods. Their system of justice is operated
by egwugwus. They have a special festival
known as The Harvest Festival which is
followed by wrestling matches, marriages,
worship of their goddess of earth and
cultivation. Wives live in harmony and children
help their parents in completing their day-to-
day tasks. Thus, this novel presents the
African nation as human beings not as
primitive creatures.
Kurtz vs. Okonkwo
Both of the protagonists are excessively
contradictory to each other. But both of them
help in explaining the meaning of the two
novels. Kurtz is an agent of ivory at the central
station. His uncontrollable passion of ivory
makes him a voice of imperialism. He abuses
his passion and exploits the native people and
their property. Kurtz is highly possessive of his
ivory, his intended and his river. This turns him
into a demonic figure and Marlow does not
hesitate to declare him “hollow at the core”.
Okonkwo, the protagonist of Things Fall Apart,
emerges as a true hero of the novel but not
without serious flaws. Unlike Kurtz, Okonkwo
is the voice of freedom as he does not
hesitate to challenge his chi or his personal
god. In the beginning, Okonkwo holds nothing
but he earns his name, title, respect, wealth,
wives and children through his own struggle.
But his flaw is his stern adherence to values of
manhood which is responsible for the ruthless
murder of Ikemefuna. Okonkwo’s biggest grief
is the lack of vigour among his people to
retaliate against the English missionaries and
he takes his life out of the very grief. Thus,
Okonkwo stands as a representative of
African culture while Kurtz stands as the
representative of European colonial powers.
Colonial and Post-Colonial
Literature
Another difference between the two novels is
the difference of the treatment of colonialism.
Heart of Darkness was published at a time
(1899) when Africa was suffering from the
colonialism of different powers of Europe. The
novella exclusively portrays the physical
exploitation of the African people during the
colonial era. They were chained mercilessly
for the work of their master. Therefore,
because of the colonial era, Heart of Darkness
showcases a dismal picture of the natives.
Things Fall Apart, on the contrary, was
published in 1958 at a time when Africa was
being made free from its colonial destruction.
The novel treats African culture as a
distinguishing point between “us and them”. It
also emphasizes how their culture was
shattered apart by the colonial powers. Due to
the above-mentioned traits, Things Fall Apart
carries a Post-Colonial treatment of the
African tragedy of colonialism.
Conclusion
Things Fall Apart compares to be a defining
novel against Heart of Darkness to wash out
the blot of primitiveness and savagery from
African people.

Themes and Ideas of Modern Novels Included

in the Syllabus of MA English Literature
Sargodha University
By Asad Imran
October 25, 2021
Categories: Modern Novel

Oedipus complex and showcases Modernist

What is a Modern Novel? themes like war, isolation, psychological and
sexual complexity etc.
A modern novel is a kind of narrative that is
built upon new standards of writing. Modern
Novel is different from Classical Novel.
Classical Novel is known for stern adherence Heart of Darkness
to plot (in some quite opposite), adventurous
flow as well as psychological analysis (mostly First appeared in 1899, Heart of Darkness sets

in the novels of Later Victorian Period). As far the stage to showcase the evil of (Belgian)
as Modern Novel is concerned, it uses modern Imperialism. The novella attempts to
techniques like Stream of Consciousness by condemn colonialism by comparing it to the
utilizing new psychological theories like darkness of the African people and their
jungle which corrupt the heart of the ones who
come to make them civilized. The novella
cites the example of the character of Kurtz
who attempts to make people civilize through
his eloquent speeches. But ends up trapped in
the greedy passion to extort as much ivory as
his might permits. His passion compels him
to emerge as a demonic figure who is both
admired and abhorred by the second narrator
of the novella, Marlow. The final message of
the novella is conveyed through the dying
words of the dying Kurtz, “The Horror! The
Horror!” implying that the realization of the evil
in one’s self can purigate a person’s soul.
Things Fall Apart
Achebe is the author who rejects the ideas
presented in Heart of Darkness through his
novel Things Fall Apart. Heart of Darkness
blames Africa for the inner darkness.
However, Things Fall Apart suggests that
European colonial rule is responsible for
shattering the African culture apart. The novel
presents a happy life of African people,
minding their usual business until they are
both physically and mentally disturbed by the
English missionaries. The hold of the
Englishmen on the minds of the Igbo people is
so strong that they lose the capability to resist
against the English invasion of the mind.
Sons and Lovers
Sons and Lovers is one of the true modern
novels. Written by D. H. Lawrence, the novel
showcases the problem of communication in
family members stained by the Oedipus
complex. The familial problem is mostly
created by Gertrude Morel as she verbally
fights with her husband Walter Morel, who in
return treats her violently. Gertrude is not
happy of her martial life and attempts to find a
husband substitute in her children, William
and Paul Morel. Resultantly, her sons suffer
from intense mental conflict whether to love
their mother or to love the people of their age.
William loses his life while Paul roams
clueless. Thus, Lawrence conveys that
influencing the lives of sons in the wrong way
can lead to devasting results in their own life.
To the Lighthouse
Virginia Woolf’s masterpiece, To the
Lighthouse, is a novel that attempts to
showcase the consequences of familial
distancing and how it is eliminated through
love and trust. The novel utilizes the technique
of Stream of Consciousness. The
consequences of familial distancing are
shown through James’ hatred for his father
for not allowing him to see the gleaming
lighthouse closely. But the novel also
demonstrates how women play a key role in
uniting the family. For instance, Mrs. Ramsay
not only tries to console James that the
weather will be fine the next day, but she also
catches the arms of Mr. Ramsay, begging for
sympathy. James is truely reunited with his
father when Mr. Ramsay shows admiration
and trust in James’ sailing to the Lighthouse.
Thus, the idea of love and trust as a force of
reunification is delightfully conveyed through
the novel.
Lord of the Flies
Narrated through the creative facility of
William Golding, Lord of the Flies attempts to
convey the nourishment of evil through the
forces of evil. The novel basically stands as an
allegory of the fight against Capitalism and
Communism through two groups of boys on a
lost island. One group is characterized by the
democratic outlook through the unity of the
conch while the second group is dominated by
the personal interest of the group leader and it
is to,
Kill the pig! Cut his throat! Spill his
blood!
To the Lighthouse as a Feminist Novel
By Asad Imran
October 26, 2021
Categories: Modern Novel
Introduction
To the Lighthouse is a masterpiece and
defining work of Virginia Woolf. The novel
appeared in 1927, at a time when the world
was not ready to accept full-blown feminist
thoughts. Women had barely scored rights for
voting. Woolf’s attempt in explaining domestic
But the devilish lust of the blood is
overpowered when Ralph takes part in killing
Simon, though unknowingly, mistaking him for
the beast. The novel forecasts the idea that
the evil beast lies in all of the humanity, just
waiting for itself to get overwhelmed by the
plenty of freedom.
Conclusion
Judging from the ideas and themes of the
modern novels included in the syllabus of
Sargodha University, each novel appropriately
conveys its modern theme and idea through
the characters and narrations that make
sense accordingly.
life in To the Lighthouse was severely met by
criticism for being a feminist novel. Before
tracing out the feministic traits in To the
Lighthouse, first, we have to get a clear idea
that what is feminism. Feminism is a social
and political doctrine that aims at the
liberation of women from the clutches of
conventional confinement (to home) and
establishing a sense of equality among
women and men.
As far as To the Lighthouse is concerned, it
displays a varying role of women through two
distinct characters of Mrs. Ramsay as well as
Lily Briscoe. Let’s explore them in detail:
Role of Mrs. Ramsay
The character of Mrs. Ramsay showcases the
conventional role of women. For starters, Mrs.
Ramsay is a housewife. At the very beginning
of the novel, Mrs. Ramsay also appears as a
kind mother, ensuring and consoling her son,
James that the weather will be fine tomorrow
for a visit to the Lighthouse. Another role of
Mrs. Ramsay is that of a match-maker. She
finds it interesting to make martial pairs of the
ones who visit them in the summer holidays.
Lastly, her role is demonstrated as a uniting
force of her family and the guests.
From the role of Mrs. Ramsay, it is clear that
she abides by the conventional order of the
confinement of women to their house only.
Not only that, Mrs. Ramsay is consistently in
search of making others engaged in this
confinement of marriage. The confinement of
Mrs. Ramsay is justifiable and
understandable. She is left with no other
option but to fulfil her duties as a kind mother
to her children, as a faithful wife to her
husband and as an intelligent manager cum
multi-tasker to facilitate and fulfil the desires
of her guests.
Role of Lily Briscoe
Lily Briscoe is a delightful character whose
role in the novel is characterized by the
freedom of an artist. Like many other
conventional men, Lily is mentally tormented
by Charles Tansley’s remarks that “Women
can’t write. Women can’t paint”. Due to his
corrosive remarks, she hates men and the
institution of marriage. Lily leads her life,
serving for the art, trying to strike a balance in
her painting.
From the character of Lily Briscoe, it is
obvious that Lily is an outcome of feministic
doctrine. But it must be noted that her
adherence to feministic doctrine is propelled
by Charles Tansley and for the rest of her life
in the novel, she strives to prove herself to be
a painter. Lily is often considered as the
mouthpiece of Virginia Woolf. Through Lilly
Woolf attempts to prove that “Women can
write ”. Thus, the character of Lily Briscoe
conveys the feministic thoughts in the novel
for remaining unmarried and serving for her
passion.
Feministic Traits in the Novel
It is difficult to decide whether To the
Lighthouse is thoroughly feministic or non-
feministic. On one side, we witness thoroughly
conventional Mrs. Ramsay who devotes her
life to her family. On the other side, the
independent character of Lily Briscoe and her Sources and Suggested
dedication to arts demonstrates feministic
Readings
freedom. But Lily is the admirant of Mrs.
Ramsay and anxiously longs for her presence.
1. http://devangibagohil.blogspot.com/2016/1
On the other hand, the anti-feministic
in-to-lighthouse-paper-no-9.html
characters leave the world as soon as their
2. https://writingbros.com/essay-
purpose in the novel is served like Mrs.
examples/feminism-in-to-the-lighthouse-
Ramsay and Prue Ramsay, one dies naturally
by-virginia-woolf/
and one dies in child-birth. Such a symbol of
3. http://bhattlajja031314.blogspot.com/2014
death demonstrates that non-feministic
in-novel-to-light-house.html
values will soon die.

Conclusion

To the Lighthouse is a semi-feministic novel

with a greater emphasis on the feministic
freedom of women.

Elements of Stream of Consciousness in To

the Lighthouse
By Asad Imran
October 29, 2021
Categories: Modern Novel

stream of consciousness actually is. Stream

Introduction
To the Lighthouse by Virginia Woolf is
recognized by its utilization of the stream of
consciousness technique in expanding the
narration of the novel. Before attempting to
trace out the stream of consciousness in To
the Lighthouse, first, we have to clarify what
of Consciousness, also known as interior
monologue, is a term first coined by William
James which means an unbroken flow of
thoughts and feelings in the waking mind.
This technique in the novel was first used by
James Joyce in his Ulysses. Woolf
experimented with the technique in Mrs.
Dalloway and then in To the Lighthouse. In this
novel, the stream of consciousness technique
helps in the internal development of the
characters through their internal flow of
thoughts and feelings, mingled with their
outward actions and utterances.
The following elements have been utilized to
make characters alive through Stream of
Consciousness.
Direct Interior Monologue
Direct Interior Monologue is an inner
realization and revelation of conscious and
unconscious development of thoughts
through the minds of characters. Woolf has
beautifully utilized this technique to introduce
us to the inner turmoil of Mrs. Ramsay of
being bruised by the past during the dinner
scene in The Window. Then the omniscient
narrator shifts towards the perspective of Lily
Briscoe on how she weighs Mrs. Ramsay’s old
age and worn-out condition. Similarly, in Time
Passes, the death of Mrs. Ramsay is
announced through the direct interior
monologue whereas, The Lighthouse (third
part) opens up Lily’s inner thoughts of the
feeling of completeness, harmony and
triumph through direct interior monologue
when Lily finally completes her painting.
Associative Thoughts
Associative thoughts is rather a Freudian
analysis of the association of a certain thing,
person or incident in recollection of other
things, person or incident. In To the
Lighthouse, this association is shown by
different persons at different parts of the
novel. For instance, in The Window, Charles
Tansley performs a comparison between
Queen Victoria and Mrs. Ramsay. In the
second part, Mrs. M’cNab remembers the
Ramsay family while cleaning up the house
during the lethal season of war. In The
Lighthouse section, Lily Briscoe remembers
Charles Tansley, Mr. and Mrs. Ramsay, and
children freely while painting.
Repetition in Thoughts
Reoccurring thoughts, images and memories
play a key role in the uninterrupted flow of the
stream of consciousness. To the Lighthouse
is no exemption. In the first part, Mrs. Ramsay
is consistently presented as a pivoting force
who keeps her family and guests united and
connected. In the second part, the repetition
of the imagery of deaths and darkness helps
reinforce the announcement of the deaths of
Mrs. Ramsay, Andrew and Prue Ramsay in the
span of ten years. In the section of The
Lighthouse, the idea of harmony and
accomplishment assists in the illustration of
completing the journey towards the lighthouse
as well as the completion of Lily’s long and
ambitious quest to create a painting that
depicts balance and harmony.
Conclusion
Conclusively asserting, Virginia Woolf Sources and Suggested
appropriately and beautifully incorporates
Readings
stream of consciousness and its elements
that helps in getting into the minds of
1. https://www.msmsol.com/2021/02/stream
characters. Rowland aptly puts in,
of-consciousness-in-to.html
2. https://owlcation.com/humanities/Stream-
By blending people’s inward feelings
of-Consciousness-in-Virginia-Woolfs-To-
and keeping dialogue to a minimum, the-Lighthouse
Woolf develops her many-
dimensioned characters uniquely
and memorably.

List of Important Long Questions of Modern

Novel in 2022 for MA English Literature Part 2
– Sargodha University
By Asad Imran
December 8, 2021
Categories: Modern Novel

2. Character Analysis of Okonkwo

Heart of Darkness 3. As a Tragedy
4. Comparison with Heart of Darkness
1. Significance of the Title 5. Themes and Symbols
2. Condemnation of Imperialism
3. Character of Kurtz and Marlow (Their Lord of the Flies
Dependence on Each Other)
4. Symbols 1. As an Allegory
5. As an Auto-biographical Novel 2. Major Themes
3. Characters of Ralph and Jack
Things Fall Apart 4. Significance of the Title

1. As a Social Document Sons and Lovers

1. Paul’s Relationship with Clara and Miriam 2. Character of Mrs. Ramsay
2. Significance of the Title 3. Major Themes
3. Character of Gertrude Morel 4. Stream of Consciousness
4. Oedipus Complex
5. Autobiographical Novel Other Topics

To the Lighthouse Themes in Modern Novels Included in the

Syllabus
1. Feminist Perspective

Modern Novel – Past Papers – MA English

Literature – Part 2 – Sargodha University
By Asad Imran
January 5, 2022
Categories: Modern Novel

5. Who was Simon in Lord of the Flies

Time Allowed: 3 Hours 6. Who the boys from the island in Lord of the
Total Marks: 100 Flies?
Passing Marks: 40 (As of 2020) 7. what is the symbolic significance of Congo
Note: Objective part is compulsory. Attempt river in Heart of Darkness?
any four questions from the subjective part.
8. How are Africans and the Europeans
presented in Heart of Darkness?
2021 9. Who is Ezinma in Things Fall Apart’
10. what are the reasons for Nwoye’s
Short Questions conversion to Christianity?

1. What is the symbolic significance or

Long Questions
lighthouse in the novel To the Lighthouse?
2. List the names of three sections of To the 1. Write a comprehensive note on the
Lighthouse. different themes in the novel Lord of the
3. Comment on the economic condition of Flies.
Mr. Morel at the time of his marriage 2. Justify the title Sons and Lovers.
4. Who is Gertrude Morel in Sons and Lovers
 3. To the Lighthouse presents the conflict
between masculine and feminine
principles. Elaborate
4. Discuss Heart of Darkness as a tale of
deception and exploitation.
5. “Nwoye knew that it was right to be
masculine and to be violent, but somehow
he still preferred the
6. stories that his mother used to tell.”
Compare the character traits of Nwoye and
Okonkwo.
7. Write brief notes on the following topics:
i. Character of Kurtz
ii. Reality of the beast in Lord of the Flies
2020
Short Questions
1. Give a brief character sketch of Lily Brisco
as presented in the novel To the
Lighthouse.
2. Why is Mr. Morel despised by his wife?
3. What was the reality of the beast in Lord of
the Flies?
4. State the dominant traits of Jack in Lord of
the Flies?
5. What are some of the major themes in the
literary works of D.H. Lawrence?
6. Why was Ikemefuna killed in the novel
Things Fall Apart?
7. Define stream of consciousness?
8. How is Nwoye different from his father in
Things Fall Apart?
9. What were the last words of Kurtz? What
do they mean?
10. Who is the narrator in Heart of Darkness
Long Questions
1. Discuss Lord of the Flies as an allegory.
2. Critically evaluate the relationship of Paul
Morel with Miriam and Clara.
3. The title Heart of Darkness be analysed on
different levels of meaning. Discuss.
4. Discuss the feminist perspective of
Virginia Woolf in To the Lighthouse
5. How is Igbo culture explored in the novel
7hings Fall Apart.
6. What are some major themes and ideas
explored in modern novel. Explain with
examples from the novels included in your
syllabus.
2019
Short Questions
1. How did Marlow manage to get a job with
the Belgian company
2. What is the name of the ship in the
Thames where Marlow tells his story?
3. What is the reason of the inhibited
relationship between Mr. and Mrs. More!?
4. How would you describe the relationship
between Paul and Miriam?
5. Who is Ikemefuna in Things Fall Apart?
6. Why does Okonkwo kill himself in Things
Fall Apart?
7. How is Mrs. Ramsay’s outlook towards life
different from that of her husband in To the
Lighthouse?
8. Give a brief character sketch of Mr.
Tansley.
 9. Who are the Littluns in Lord of the Flies?
10. Give some traits of the character of Ralph
in Lord of the Flies
Long Questions
1. Heart of Darkness offers a powerful
condemnation of the hypocritical face of
imperialism. Elaborate.
2. Critically evaluate the title Sons and Lovers
and comment if you think it is an apt title
for this novel by Lawrence.
3. The novel 7To the Lighthouse makes use
of modern literary techniques to highlight
women experiences. Elaborate.
4. How does the novel Things Fall Apart,
employs Okonkwo’s character and life to
convey a deeper, more comprehensive
understanding of the cultural values of
African tribes?
5. What are the major themes discussed in
the novel The Lord of the Flies.
6. Critically evaluate the following from the
novel Heart of DarknesS
“This is the reason why I affirm that Kurtz
was a remarkable man. He had something
to say. He said it… He had summed up-he
had judged. “The horror!’ He was a
remarkable man.”
2018
Short Questions
1. Describe the picture painted by Kurtz in
Africa.
2. What do the two ladies Marlow met at
Brussels symbolize?
3. What is The Bottoms in ‘Sons and Lovers’
by D. H. Lawrence?
4. Describe the setting of the novel “Sons and
Lovers by D. H. Lawrence.
5. What is the age of LIly Briscoe when the
novel opens?
6. How did Prue Ramsay die?
7. When and why was the Feast of the New
Yam held?
8. What advice was given to Okonkwo by
Ezeudu?
9. What Is the role of Simon in ‘Lord of the
Flies?
10. When and where was William Golding
born?
Long Questions
1. Discuss symbolism in ‘Heart of Darkness’
by Joseph Conrad.
2. Discuss the main theme of ‘Heart of
Darkness by Joseph Conrad.
3. Discuss the character of Gertrude Morel in
“Sons and Lovers by D. H. Lawrence.
4. Write down a note on the character of Mrs.
Ramsay in To the Lighthouse’
5. Throw light on the culture of the Igbo as
depicted in Things Fall Apart’ by Chinua
Achebe.
6.
7. Compare and contrast the characters of
Ralph and lack in ‘Lord of The Flies by
William Golding.
2017
Short Questions
1. What is the symbolic significance of the
voyage of Marlow into the heart of Arfica?
2. How does Marlow dispose of the Arfican
helmsman’s body?
3. How did Mrs. Morel die?
4. Why does Paul waver in his feelings toward
Miriam?
5. Who is William Bankes in To The
Lighthouse?
6. Write the title of the three sections in to
The Lighthouse.
7. What was the most significant train of Mr.
Brown is Things Fall Apart?
8. What does Okonkwo think about his son
Nwoye?
9. What is the use of Conch for the boys is
Lord of the Flies?
10. Who killed Simon?
Long Questions
1. Who is the main character in Heart of
Darkness, Marlow or Kurtz? Develop an
argument showing how one cannot exist
without the other.
2. Write a comprehensive note on the
relevance of the title Heart of Darkness
with reverence to the theme of the novel.
3. Describe the causes and effects of
Gertrude’s estrangement from her husband
walter Morel in the novel Sons and Lowers.
4. What are the major themes of Virginia
Woolf’s To the Lighthouse?
5. How far do you think is Okonkwo
responsible for his own tragedy?
6. Discuss the Lord of the Flies as an
allegory.
2016
Short Questions
1. Why was Marlow’s aunt triumphant?
2. What was Marlow referring to when he said
that there was a touch of insanity in the
proceeding?
3. What advice did Okonkwo give to Ezinma
when they were in Mbanta?
4. What were the name given to the first two
children, Okonkwo got in Mbanta?
5. Who were the important intellectuals
included in the Bloombury group?
6. After Mrs. Ramsay’s death, who seemed to
be the uniting force in “To The Lighthouse?
7. What was Ralph’s father?
8. What was the significance of the shell
according to Piggy?
9. What did Mrs. Morel discover about her
husband after marriage?
10. How did Mrs. Morel die?
Long Questions
1. Walter Allen remarks that Marlow, sea-
captain and man of vast experience of the
exotic, is admittedly a person of Conrad
himself. Discuss.
2. Things Fall Apart throws light on various
conflicts in the lbo clan. Elaborate.
3. Discuss the use of the stream of
Consciousness Technique in To the
lighthoused by Virginia Woolf.
4. Lord of the Flies’ throws light on the fact
that evil is present within man. Elaborate.
5. The growing point of book is the
psychological adventurousness, the
resolute beginning of an exploration into
the tangled relations between men and
woman. Discuss in the light of Sons and
Lover’s by D.H Lawrence.
6. Compare and contrast Things Fall Apart
and Heart of Darkness.
2015
Short Questions
1. Why does the Russian nurse Kurtz through
two illnesses in Heart of Darkness?
2. Why does Kurtz give Marlow papers before
the dies?
3. What first job did William get?
4. Why doesn’t Mrs. Morel get any help from
her in-laws?
5. List the name of three sections of To the
Lighthouse.
6. How did Children feel about Mr. Tansley?
7. Concisely describe the argument of boys
regarding beast in Lord of the Flies?
8. Why is Simon the only one to doubt the
existence of beast?
9. Why doesn’t Okonkwo have any patience
with his father in Things Fall Apart?
10. Evaluate Okonkwo’s reputation in the nine
villages of Umuofia.
Long Questions
1. Chinua Achebe criticized Heart of
Darkness as aracist work? Do you agree or
not? Justify with Textual support.
2. What is Kurtz passing judgment upon
when he voice his famous last words: “The
horror! The horror!”? What’s so horrible?
3. Discuss Sons and Lovers as an
autobiographical novel.
4. Compare and contrast characters of Ralph
and Jack.
5. How can “To the Lighthouse” be called a
feminist work? Discuss in detail.
6. How did Mr. Brown check the wrath of the
Igbo natives against Christinity?
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A Critical Essay on the Aristotelian Concept
of Greek Tragedy (4355 Words)
By Asad Imran
April 8, 2021
Categories: Literary Criticism, Literary Essays

would end happily. In order to understand a

Introductory Greek tragedy, we have to resort to Aristotle.
Although he presented 4 plots, one of them
Greek Tragedy, though an old genre it is, but it transcended from misery to happiness but
is still a genre of great significance, important Aristotle favoured the modern-day plot for a
and inspirational for modern plays in general tragedy that would start happily and would
and modern tragedies In particular. But what end in tragic misery.
is a Greek Tragedy and how did it originate
and what set it apart from the rest of
tragedies like Shakespearean or Marlowian
ones? Let’s begin: Aristotle’s Concept of Greek
Tragedy
The word “Tragedy” is derived from a Greek
word tragōidia which means “a goat’s song”. Aristotle defines the concept of an ideal
But it is a play that is serious in nature so what (Greek) tragedy as follows,
is its relation to goats? During the festival of
Dionysus, 4 plays were presented in which Tragedy, then, is a representation of
three of these plays were serious tragedies
an action that is worth serious
but one of them was a comic play dedicated
attention, complete in itself, and of
for tragic relief. The writer of the best play was
some magnitude in language
awarded with a goat.
enriched by a variety of artistic
The difference between modern tragedy and a devices appropriate to the several
typical Greek tragedy lies in its ending. A parts of the play; presented in the
modern tragedy ends on a serious note while
form of action, not narration; by
it was not essential for a Greek Tragedy to end
means of pity and fear bringing
in a serious note. It would house some tragic
scenes in either its beginning or middle but it
 about the purgation of such
emotions.
This is, by far, one of the most comprehensive
definitions of tragedy. It can be divided into
the two parts for a better comprehension of
the classic genre. The first half deals with the
imitative enterprise while the second half
makes clear the functions of a tragedy.
Imitative Enterprise of the
Classical Tragedy
Before discussing at length about the imitative Object or subject-matter of an imitation
qualities of an ancient tragedy, first, we have means the source or the topic of an imitation.
to make ourselves acquainted with the term
imitation itself. The literal meaning of
Imitation is to copy or to mimic a person or a
thing into a different thing. For example, the
sea is an actual earthly body, painting it to a
canvas can be called a visual imitation of the
sea.
Plato used the term imitative arts in his book,
discussing about an ideal state, to define
“useless” arts in contrast to the “useful” arts
he divided. He condemned the “useless” arts
especially poetry by calling it an “imitation of
an imitation, twice removed from reality. ”
Plato deemed the whole world an imitation of
god’s idea of creating a world. He suggested
that he would banish poets from his ideal
republic for spreading ‘lies’.
However Aristotle came in defence of poetry
as an imitation of the “poet’s idea” that he
derives from the actual world itself. Aristotle
further divided the concept of imitation into
three sub-categories,
Object or Subject Matter of Imitation
Medium of Imitation
Manner of Imitation
Let’s discuss this in connection with Aristotle’s
definition of tragedy since Aristotle deems it
one among the imitative arts.
Object of Tragedy
Tragedy, in this regard, differs itself from its
sister genre comedy. As the name suggests,
the subject matter of a typical Greek Tragedy
is serious. While comedy follows a light or
satiristic object in it. It is the subject matter
that determines the function of an imitation.
That is why, the function of tragedy of bringing
about the catharsis of the emotions of fear
and pity, as compared to the comedy which is
only purposed for spreading waves of laughter
and smiles.
Manner of Tragedy
Manner of an imitation means how it is
presented before its audience. Classical
tragedy differs from an epic in this field. The
two prestigious genres may present a serious
story but in a different manner. An epic
presents an incident through narration. But a
tragedy presents a story with action on the
stage. When a story is presented through
actors performing on stage, it makes the story
more immersive and understandable.
Medium of Tragedy
Medium of Imitation means what medium is
used to illustrate it. We may set a distinction
of tragedy with a lyric. Although both of the
genres use verse to convey their idea to the
public. Tragedy uses dialogues to unfold the
hidden action to its audience.
Proper Plot
One of the core requirements of a tragedy that
it should be complete. Which means that it
should not leave any patch of the story
behind. It must have a proper plot with an
appropriate beginning, middle and the end.
Beginning means the action that is not
followed by a prior action and establishes a
base for the story. Usually, characters and
problems are introduced in this phase. The
middle follows the beginning and then gives
rise to the ending. It is a point in which a
solution to the problem is exposed and the
hero or characters try to alleviate the problem.
While the ending follows the middle but it is
NOT followed by anything. This is a crucial
part of a story as it can either make or break a
story. Almost all the Greek Tragedies
unintentionally followed the simple concept of
plot structure to bring home the message of a
story (mostly the role of gods) to the people.
Magnitude
Some critics argue that magnitude, in
Aristotle’s definition of tragedy, means a grand
story or subject matter. But Aristotle meant it
for the length. He suggests that tragedy
should not be too long that people find it
difficult to recall and not too short that people
cannot even understand the story. Its length
should be maintained appropriately so that it
may be performed within a day and actors
may remember dialogues easier.
Law of Probability and
Necessity
This law means that the actions of a character
must be up to the mark of people’s
expectations. His actions must be justifiable
and should align properly with the story.
Similarly, his actions must be necessary in
accordance with the story. For instance,
Oedipus was expected to send a person to
Delphi to bring an Oracle that may help his
people get out of the plague. But he had
already sent one. Oedipus’ action was
necessary and appropriate to the demanding
situation and problem. So, he emerged as a
responsible figure in Thebes.
Functions of Classical Greek
Tragedy
Aristotle makes it obscurely easy for us to
trace the functions of the Greek tragedy since
he has mentioned it in his definition. Its main
function is to bring about the catharsis of the
emotions of pity and fear. But his
interpretation of functions of tragedy is lost
that he supposedly may have discussed it in
the second half of his Poetics. Therefore,
different interpretations of catharsis have
been exposed by different critics.
Purgation Theory
Purgation Theory deals with the medical side
of Catharsis. In ancient times, Greeks believed
that a human body was made of four humours
(liquids), which were blood, black bile, yellow
bile and plagum. A proper balance was
essential to maintain a healthy life but excess
of one of the humours could put the life of a
human being at stake. Therefore, partial
removal of excess was known as “Purgation”.
Like Curing the Like
Behind this rhetoric was the concept of
homoeopathic treatment. It was explained
that “a little solution of something can cure
the excess of the same thing. ” But this
homoeopathic interpretation does not make
any direct sense in the realm of tragedy. This
segment of the theory says that the scenes of
fear may cure the fear in the audience the
same way as a crying child is silenced by the
sound of something or music, calming a
mental melancholy.
Unlike Curing the Unlike
This neo-classic and allopathic segment says
that an excess of something can be cured by
its opposite counterpart. Critics of the
eighteenth century believed that one of the
major problems of their society was pride and
anger. That pride and anger could be cured by
their opposite emotions of pity and fear
respectively.
Purification Theory
Purification theory also deals with the
alleviation bad emotions but differently as
compared to the above-mentioned theory of
purgation. Purification deals with the quality of
emotions that are to be purified from the
excess of those emotions and those emotions
to return or reduced to an intermediate state.
Clarification Theory
Clarification Theory overlooks the above-
mentioned theories of catharsis that put the
audience of a tragedy at the centre. Rather it
puts the pleasure within a tragedy on top of
the hill. But that pleasure is to be attained by
learning. That learning comes through the
probable actions in the play. Therefore, the
centre of catharsis is the spectator who learns
from the probable actions of a hero.
Six Formative Elements of
Greek Tragedy as Discussed
by Aristotle
Aristotle says that an ideal tragedy is made of
six essential elements that are plot, character,
thought, diction, spectacle and song. The first
three are internal elements while the latter
three are external. Plots, characters and
thoughts are the subject matter of a tragedy.
Diction and song are medium of tragedy while
spectacle is the manner of tragedy.
Plot
Plot means an arrangement of events or
incidents that happen in a story. These
arrangements are set by the author himself.
According to Aristotle, plot is the most
important element of a tragedy. He even goes
to extent that a tragedy can be without a
character but not without a plot. This
statement of Aristotle has upset many critics
as it is rather impossible to create a story
without a character.
But here, Aristotle meant something else.
Characters are of two types. The first one that
exhibits actions while the second one
demonstrates the mental or psychological
approach to it. Aristotle wants to say that a
tragedy can be created without the mental
side of characters since it directly relates to
the action (of heroes).
Aristotle has divided plots into three kinds:
1. Simple Plot: Simple Plot is a plot that does
not exhibit sudden changes. Also, the story
contains only one plot.
2. Complex Plot: Complex plot may have
different sub-plots linking to the main plot
in the end. This plot showcases sudden
changes propelled by Peripeteia and
Anagnorisis.
3. Plot of Suffering: Aristotle suggests that it
is the most inferior kind of plot. This type
of plot depicts a story full of sufferings and
killings. Aristotle says that scenes of
sufferings should follow the law of
probability. It is also known as the plot of
revenge. Seneca, a Roman tragedian, has
written most of his tragedies in this plot. In
fact, Shakespeare’s flagship tragedy,
Hamlet is based upon the very plot.
Peripeteia: This term means a sudden
reversal of situation. For example, when
Oedipus is too eager in capturing the
murderer of King Laius, things start to turn
upon him. -Remember Teiresias’ Prophesy?
]
Anagnorisis: It is the revelation of
peripeteia. For example, When Oedipus
learns from the Corinthian Shepherd that
he is the one who is the son of Laius who
not only killed his father but married his
own mother, he gauges out his own eyes.
Criticism
Modern critics do not seem to agree with
Aristotle’s point of view of the plot. They are
more inclined towards breaking the unity of
events or presenting them in different order.
Just a Quick Sidenote: There is a fundamental
difference between Plot and Story. A story is
the chronological sequence of events while a
plot is a specific arrangement of events
according to the liking of a writer.
Character
A character is the one who moves the story of
a tragedy forward through his or her actions.
Characters are divided into two kinds:
Dramatic Persona: Name and identity of a
character. For example, the name Oedipus
directly hints at a Theban king who received
the prophecy of committing patricide and
incest.
Moral Bent of Mind: The psychological
intinctions of a person which highlight his or
her inner personality.
Aristotle has described four qualities of a
dominant character (hero) in ancient Greek
Tragedy. And those qualities are, goodness,
appropriation, true to life and consistency.
Thought
Though in a tragedy is the intellectual
questioning of the themes of a writer. A writer
can either approve his themes or disapprove it
through the medium of thoughts. But those
thoughts cannot be expressed without
diction.
Diction
Diction is the language in which a tragedy is
unfolded and the thoughts of a writer are
expressed through it. Aristotle says that a
tragedy should have a lofty diction that should
be enriched by the apt use of figurative
elements that should beautify the language
instead of obscuring it.
Spectacle
Spectacle has its association with the stage
and it is the background that is used before a
stage to present a scene of, for example, a
forest. But, in Greek Tragedies, it was not
limited to the backgrounds but to the stage
effects that were produced through the
costumes and masks actors wore.
Song
Song is one of the embellishments that was
used to intensify the scenes of a tragedy. The
songs or odes were usually performed by the
Chorus who not only explained the situation to
the audience but also commented on it.
Quantitative Elements of a
Tragedy
These elements of tragedy are directly
connected with the content or writing of a
tragedy itself. These elements are Prologue,
Episodes, Exode and a choral portion that is
further divided into Parode and Stasimon.
Parode or Parodos
The first initial part of a tragedy begins on a
choral performance that is called Parode or
Parodos.
Prologue
This portion of a tragedy is directly followed
by Parodos. This portion makes people aware
of the problems of a tragedy.
Episode
Episodes are a series of an action that is
either divided on the basis of setting or
incidents that are directly interlinked.
Exode or Exodos
This portion of tragedy is presented at the end
of it, featuring its moral lesson or its final
outcome.
Stasimon
It is a choral song with a specific poetic
meter.
Characterization in Tragedy
As discussed earlier a character in a tragedy
must be good, appropriate, his caricaturing
must be true to life and his actions must be
consistent or inconsistent throughout the
play.
Goodness: The concept of goodness in the
present day is different as compared to the
concept that was traditionally accepted in
the Ancient Greece. Today, we associate
goodness with everything that is morally
good but the ancient Grecians believed
that goodness is hidden in the show of
valour, bravery and courage in the
battlefield. That influence of goodness is
clearly visible in the Greek Tragedies of
their time.
Appropriate: Greek Tragedies, in general,
demanded appropriate characters that
were given appropriate roles. For example,
a woman of that time was not expected to
be brave or a slave was not identified as a
good person, so portaging them brave and
good respectively would create
inappropriate characters in a tragedy.
True to Life: A character in a tragedy is a
true representation of the actual person of
that time. If a tragedy is showcasing a
historical figure, then the main historical
character must be accurate to the actual
historical personality.
Consistent: The actions of a consistent
character should remain consistent
throughout the play while the inconsistent
character should remain inconsistent.
Ideal Tragic Hero
Aristotle has defined two major qualities of an
ideal tragic hero in a Greek Tragedy. He
suggests that a hero must be essentially good
and his tragic downfall must be propelled by
his good nature. And his downfall should
affect a large number of people under him.
 Essentially Good: An ideal tragic hero is
expected to be good. But Aristotle says
that his character must be a mixture of
both his good and bad qualities.
Hamartia: The tragic downfall of an ideal
tragic hero is accelerated through his
hamartia. But it is to be noted that
hamartia must be executed through his
goodness instead of his wicked intinctions
or else the tragedy will not be able to
produce the effect that is expected from it.
Competitive Importance of
Plot and Character
Aristotle said that there can be a tragedy
without a character but not without a plot. As
stated earlier, it dismayed many critics of past
and present.
Aristotle has divided characters into two
types. One is a dramatic persona that only
indicates at the identity of a character but it is
a character’s inner moral belt of mind that
really exhibits the true form of a character. In
fact, it is the moral belt of mind that shows
how a character will behave if he is put on the
test by a problem and how will he come out of
it. It is the plot that provides him ample
opportunities for his inner decisions to shape
into outward actions.
Dramatic Unities
Dramatic Unities in tragedy was hinted by
Aristotle but the Neo Classics made it
mandatory for the plays without realizing the
core motive behind these unities. They
believed that those unities were essential for
creating dramatic illusions. There are three
dramatic unities. Unity of plot, unity of time
and unity of place. Aristotle only emphasized
on the unity of plot.
Unity of Plot
As mentioned above, Aristotle gives great
importance to the unity of plot. He suggests
that in the ideal Greek Tragedy, plot should be
one and simple, that should have proper
beginning, middle and end and the events of
the story must be interlinked together. But
Aristotle does not favour sub plots within a
plot. He accepted single plot with a single
action. For instance, if a play begins as a
tragedy, it should end on a tragic note while a
comedy should follow the same rule. He
believed that those two genres could not be
mixed together in the form of tragic comedy.
But modern critics argued Aristotle’s point that
a Man’s life is a mixture of both happiness and
misery. Portraying only one side of the coin
may not hold up to the idea of realism. In fact,
the Elizabethan dramatists did not follow
Aristotle’s concept of stern dramatic unity of
plot and (tragic) action. They added some
minor comic elements to their flagship
tragedies to increase the entertainment value
of their plays. For example, in Othello, we see
a brief mention of clowns and musicians while
Iago’s destructive but amusing tongue helps
retain the entertaining value of the tragedy.
While in Oedipus Rex, we cannot trace any
comic elements because the action begins in
a tragic tone and ends on an extreme tragic
note. Some critics even argued Aristotle’s idea
to the fact that in the festival of Dionysus,
three plays were serious while one play was
comic in nature so how could Aristotle defy
the role of comic elements in tragedy?
Unity of Time
Unity of time is something that Aristotle did
not present as a rigid rule of writing tragedies.
It was something that he observed. He states
that the actions of a tragedy are attempted to
be presented within “one revolution of the
sun”. The phrase “one revolution of the sun”
annoyed the French critics of the seventeenth-
century and English critics of the eighteenth
century. English critics argued that the actions
in a tragedy must be presented within the
actual setting of time in tragedy on stage. For
example, if a tragedy consists of an action
that spans over 6 months, Neo Classics
suggested that the tragedy must be presented
for the 6 months on the stage! The idea in
itself is strange and impractical as people will
lose interest in the play if it is prolonged for an
unreasonable amount of time. While the
French critics went to the extent to find the
actual time through the above-mentioned
phrase. Some said that Aristotle suggested a
year while others speculated only a day or a
month.
Unity of Place
Aristotle did not present the rule of unity of
place. It was attributed to him by the
misinterpretation of Neo Classics of his
comparison of Epic and Tragedy. Epic, he said,
had a variety of places to narrate. While a
tragedy had to be presented in a smaller
setting because it was small in magnitude as
compared to Epic. Also the limitation of stage
attributed to the lack of places. Because even
today, it is difficult to transition from the scene
of a forest to the scene of an ocean in
theatres and we are talking about an era that
was two thousand and five hundred years
before us. So the limitation of spaces had to
be chosen by the writers so that their plays
would not be bottlenecked by the limitation of
the stage.
Limitations of Aristotelian
Concept of Tragedy
Aristotle, no doubt, gave a comprehensive
definition of tragedy but as time changes, the
requirements of tragedy has been changed
significantly. Let’s discover some of the
limitations that are traced in Aristotle’s
concept of tragedy.
Lack of Religious Elements
Aristotle does not allude to the importance of
religion in tragedies despite its presence in
plays as these plays were intended for the
purpose of celebrating the god of fertility,
Dionysus. For instance, we see some clear
references to gods (Apollo) and the role of
oracles in characters’ lives as a strong
religious influence but Aristotle did not
mention about the role of religious elements
in the tragedies he was scrutinizing.
Lack of Conflicts
Another core point that is missing from his
comprehensive definition is the role of internal
and external conflicts in driving a person’s
tragedy. He merely focuses on the outer
actions but the inner turmoil that takes place
is equally as important as the outward
conflicts. In fact, it is the “inner weather” that
creates a sense of superiority of humans
among other living beings. And internal
conflict also adds its significant share to the
arousal of catharsis. Modern writers tend to
depict both internal and external conflicts.
His Unsatisfying Explanation of
‘Action’
Aristotle defined action as something that is
serious and of some magnitude in his famous
definition of tragedy. But he was unable to
explain the true magnitude of a tragedy as he
only limitized it to its size in pages. He could
have added more to it to explain it a bit further
like the loftiness of an action or the nature of
an action whether it can be external or
internal.
His Idealization of Oedipus Rex
Aristotle presented Oedipus Rex as an ideal
tragedy that checked all the required boxes to
create the most noticeable tragic effect in the
mind of a reader. Oedipus Rex was a success
of its time due to the quality of intense
concentration. Intense concentration is
something that is achieved through starting a
story from its catastrophic point of the plot.
For instance, Oedipus Rex opens when
Oedipus has unknowingly killed his father and
married his mother. But the story of the play
begins when Oedipus’ parents receive an
oracle that their son will kill his father and will
marry his mother. If Shakespeare had written
this play, he would have started it with Laius
and Jocasta, receiving the prophecy. Intense
concentration was used to create a tragic
effect that was stronger than the Elizabethan
tradition. But it did not provide a strong
foundation of character development. Also, it
imposed a limitation of its own upon writers to
present a story in its limited glory. But some
modern writers are also taking a fancy to
intense concentration in the form of the
stream of consciousness technique.
Lack of Subjectivity in Greek
Tragedy
One point that modern critics raise is the
classical Greek Tragedy lacks subjectivity as
these tragedies are mainly objective. Which
means it only displays the outer conflict of a
hero. But his inner psyche and intinctions are
of a significant value that is to be shown to
the audience. Shakespeare, although he is an
Elizabethan playwright, but, he masterfully
strikes a balance between subjectivity and
objectivity in his plays.
Qualities of a Tragic Hero
This is the point of which Aristotle is critiqued
the most. Firstly, he says that a tragic hero
must belong to a higher class. But modern
writers are more democratic in their approach.
They believe that the tragic downfall of a
miner is as significant as that of a dictator.
Another point critics argue is Aristotle’s
concept of essential goodness. He suggests
that a hero can be neither too good, nor too
bad but a simple blend of the both. The critics
say that tragic heroes can be extremely good
or extremely bad. We can see the example of
Macbeth or the Jew of Malta by Marlowe as
the heroes exhibiting extreme bad characters.
While TS Eliot’s Murder in the Cathedral and
Shaw’s St. Johns portray extremely good
characters or (tragic) heroes.
Rigid Plot
Aristotle favours plots that have a definite
beginning, middle and end. But modern
writers, lulled in the stream of consciousness
Charges Levelled Against Poetry and Sidney’s
Defence of Poetry
By Asad Imran
August 7, 2021
Categories: Literary Criticism
technique, do not use the unity of plot in their
novels. In fact, for them, the concept of a rigid
plot is dead.
Conclusion
Despite some serious limitations and
shortcomings of the Greek Tragedies and
Aristotle’s Concept of it as discussed by the
critics of every time, it is worth noting that, in
fact, it was the Grecian Tragedy that pioneered
tragic stage performances with their own set
of embellishments while influencing the big
names like Shakespeare and Marlowe to
further clear the grounds for modern writers.
Tragedy, now, is not limited to the plays only
but it is magnificently present in novels in its
own form and colour. But all those colours are
indebted to the Classical Greek Tragedy for its
stouter foundation.
This essay was written by assembling the
pieces of lecture given by Sir Fazal Ur Rehman
on the Greek Tragedy and its Aristotelian
Concept. So, a big shout out to him for making
this possible.

Introduction
Just as Plato levelled charges against poetry
and poets in his Republic, similarly during the
Elizabethan era, a puritan Stephen Gosson
opened the weapon of his pen against the
poetry that was accustomed during the era.
Like Aristotle, Sir Philip Sidney came to rescue
as well as defend poetry through his book, An
Apology for Poesy. The charges that have
been levelled by Gosson against poetry are:
Poetry is the waste of time.
Poetry is the mother of lies.
It is the nurse of abuse.
Plato had rightly banished poets from his
Republic.
Let’s discuss how Sydney rebutted against
such allegations against poetry in detail.
Poetry is Not a Waste of Time
Sydney answers the first allegation of Gosson
against poetry that poetry is not a waste of
time. According to Sydney, poetry is a branch
of learning that aims at making a person learn
the noble virtues of life. Poetry not only
teaches noble virtues but also encourages a
learner to put these virtues into practice.
Sydney further adds that there is no other
branch of learning that accomplishes the two-
way implication of learning. He also goes on
to say that there is no fruitful knowledge other
than poetry due to the above-mentiuoned
merit that makes poetry special.
Poetry is not a Mother of Lies
Sydney further continues defending poetry by
claiming that poetry is not a mother of lies. He
claims that a poet is the most truthful person
as compared to other humans. He even
makes clear that an astronomer may tell lies
because later, his measurements may prove
wrong. A physician tells lies if his medicine
takes away the life of a patient. A poet does
not tell lies because he confirms nothing.
Sidney adds that a historian can tell lies
because in his quest to find out the events
that took place in the past, he has to confirm
many things. But a poet does not try to convey
what is true or what is false. A poet only tries
to assert that what can be and what can’t be.
Poetry is not a Nurse of
Abuse
After repelling the second charge against
poetry, Sidney turns to the third one to debunk
its false associations. The third accusation
claims that poetry is the nurse of abuse in
society. The sexual conceits in Comedy
corrupt the morally clean side of man. And
love in a lyric increases the passion of love.
Sidney adds that including the passion of love
in a love poem is not a sin. Also, the insertion
of lustful material does not make poetry
responsible for the corruption of the mind.
Sidney tries to wind up his point by saying that
it is not poetry that corrupts the mind of a
reader but there are some (immoral) poets
who corrupt poetry. He further explains his
point by performing a comparison between
poetry and painting. If a painting contains
Abraham sacrificing his son Isaac, the
painting will be pleasing for the ones who will
look at it. Similarly, if a painter portrays an
immoral scene then the painting will look
disgusting to its on-lookers.
Plato’s Banishment of Poets
not Poetry
The fourth comment that comes by Gosson is
the weightiest one that Sidney answers by
putting strong arguments in favour of poetry.
Gosson accepts Plato’s banishment of poets
and considers it right to banish all the poets of
the contemporary era. Sidney answers that
Plato did not condemn poetry as his own
writings were mostly poetic in style. Plato
should not have accused poetry for being
immoral because his own ideal Republic was
immoral. What Plato hated in poetry was the
sexual portrayal of their gods and other
shortcomings like the ones found within the
people of that era. Sidney also proves that
Plato did not banish poetry from his Republic.
He stood against the misuse of poetry and
suggested banishment of the very abuse. He
was not an enemy of the poets as is
commonly referred to.
Some Limitations
Sidney’s defence of poetry is a significant
milestone in the Elizabethan era but some of
his assertions are not true and are
exaggerated. At first, he claims that poetry is
the most suitable form of learning that puts
other subjects to shame. Surely, poetry has its
significant share in Arts but calling it a most
profound source of knowledge is somewhat
unjust. Because even in our modern time,
poetry derives its essence from history,
science as well as social surroundings.
Another instance of shortcoming in his poetry
is rather a strong one. He asserts that poetry
is the finest form of truth. It is a well-
established truth that poetry or any other form
of literature is not exempted from fiction or
something that is not real and true. But calling
astronomers and physicians liers is his great
weakness of understanding. What he is calling
lies is the hypothesis that leads to modern
scientific discoveries.
Also, Sidney says that it is the poet who
corrupts poetry. But the fact remains the same
as poetry and even other forms of writings are
not free from the amorous display of life.
Conclusion
Lastly, Sidney concludes his debate by saying
that poetry is a “delightful teaching”. Sidney
accepts the element of delight in poetry but
phrasing a didactic purpose to an artistic
genre takes away the artistic appeal from it.
Poetry should propose moral virtues but those
virtues should not be overshadowed by the
bliss of meter, rhyme and melody.
Sources and Suggested
Readings
Sidney’s Views on Contemporary Poetry and
Drama
By Asad Imran
August 8, 2021
Categories: Literary Criticism
Introduction
Sidney puts contemporary poetry as well as
dramas to scrutiny and he does not like the
way both genres are treated by the writers as
well as the public alike. He even goes on to
state that the level of poetry in England is as
low as the low reputation of quacks in Venice.
Sidney gives a reason that because England
was at that time in peace. Due to the absence
of elevated themes like war, the poets are
unable to create a masterpiece as old poets
did. Sidney even criticizes tragedies and
comedies which, we shall discuss in detail in
upcoming paragraphs.
Comments on Contemporary
Poetry
1. Current Notes – Page 125
2. https://sites.udel.edu/britlitwiki/sidneys-
defense-of-poesy/
(https://sites.udel.edu/britlitwiki/sidneys-
defense-of-poesy/)
Sidney gives his views on lyrical poetry and
asserts that lyrical poetry would be a great
genre of poetry if it introduced the praise (and
love) of God in it. But the common lyrical
poetry abounds in the theme of love which
arouses little to no pure emotions because of
the cold artificiality in it. Sidney calls this a
lamentable defect in poetry.
Sidney, then, comes to find faults in the style
of poetry. He says that the English poets are in
the habit of putting sugar and spice upon
every dish. And they follow the Red Indians
who not only wear rings in their noses but also
thrust them in their lips that ultimately shows
an orderless beauty. Sidney means that the
poets use ornaments and embellishments
wrongly in poetry. They draw metaphors from
all sources like the stories of birds and beasts.
They use strange words that are alien to the
laymen in England. In short, poets run after
false ostentation and pay no attention to
correct their style of poetry.
Despite Sidney’s devotion to the old poets, he
admires Chaucer and his genius “Troilus and
Cressida” yet he discovers some limitations in
Chaucer’s poetry. He praises the noble birth
and noble mind that shows up in the lyrics of
Earl of Surrey. He likes Spencer’s Shepherd
Calendar but still, he finds the language crude
in it.
Comments on Contemporary
Drama
Sidney asserts that English tragedies and
comedies need to be criticized because they
do not follow certain rules. He even goes on to
state that these plays are neither right
tragedies, nor right comedies because they
mix up kings and clowns. The mixture of these
events is not demanded by the subject matter
but the playwrights stuff them at their own
will. Due to such mingling, these plays lose
their tragic as well as comic appeal. Sidney
explains that writers in the past also mixed
comedy with tragedy but with skill. He labels
these plays as tragicomedies. According to
him, a good tragedy is,
The ideal tragedy is an imitation of
a noble action, in the representation
of which it stirs, admiration and
commiseration.
Then he moves on to comment on comedies.
He says that comedies in that era only try to
arouse laughter, not delight. He suggests that
the primary motive of a comedy should be to
spread delight. But English playwrights
attempt to broadcast the feeling of delight
through laughter and by depicting sinful
deeds. Sidney asserts that comic characters
should not display laughter through misery but
through a fussy courtier or a proud traveller
who has borrowed foreign dress and talk. He
claims that comedies can be used as a vehicle
of teaching to depict delight through
instruction.
Limitations
It is very obvious from a surface reading of
Sidney’s commentary on the poetry as well as
plays of that time that he was somewhat
limited in his approach to analysing the said
genres. For instance, in his analysis of
Chaucer, he completely forgot to mention the
defining work of Chaucer, The Canterbury
Tales. Chaucer had himself claimed that
Troilus and Cressida was a translation, not an
original genius.
Sidney detested the mingling of comic
elements in a tragedy but later, Shakespeare
proved tragi-comedy a fruitful genre of English
Literature. Dr. Johnson as well as Dryden
defended tragi-comedy as an interesting
invention. Sidney’s claim of comedy for delight
is also not true because laughter is the main
function of a comedy. Also, the scenarios he
mentions will make comedy limited.
Conclusion 2. https://neoenglish.wordpress.com/2010/12
examine-sidneys-views-on-a-tragedy-and-
Sidney’s commentary on contemporary drama tragi-comedy-b-comedy-and-c-the-
and poetry acknowledges the artistic value dramatic-unities/
associated with it. But his adherence to (https://neoenglish.wordpress.com/2010/1
classical values makes him unable to examine-sidneys-views-on-a-tragedy-and-
appreciate the future development of these tragi-comedy-b-comedy-and-c-the-
prestigious genres. dramatic-unities/)
3. https://masudadam.blogspot.com/2020/10

Sources and Suggested objections-to-contemporary-drama.html

(https://masudadam.blogspot.com/2020/1
Readings
objections-to-contemporary-drama.html)

1. Literary Criticism – Current Notes – Page

144

Sidney as a Critic and His Contribution to

Criticism
By Asad Imran
August 9, 2021
Categories: Literary Criticism

commentary on various forms of poetry and

Introduction his being the first practical critic in the history
of English Literature.
Sir Philip Sidney is renowned for his generous
services in the field of literary criticism. As a
critic, Sidney was fond of classic literature.
But he was not a devotee to the contemporary His Defence of Poetry
literature around him. Dr. Johnson did not
acknowledge the prosaic excellence of An Sidney as a critic is best known for his sound

Apology for Poetry. An Apology for Poetry is defence of poetry against the charges levelled

one of the sound books of criticism on poetry. by Stephen Gosson. He condemned poetry for
Sidney’s contribution as a critic is mainly being a mother of lies, a nurse of abuse, a
remembered for his defence of poetry, his waste of time and Plato’s right banishment of
poets. Sidney came forward as a defender of
poetry, claiming that poetry is not a waste of
time, but a fruitful activity of noble learning; it
is not a mother of lies but a source of
truthfulness; it is not a nurse of abuse but is
missed by the poets of that time and Plato
was not an adversary to poetry rather he
patronized poetry. Thus, his apt answering to
the charges against poetry is one great
contribution to criticism.
His Devotion to Poetry
Sidney was earnestly devoted to poetry to
safeguard its reputation. He asserts that it is
unfair to show disregard to poetry. Every form
of poetry serves mankind. For instance,
pastoral poetry can depict the plight of the
people of the lower class under a tyrant ruler
or vice versa. Comedy can make people learn
to lothe evil and to adopt virtues into their
lives. Elegiac poetry helps to arouse the
feelings of pity by mourning the suffering of
the whole mankind. Lyrical poetry fills a
person with admiration of virtue and
sometimes, singing the glory of the
immortality of God. Thus, in showing the
positive qualities of different forms of poetry,
Sidney clearly shows his devotion to poetry.
Practical Criticism
One of the innovative contributions to
criticism of Sidney is his use of practical
criticism. Practical criticism is the evaluation
of an already existing genius according to a
specific set of criteria that is excellent.
Throughout the writing of Sidney, both
appreciation, as well as criticism, can be
found in it. At first, he gives a critical or
appreciative statement and then proves it
through an already established work of
literature. For instance, when he says that
poetry can depict human passions in the best
convincing way possible. Then he also states
the example of Homer’s epic that illustrates
patriotism. Furthermore, when Sidney claims
that the earliest form of writing was poetry, he
gives references to the earliest Grecian writers
like Homer or Hesiod who were poets.
Conclusively, Sidney contributed his initial
share in the initial development of practical
criticism through proving statements through
the work of art that existed already.
Limitations
Sidney’s contribution to criticism is of
considerable merit. But in some areas of his
criticism and defence, traces of exaggeration
and limitations can be found. For instance, in
his defence, he claims that poetry is the only
credible source of knowledge which is not
true. Just like history can contain lies, so do
poetry.
Also, when Sidney states the functions of
different genres of poetry, he seems very
limited in his approach. For instance, when
Sidney asserts that pastoral poetry can only
depict the happy or the miserable life of the
rustic people, he neglects the importance of
the appreciation of natural beauty. Similarly,
when explaining the properties of a comedy,
he disassociates the function of arousing
laughter. His neglect of the passions of love in
a lyrical poem is a significant shortcoming in
his criticism. So, it is obvious that Sidney
favours the classical approach.
Conclusion
Sidney’s literary endeavours and his utter
devotion to the noble cause of literature in
general and poetry, in particular, puts him into
the frontiers of the notable critics in the
history of English Literature.
Sources and Suggested
Readings
Superiority of Poetry over Philosophy and
History
By Asad Imran
August 10, 2021
Categories: Literary Criticism
Introduction
Sir Philip Sidney is one of the great critics of
English Literature. He is recalled for the
moralistic defence of poetry. That is why, he
gives a considerable space describing the
greatness and superiority of poetry over other
forms of learning. Before discussing why
Sidney has regarded poetry as superior to
philosophy and history. Let us define what is
philosophy and history, and what is their core
1. Literary Criticism – Current Notes – Page
155
2. https://literariness.org/2017/11/17/literary-
criticism-of-sir-philip-sidney/
(https://literariness.org/2017/11/17/literary-
criticism-of-sir-philip-sidney/)
3. https://neoenglish.wordpress.com/2010/12/1
a-detailed-account-of-the-contributions-
of-sidney-to-the-english-criticism/
(https://neoenglish.wordpress.com/2010/12/
a-detailed-account-of-the-contributions-
of-sidney-to-the-english-criticism/)
function. Philosophy is a branch of knowledge
that tries to answer the questions related to
human existence as well as solutions for the
problems of life. The main function of
philosophy is to instruct. While history deals
with narrating the events happened in the past
and such narration is its main function as well.
Let’s return back to our subject.
Early Mingling of Poetry, of-poetry.html), Sidney considers poetry the
best source of learning virtue as compared to
Philosophy and History
philosophy and history because it reaches a
person through the strong examples that can
To assert the greatness of poetry, Sidney
leave a strong impact than the abstraction
affirms that the first form ever written was the
found within philosophy.
poetry itself. He even goes on to suggest that
in the past, there was no distinction between
The most compelling reason behind the
poets, historians as well as the philosophers.
dominance of poetry is its utilization of the
For instance, Solon, the one who wrote the
essence of both philosophy and history. Such
constitution for Athens wrote poetry. Plato,
mingling makes the process of learning noble
who was also a philosopher, wrote his
virtues much easier and it does not require
dialogues in eloquent poetic diction. Romans
any background knowledge of something to
used to revere the poets by calling them seers
proceed. A similar poetic trend can be found
or prophets. Sidney, then, suggests that Bible
within Bible which can be termed as the Divine
is also a kind of “Divine Poem”, to indicate a
Poetic Genius consisting of both philosophy
reader “God coming in His majesty”.
and history.

Why is Poetry Superior over Conclusion

Philosophy and History?
Due to such merits of poetry, Sidney regards
Sidney gives several reasons why poetry is poetry as the “monarch” (king) of all arts. He
superior to philosophy and history. The first successfully proves that poetry can be
reason for the greatness of poetry is the vivid superior to philosophy and history. But it must
and compelling portrayal of something. Poetry be noted that both history and philosophy
tells a reader not only what can be and what have their own distinct place in the process of
cannot be but also what should be. But a learning. But these two spheres of learning
philosopher only theorizes the certain aspect can transmit more effectively when paired
of life. Yet the image painted by a poet is with poetry.
perfect because he or she utilizes the power
of imagination. Furthermore, history only Sources and Suggested
narrates the events of past with little to no
Readings
instruction found in it. But poetry can utilize
any timeframe, be it past, present and even
1. https://literaturetimes.com/for-sidney-
future to instruct mankind. As asserted in my
how-poetry-is-superior-over-philosophy-
previous article
and-history/
(https://iasad1.blogspot.com/2021/08/sidneydefence-
 (https://literaturetimes.com/for-sidney- 3. https://www.litcharts.com/lit/an-apology-
how-poetry-is-superior-over-philosophy- for-poetry/themes/poetry-vs-history-and-
and-history/) philosophy
2. http://englishhelplineforall.blogspot.com/2016/02/sidneys-
(https://www.litcharts.com/lit/an-apology-
concept-of-superiorityof-poetry.html?m=1 for-poetry/themes/poetry-vs-history-and-
(http://englishhelplineforall.blogspot.com/2016/02/sidneys-
philosophy)
concept-of-superiorityof-poetry.html?m=1)

T. S. Eliot’s Concept of Tradition and

Individual Talent
By Asad Imran
August 11, 2021
Categories: Literary Criticism

Introduction
Thomas Stearns Eliot is one of the noble
names among the great poets ever produced
in English Literature. But he is also a
renowned critic, a devotee to classicism.
Before his contribution to poetry and criticism,
poetry was lingering in its chaotic form. Poets
were (blindly) trying to imitate the revolt of
Romanticism. Therefore, a new poetic
doctrine was unevitable to be established. So,
T S Eliot came forward with his own
judgement of poetry as an outcome of both
traditional and individual talent. The essay has
been divided into three parts. The first one
deals with the explanation of Tradition while
the second part evaluates the Theory of
Impersonality and the third part consists of a
conclusion.
What is Tradition?
Tradition, in common sense, means the ever-
developing set of customs and ideologies of a
nation or a group of nations. But for Eliot,
tradition is something that links the present
with the past. Eliot adds the sense of history
to tradition. Eliot gives his insight on literary
tradition as thus,
Not only of the pastness of the past,
but also of its presence. One who
has the historic sense feels that the
whole of the literature of Europe
from Homer down to his own day,
including the literature of his own
country, forms one continuous
literary tradition.
Eliot asserts that in literary tradition, the
present is the product of the past and the past
dependent on the present to be discovered.
Manifestly, tradition is:
The acknowledgement of the continuity of
literature from past to present.
A critical evaluation of the significance of
old writers in the present age.
The knowledge of those old writers
attained through a great struggle.
Eliot also asserts that the old tradition of
literature is followed by a new one, slightly
altered according to the trends of the present
day. For example, the poetry of Virgil, Dante
and Shakespeare helps to form a new trend in
the poetry that should be written in the
coming years.
What is Individual Talent?
Individualism means subjectivity. Subjectivity
is associated with the Romantics because
they infused their personal emotions into
poetry. Eliot does not agree with the
Wordsworthian concept of poetry – a
spontaneous overflow of powerful emotions.
Eliot, however, suggests:
The business of the poet is not to
find new emotions, but to use the
ordinary ones.
Individuality in Eliot’s terms, is not about
subjectivity. It is about being impersonal –
removing the personality of the poet from the
genius he is intended to compose. Eliot gives
the example of a chemical reaction between
sulfur dioxide and oxygen under the catalyst
of platinum. As a result of the reaction,
sulfuric acid is released as the final product
but the catalyst remains unchanged. Similarly,
a poet composes a poem by attaining the
subject(s) through the hard labour under the
sense of (historical) tradition. During the
process of composition, a poet does not add
something that may show his personality just
like we do not see platinum mixing in sulphur.
in this experiment of poetic creation, the mind
of the poet is the catalyst. Thus, the individual
talent of a poet is to compose a poem as an
“individual” piece from his poetic personality.
Criticism
Eliot has, no doubt, revolutionized the poetic
landscape of the twentieth century through his
critical essay, But his criticism has received
much criticism by other literary figures for not
explaining inadequate terms about tradition. A
literary figure, Harold Bloom disagrees with
Eliot’s remarks on Romantic Poetry which he
terms “dissociation of sensibility”. This is not
true because Romantic poetry does
appreciate the beauty of nature and a
(temporal) escape from the harsh realities of
life. Another point of Eliot critics argue about
is his idealization of European culture and
history as a mamendatory requirement for
becoming a poet. However, Eliot himself
praised the genius of Eastern civilization. For
instance, his acknowledgement of
Mahabharta.
Conclusion
Despite the criticism, Eliot’s concept of
tradition and individual talent was a
remarkable step in breathing a new life in the
“dull” poetic landscape. Surely, excessive
learning kills the element of delight in a poetic
composition but learning differs from person
to person. Therefore, this essay is a
somewhat sound but an unofficial manifesto
of T. S. Eliot.
3. http://www.literary-
articles.com/2010/02/what-does-t-s-eliot-
mean-by-tradition.html (http://www.literary-
articles.com/2010/02/what-does-t-s-eliot-
mean-by-tradition.html)
4. http://www.askliterature.com/literary-
criticism/how-does-t-s-eliot-conceptualize-
tradition-and-how-can-it-be-acquired/
(http://www.askliterature.com/literary-
criticism/how-does-t-s-eliot-conceptualize-
tradition-and-how-can-it-be-acquired/)
5. Literary Criticism – Current Notes – Page

Sources and Suggested 186

Readings

1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tradition_and_the_Individual_Talent
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tradition_and_the_Individual_Talent)
2. https://interestingliterature.com/2017/02/a-
short-analysis-of-t-s-eliots-tradition-and-
the-individual-talent/
(https://interestingliterature.com/2017/02/a-
short-analysis-of-t-s-eliots-tradition-and-
the-individual-talent/)

Poetic Process or Theory of Impersonality

By Asad Imran
August 12, 2021
Categories: Literary Criticism

opposition is felt in the said theory. The theory

Introduction
Eliot’s Theory of Impersonality is a direct
answer to Romantic and Victorian modes of
poetry. Therefore, a strong sense of
of Impersonality is mainly about the removal
of self from poetic art or the removal of
subjectivity. Eliot himself explains the core
concept of his theory as thus,
 The progress of an artist is a
continual self-sacrifice, a continual
extinction of personality.
So, Eliot is opposed to the adherence of
Romantics to showcase personal emotions in
their poetry. Eliot’s theory has been divided
into several parts and we shall discuss them
one by one in detail.
Appreciation of the Dead
Poets
T S Eliot indirectly asserts that the personality
of the poet is worthless. In order for his poetry
to flourish, a poet must strive as much as
possible to make himself acquainted with the
literary tradition that is set up by the poets
before him or the “dead poets”.
No poet, no artist of any art, has his
complete meaning alone. His
significance, his appreciation is the
appreciation of his relation to the
dead poets and artists.
In order to acquire excellence in sharpening
his poetry according to literary tradition, a poet
must (critically) appreciate and learn from the
established poetry of the “dead poets”. Eliot
instructs that a poet must forget about his
joys and sorrows when he sits down to write
poetry.
Separation of Poet from his
Poetry
Eliot, then, presents his cynical judgement
upon the poetry of the impersonal poet that
once a poet completes composing a poem,
the poem does not belong to him. His poetry
becomes a contribution to the already
established literary tradition. The feelings and
emotions coming out of the “mature” poetry
are very different from the feelings and
emotions of the poet himself.
The Mind of a Poet like a
Catalyst
To explain the separation of the poet and his
poetry, Eliot strikes the analogy of the
importance of catalyst in a chemical reaction.
Without a catalyst, a chemical reaction cannot
proceed ahead. In the presence of a reactant,
two (or more) elements or compounds merge
into a new substance or compound. But the
properties of the catalyst do not change. Eliot
gives the example of a chemical reaction
taking place between sulphur dioxide and
oxygen under the catalyst of platinum.
Resultantly, sulphuric acid is produced but
platinum remains unchanged. Similarly, the
mind of the poet serves as a catalyst to
mingle raw emotions and feelings to create a
new one in which his mind remains
unchanged but no adulteration of his own
feelings is observed within his poetry.
Poetry is Organization
Eliot further assesses that poetry is the Eliot concludes his theory as thus,
arrangement of feelings and emotions
(“Poetry is an organization rather than Poetry is not a turning loose of
inspiration”, says Eliot). He considers the emotions, but an escape from
learned emotions and feelings are stuffed in a emotion; it is not the expression of
jar. And it is the job of a poet to pick the
personality, but an escape from
appropriate emotions and arrange them in
personality.
apple-pie order for an effective experience
upon the reader.
Thus, it is obvious that Eliot’s Theory of
Impersonality is a revolt against subjectivism
Poetic Process and emotions, and an establishment of rather
cynical adherence to classical values.
Eliot puts a great emphasis on the impersonal
but intense poetic process. He claims in a
References and Suggested
chemical reaction, the more pressure is
applied to it, the more effective the final Readings
product. Similarly, if a poet puts hard effort
1. https://www.literaturemini.com/2018/08/dis
into learning the literary tradition, his poetic
in-details-theory-of-impersonality-in-
outcome should be more effective. During the
t.s.eliot.html
poetic process, Eliot suggests that a poet
(https://www.literaturemini.com/2018/08/dis
should remain as impersonal as possible. He
in-details-theory-of-impersonality-in-
should not add his personal emotions into his
t.s.eliot.html)
poetic genius. Eliot views Ode to Nightingale
2. http://yazdaliterature.com/theory-of-
merely as a medium but not an apt
impersonality-by-t-s-eliot/
demonstration of the emotions of the
(http://yazdaliterature.com/theory-of-
nightingale. Eliot rejects the unconsciousness
impersonality-by-t-s-eliot/)
of the poet and favours a conscious departure
3. https://neoenglish.wordpress.com/2010/12/0
from the personality of the poet during the impersonal-theory-of-poetry/
poetic process. (https://neoenglish.wordpress.com/2010/12/
impersonal-theory-of-poetry/)
Conclusion 4. Literary Criticism – Current Notes – Page 192

TS Eliot as a Critic
By Asad Imran
August 13, 2021
Categories: Literary Criticism
Introduction
TS Eliot is one of the greatest poets ever
produced in the history of English Literature.
But one defining aspect of his literary
personality is his criticism on poetry that was
a revolutionary step in making poetry
mainstream and remarkable again. The critical
stature of Eliot is as high as of Sir Philip
Sidney, Ben Johnson, Dryden, Johnson,
Wordsworth, Coleridge, and Matthew Arnold.
Eliot wrote five hundred essays as reviews
that had a significant impact on the landscape
of literary criticism. George Watson expressed
his views upon the influence of Eliot in
criticism as thus,
Eliot made English criticism look
different, though not in a simple
sense.
His Influence on New
Criticism
New Criticism was a 20th-century literary
movement in criticism that focused on a close
reading of the texts of literature especially
poetry to discover the functionality of the work
itself. As it is obvious from the objective of the
very movement, Eliot’s criticism had a strong
influence on New Criticism. His struggling
vision to attain the sense of literary tradition
looks similar to the close reading objective of
New Criticism. To accept the dominance of
Eliot over New Critics, William Empson
asserts as thus,
I do not know for certain how much
of my own mind invented, let alone
how much of it is a reaction against
him or indeed a consequence of
misreading him. He is a very
penetrating influence, perhaps not
unlike the east wind.
Thus, Eliot had his remarkable authority that
successfully moulded their ideas according to
his own judgement.
His Appreciation of
Metaphysical Poets
Another remarkable contribution of Eliot to
criticism is his revival of the so-called
Metaphysical Poets. His criticism had been a
great source in rekindling the appreciation of
the long-forgotten Metaphysical Poetry.
Metaphysical Poets were notorious for their
abrupt use of unpredictable conceits. Eliot
praised those poets for displaying sensual
and phycological experiences simultaneously
in their poetry. According to Eliot, such a
portrayal of both inner and outer experiences
was unique and witty.
His Dejection for (But let’s see how much of the poetic process
does Eliot himself follows in his own poetry).
Romanticism

Eliot openly rejects the enormous overflow of

Limitations
emotions that Romantics depicted in their
Eliot, no doubt, put the poetic landscape
poetry. He criticizes the subjectivity of the
upsidedown through his criticism. But he was
Romantics. Eliot is not against the expression
authoritative and didactic in his approach.
of emotions in poetry. He only objects to the
Whatever he wrote, he wanted it to become a
addition of personal emotions to poetry. Eliot
verdict (farmaan). Eliot was criticized for
does not consider poetry as something
unjustly criticizing Milton. Also, the Poetic
personal and links it directly to tradition. But
Process that Eliot suggests is not only difficult
Eliot also asserts that poetry is an escape
but also halts the personality of the poet to be
from emotions and subjective show of
seen. We can read through the lines of a poem
personality.
if the identity of the poet is visible within a
poet. For instance, Robert Frost is a poet of
Poetic Process
Nature not only because his poems abound in
natural imagery, but also his personal
One of the striking contributions of Eliot in the
attraction to the objects of Nature. Therefore,
field of criticism is his introduction to Poetic
poetry cannot be disassociated from the poet
Process – a roadmap of writing exceptional
who composes it. Lastly, Eliot could not follow
poetry through the organization of emotions
the product of his own “Personal Workshop of
(and ideas). Eliot’s Poetic Process is difficult
Poetry” which is the Poetic Process. Despite
and requires a considerable amount of
the poetic greatness “The Waste Land” carries
knowledge and understanding of the works of
with it, the poem is basically a representation
the “Dead Poets” to form a sense of literary
of Eliot’s own ideas of the horrors caused by
tradition. After a poet successfully acquires
World War First.
the particular sense, he has to pick up the
suitable emotions (accumulated through
literary tradition) and arrange them in order.
Conclusion
After that, the poet should make himself ready
Despite those sharp limitations in Eliot’s
to write poetry while remaining as impersonal
judgement, his criticism has brought a new
as possible like a catalyst in a chemical
taste of poetry for the readers to relish and
reaction. Eliot also suggests that poetry does
new tools of criticism to put a poetic work
not belong to the poet but to the literary
under scrutiny. The greatness of Eliot as a
tradition. This is Eliot’s painful Poetic Process.
critic is beautifully summed up by John
Hayward as below,
 I cannot think of a critic who has
been more widely read and
discussed in his own life-time; and
not only in English, but in almost
every language, except Russian.
Sources and Suggested
Readings
1. Literary Criticism – Current Notes – Page
213
2. https://literariness.org/2020/11/21/literary-
criticism-of-t-s-eliot/
TS Eliot’s Commentary on John Milton
By Asad Imran
August 14, 2021
Categories: Literary Criticism
Introduction
John Milton, who strived to “justify the ways of
God to men” was unjustly justified by the
renowned critic, TS Eliot. In his transcribed
lecture Milton 1, Eliot severely criticized
Milton. But in his second lecture, Eliot
somewhat corrected his judgement and
apologized for it. In Milton 1, Eliot criticized
Milton’s style as a great wall of China due to
the use of abandoned diction and for the
portrayal of his individual personality. It must
be noted that Eliot, at that time, was against
the ones whose poetry was subjective. But in
(https://literariness.org/2020/11/21/literary-
criticism-of-t-s-eliot/)
3. http://epicnotes1.blogspot.com/2017/05/t-
s-eliots-critic.html
(http://epicnotes1.blogspot.com/2017/05/t-
s-eliots-critic.html)
4. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T._S._Eliot
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T._S._Eliot)
5. http://www.cssforum.com.pk/css-optional-
subjects/group-v/english-literature/381-t-s-
eliot-critic.html
(http://www.cssforum.com.pk/css-optional-
subjects/group-v/english-literature/381-t-s-
eliot-critic.html)
Milton 2, Eliot admired the use of Blank Verse.
Let’s examine those remarks in detail.
Charges – Milton 1
The first defect that Eliot points out in the
poetic personality of Milton is his blindness.
Milton, at the time of writing Paradise Lost,
entered into complete disconnection from the
visual experience of the world. Eliot suggests
that Milton’s blindness might be a chief reason
behind the lack of sensuous imagery that
ultimately might have affected his language.
Another limitation that Eliot asserts in his
lecture is Milton’s use of dead language.
Thirdly, the words Milton chose lack
meaningful expression. Fourthly, Milton
ignored following the literary tradition of that
time. In the concluding paragraph, Eliot
somewhat accepts Milton’s greatness but he
still considers his poetry dangerous for the
new poets to read because of Milton’s lack of
traditional value in his poetry.
Correction – Milton 2
As mentioned earlier, in the second lecture,
Eliot corrected most of his “rushed”
judgement of Milton’s poetic genius. At first,
Eliot criticized Milton for using language
remote from the language of laymen. Now,
Eliot accepts it as a distinct feature of Milton.
He admits that the poetic diction Milton chose
to decorate Paradise Lost shows his true
talent. Secondly, Eliot asserted that Milton’s
blindness was a major factor behind his
grotesque language. Later, Eliot considers
Milton’s blindness as a blessing in disguise.
He further adds that it was through Milton’s
blindness that we received an unearthly
description of the Garden of Eden. If Milton
had been blessed with slight, we would have
ended up with a limited world of Eden.
Commentary of Critics
These two lectures, especially the first one
caused a significant uproar from the
community of critics. Watson adds,
Both lectures are written in a
convoluted style of qualification and
reservation that grows more
complex with the years, so that it is
only by a narrow margin that the
first lecture can be called an
exercise in the qualified rejection of
Milton, or the second one of
qualified assent. There are three
voices of T.S. Eliot, the critic: First,
the youthful, exploratory
enthusiasm of the twenties, where
an almost ideal balance between
poetic and critical activity is
realized; second an abortive career
of social and religious advocacy in
frankly obscurantist causes; and
third, a bold but exhausted attempt
to recover the creative urge,
followed at once by denial and
desperation.
Watson beautifully sums the rhetoric behind
Eliot’s commentary on Milton.
Conclusion
Consequently speaking, Eliot’s remarks on
Milton are unjust on its first instalment but its
second instalment somewhat clears the
grudges of the devotees of Milton.
Source
There are no reliable sources for this topic
available online other than the text of Milton 1
and 2 lectures. A huge thanks to Rana Talha
Razzaq for providing me with enough helpful
Steps in Critical Practice – Catherine Belsey
By Asad Imran
August 16, 2021
Categories: Literary Criticism
Introduction
Critical Practice by Catherine Belsey is a book
on criticism that puts six literary theories in
the funnel to find the meaning of a given text.
According to her, the actual problem in a text
is ‘where’ to look for the meaning in a text.
Belsey presents six theories to ponder:
What is poststructuralist theory and its
implication in criticism?
Does the meaning of the text lie in the
author’s head or in the reader’s?
Or is the meaning traced during practice?
How do our values affect the interpretation
of the text?
And what is the role of the text?
Belsey considers these questions important to
draw a line between the mindset of the
readers and the (authority of the) text. Let us
discuss these theories in detail:
resources. Although the answer is somewhat
unsatisfactory, I shall add more relevant
material to this answer as soon as I find new
sources.
Criticism and Common Sense
The first step in the evaluation of the text is to
make ourselves familiar with the text itself as
well as the story. While common sense in
literature means knowing about a set of
valuable texts as well as the period in which
they were produced. But they also include a
rough idea about the depiction of human
nature and society too. Common Sense
advocates that Man is the centre of the action,
meaning, history and meaning.
Ideology
Ideology is a discourse of language while
discourse is a domain of language that
focuses on a particular way of conversation.
Belsey, then, asserts that ideology is a total of
our response to the happenings of life. Thus,
ideology is somewhat reaching to the core
meaning of a writing through the stairs of text,
author’s intent and then through his
contemporary society. Author-Oriented Theory
can he an important step in finding out the
meaning of the text. The theory encourages to
find the meaning in the mind of the author (of
the particular text) and it can only be the one.
Belsey, then, adds Plato’s interpretation of the
poets who says that when poets write poetry,
they come out of their senses. Just like a
anxious man is unconscious of his anxiety but
his anxiety is obvious when someone sees
that man. Similarly, when a poet composes a
poem, he becomes unaware of his current
surroundings but he gets into the immersion
of the world he is writing about.
The ideological interpretation of finding
meaning in realistic or unrealistic work of
literature through applying different theories is
difficult. Belsey gives a rather simple
explanation of the relation of ideology with a
literary work,
Ideology is both a real and an
imaginary relation to the world.
Therefore, ideology is the whole environment
including thoughts, beliefs, practices,
language and feelings.
Split Subject
Another question arises while evaluating a
work of literature whether an individual is
important or the subject of the work. A
specific solution is Spirit Subject that divides
the two. It involves in two different
interpretations of I, as personal ideology as
well as the ideology of the critic. Other ‘I’ is the
speaker and the addressor. Belsey, one by one
rejects the following theories:
Expressive realism
General experience
Reader Oriented Theory
Existentialism
Absurdism
Historical and psychological approaches
The reason behind her rejection of these
theories (and others) is because according to
her, they withhold a person from reaching to
the exact meaning. But they do help in lighting
up the path to find out the exact meaning a
person is looking for.
Deconstruction
Deconstruction is not destruction but splitting
a piece of work according to the language it
exhibits. This approach of the reconstruction
of the meaning by division of the work is
favoured by Belsey. Deconstruction is a
structural analysis of a piece of work. For
example, when analysing a poem,
deconstruction focuses on splitting the
contents of the poem on the basis of literary
devices, diction, rhyme and rhythm etc.
As mentioned before, deconstruction is
basically a two-way process in which a work, i
e a poem has to be divided into its structural
elements (as mentioned in above lines). And
then reconstructing the actual meaning
(theme or central idea) through the raw
materials of the structural data.
Conclusion
Belsey’s tendency to critically evaluate a piece
of writing is that of a structuralist. Although
not all modern theories are false yet her
approach is most close to what we have been
observing in our academics (in the form of
writing a critical appreciation of a poem).
Literary Criticism – Short Questions and Their
Answers (From Sargodha University Past
Papers) MA English Literature Part 2
By Asad Imran
September 20, 2021
Categories: Literary Criticism, Short Questions
View Even More Short Questions for Literary
Criticism/preview/button
2021
Q1: What is Aristotle’s concept of an ideal
tragic hero?
According to Aristotle, an ideal tragic hero:
Must belong to the noble class
His downfall must be sudden
His downfall must be governed by his
tragic flaw
Q2: What do you know about the term
“Peripeteia” about Plot in Aristotle’s poetics?
Source
1. Literary Criticism – Current Notes – Page
287
Already answered
Q3: Why does Eliot oppose the romantic
conceptions in his famous theory of
impersonality in Art?
Eliot opposes the romantic conception
because he thinks poetry should be an
outcome of the impersonal experience of the
poet. The subjectivity in romanticism dismays
him the most.
Q4: What is T.S. Eliot’s view about
Wordsworth’s theory of “Spontaneous
overflow of powerful emotions”?
Eliot rejects the Wordsworthian conception of
poetry. He considers poetry as an organization
of the feelings collected through objective
observation.
Q5: What are three kinds of texts mentioned
by Belsey in her book critical practice?
Already answered
Q6: How does Belsey draw the analogy
between a reader and a consumer in her book
critical practice?
Belsey draws the comparison between a
reader and a consumer through the analogy of
books being commodities.
Q7: What is the worst kind of tragic plot
according to Aristotle?
The episodic plot is the worst kind of tragic
plot, according to Aristotle.
Q8: What is Belsey’s view about classical
realism?
According to Belsey, Classical Realism is a
reader’s own ideological interpretation of the
realism shown in the text he/she is reading.
Q9: What is Sir Philips Sidney view about
poetry?
Already answered below
Q10: What were the charges of the puritan
against poetry which Sidney answers?
The charges include the following:
Poetry is the mother of lies.
Poetry is a nurse of abuse.
Poetry is a waste of time.
Plato had tightly banished poets from his
Republic.
2020
Q1: Differentiate between Simple and
Complex plot as suggested in Poetics?
Simple plot means which does not follow a
sudden reversal of situation and discovery of
the hero’s actions that result in his tragedy. In
a complex plot, the story is governed by the
sudden reversal of the situation and the
discovery of the hero’s actions which later
transform into tragedy.
Q2: Define the term “Anagnorisis” given in
Poetics.
Anagnorisis is the discovery of something
which turns the ignorance of the tragic hero
into knowledge and puts the event upside
down against the favour of a tragic hero.
Q3: How does Aristotle define “Comedy in
Poetics?
Aristotle defines Comedy as something which
depicts human beings as “worse” than they
actually are in real life. Aristotle does not
mean evil. But ridiculous and
laughable. Source
(http://www.english.hawaii.edu/criticalink/ari
stotle/terms/comedy.html)
Q4: What are the three kinds of texts
mentioned by Belsey?
According to Catherine Besley, there are three
kinds of text:
Declarative Text: Which declare a certain
ideology in it
Imperative Text: Which compels a reader to
think against a certain ideology
Interrogative Text: The text which makes a
reader question the way a text is
constricted and the ideology which comes
with it. Source
(https://prezi.com/mid71odf_eai/catherine-
belsey-interrogative-text/)
Q5: Where does ideology exist in Belsey’s
view?
According to Belsey, Ideology exists in the
text. It’s upon the reader to discover it. Source
(http://epicnotes1.blogspot.com/2017/05/cri
tical-practice-by-catherine-belsey.html?m=1)
Q6: What does Belsey mean by the term
“Common Sense”?
Common Sense is the natural understanding
of the text that comes out of the particular
text, suggests Belsey.
Q7: How has Sidney established that poetry is
antique and universal in nature?
Sidney asserts that the end goal of poetry is to
teach someone while providing delight. Poetry
uses examples from the past and present to
explain ideas. That is how it has achieved
antiquity and universality. Source
(https://m.facebook.com/permalink.php?
story_fbid=681379191966500&id=344398288
997927)
Q8: What does Sidney mean by a poet as a
“maker”?
According to Sidney, a poet is a “maker”
because he makes his own world in his
poetry.
Q9: Why, according to Eliot “emotions
recollected in tranquillity” is an inexact
formula?
T. S. Eliot considers the Wordsworthian
maxim of poetry inexact because he thinks
poetry has no relations with tranquillity and
emotions. He considers poetry as an outcome
of experiences that are not subjective. Source
(https://www.literaturemini.com/2018/10/wh
at-is-eliots-theory-of-poetry.html?m=1)
Q10: What does Eliot want from a poet?
Eliot wants from a poet to compose his work
based on his collected experiences. During
the poetic process, he should completely
remove himself from the poetry.
2019
Q1: Enumerate the essential qualities of a
good critic?
According to T. S. Eliot, a good critic is the one
who remains completely impartial, objective
and unprejudiced in his approach, has a highly
trained sensibility as well as has a knowledge
of structural principles. Source
(http://epicnotes1.blogspot.com/2017/05/t-
s-eliots-critic.html?m=1)
Q2: Define “Tradition” in the light of Eliot’s
essay Tradition and the Individual Talent.
According to Eliot, tradition is the living of the
present, formulated by the incidents of the
past and history.
Q3: What is the role of a reader in reading the
text as suggested by Belsey?
According to Belsey, the role of a reader is to
interpret the text based on his experiences
and intellectual skills. So far, this theory has
been rejected because not everyone has
enough intellectual power to meet the
requirements of a text to be interpreted.
(Originally answered by Ajwa and Samreen
in M.A ENGLISH(Annual System) University of
Sargodha(UOS)
(https://www.facebook.com/groups/1132201
936968178))
Q4: Define “Expressive Realism” as per
Belsey?
According to Belsey, expressive realism is a
reader’s own version of realism experienced
by his or her own imaginary senses while
reading a piece of text.
Q5: What is the role of the poet’s mind in the
creative process?
The role of a poet’s mind is to compose a
poem without the indulgence of the poetic
personality, much like the role of catalyst in a
chemical reaction.
Q6: What kind of understanding about poetry
was felt in Sidney’s time?
Under the influence of Stephen Gosson, poetry
was considered to be a mother of all lies and
a nurse of abuse.
Q7: List out the differences between Tragedy
and Epic poetry as given in Poetics?
Aristotle mostly considers epic and tragedy
the same as both depict heroic deeds in
elevated manner and both the heroes of epic
and tragedy suffer. The key difference
between the two is epic showcases incidents
through the means of language while a
tragedy is exhibited through actions.
Q8: How does Aristotle describe plot as a
whole?
Aristotle considers plot as a whole because
according to him, plot carries all the
necessary bits to display a proper sequence of
incidents in a tragedy.
Q9: Define poetry as per Philip Sidney’s view.
Sidney defines poetry as thus,
Poetry is an art of imitation, a representing,
counterfeiting, or figuring forth; to speak
metaphorically, a speaking picture, with this
end ,—to teach and delight. Source
(https://neoenglish.wordpress.com/2010/12/
16/how-does-sidney-define-poetry-how-does-
he-establish-its-superiority-over-philosophy-
and-history/)
Q10: What does the term “Hamartia” mean?
Hamartia, a term in tragedy, means a flaw in
the hero (also his error of judgement) of a
tragedy which leads to his downfall. Source
(https://literarydevices.net/hamartia/#:~:text
=Hamartia%20is%20a%20literary%20device,m
isfortune%20for%20a%20tragic%20hero.)
2018
Q1: How literary criticism is different from
fiction?
While fiction only deals with a narration of a
fictional account of life, literary criticism is the
evaluation, interpretation and a quest to find
hidden meanings of any piece of literature.
Q2: What does the term “Peripety” mean?
Peripety is a term used in a tragedy, signifying
the sudden reversal of circumstances that
become adversely unfavourable for the tragic
hero.
Q3: Why, according to Eliot, “emotion
recollected in tranquillity” is an inexact
formula?
Already answered in Q9 of 2020
Q4: What does “deconstruction” mean in the
light of Belsey’s Critical Practice?
Through deconstruction, Belsey means the
attainment of the meaning of the text after
splitting the text into the chunks based on its
characteristics.
Q5: How poetry is more philosophical than
history in Aristotle’s opinion?
According to Aristotle’s opinion, poetry is
more philosophical than history because
poetry is universal as opposed to history
which focuses on the particular. Source
(https://joannasaristotelianreflections.wordpr
ess.com/2011/05/02/history-vs-poetry/)
Q6: List out four essential qualities of an
Aristotelian tragic hero.
The four essential qualities of the Aristotelian
tragic hero are given below:
Essentially good
Should belong to a noble class
Should bear exceptional suffering
His downfall should be sudden
Q7: What does Belsey mean by “Ideology”?
Belsey means “ideology” as “the very
condition of our existence in the universe”.
Source: Critical Practice by Catherine Besley
Q8: What is Belsey’s view of “New
Criticism”?
Belsey states in her book that New Criticism is
a “contradictory” movement as on one side, it
favours liberation from authority but on the
contrary, gives considerable weight to
observation. Source: Critical Practice by
Catherine Besley
Q9: What does Aristotle mean by the term
“Comedy”?
Already answered in Q3 of 2020
Q10: State briefly Sidney’s strong claim about
the poet?
Sidney claims that a poet paints the most
truthful picture as compared to a historian.
2017
Q1: What type of man is suitable for imitation
in Aristotelian Tragedy?
Already answered in Q6 of 2018
Q2: What is the importance of Plot in
structuring tragedy?
According to Aristotle, plot is the soul of a
tragedy as the proper sequence of events
grants the meaning of endurance in a
tragedy.
Q3: Define the term “Anagnorisis” given in
poetics.
Already answered in Q2 of 2020
Q4: What does Sidney say about Epic Poetry?
Sidney says that epic is the “best” form of
poetry, compelling people to learn heroism
through the portrayal of heroic deeds. Source
(http://epicnotes1.blogspot.com/2017/05/an-
apology-for-poetry-by-sir-philip.html?m=1)
Q5: According to Sidney what is the utility of
comedy other than providing mere delight?
Sidney asserts that comedy can be utilized as
a vehicle to teach something delightfully.
Q6: How does Sidney condemn the tragic
comedy?
Sidney condemns tragic comedy by claiming
that mingling of the two un-elevates the tragic
dignity of a play.
Q7: Why does T.S. Eliot reject the theory of
“Spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings”
by Wordsworth?
Eliot rejects the Wordsworthian notion of
poetry because he thinks that the uncontrolled
emotions can give rise to chaotic literature
and also, he asserts that poetry is not about
personal emotions but about the impersonal
experience. Source
(https://www.literaturemini.com/2018/10/dis
cuss-eliots-view-of-poetry-as-escape-from-
emotion.html?m=1)
Q8: How does Belsey see the function of a
reader in a literary text?
Belsey sees the reader as an interpreter of the
literary text according to his own version of
realism derived from the text.
Q9: What is the relationship between
language and thought according to Belsey in
her book critical practice?
Belsey compares language with a sheet of
paper. She considers language a side of the
paper and thought its other side. Source
(http://epicnotes1.blogspot.com/2017/05/cri
tical-practice-by-catherine-belsey.html?m=1)
Q10: Define the term “Catharsis”.
Catharsis means the purgation of one’s
thoughts from the excess of the emotions of
pity and fear through art (particularly
tragedy).
2016
Q1: According to Aristotle, what aspects of
life are represented by comedy?
Aristotle asserts that in comedy, characters
are “worse than real life” but not necessarily
evil. But in comedy, ridiculous (and funny)
aspects of life are depicted.
Q2: What are the six elements that make up
tragedy?
According to Aristotle, there are six
formulative elements of a tragedy which are
listed below:
Plot
Character
Thought
Language or Diction
Song
Spectacle or Background
Q3: What is the main difference between Epic
and Tragedy?
Already answered in Q7 of 2019
Q4: Eliot used the term “objective co-relative”
what does it mean?
Objective correlative is a term deviced by Eliot
which means objectives, events and chain of
situations which will arouse particular
emotion in the reader.
Q5: What is T.S Eliot’s opinion about
Wordsworth’s theory of poetry?
Already answered in Q7 of 2017
Q6: Why does Sidney prefer poetry to
philosophy?
Sidney prefers poetry over philosophy
because, to him, it is only the poetry that can
guide people to what “should be done” instead
of what “will be done” as is the case with
philosophy.
Q7: How does Sidney define comedy?
Sidney defines Comedy as ‘an imitation of
common errors of life’ displayed in a
ridiculous and scornful manner. Source
(https://neoenglish.wordpress.com/2010/12/
16/critically-examine-sidneys-views-on-a-
tragedy-and-tragi-comedy-b-comedy-and-c-
the-dramatic-unities/)
Q8: What is the function of tragedy according
to Sidney?
According to Sidney, the function of a tragedy
is to stir admiration and commiseration (a
fancy word for pity).
Q9: What is Belsey’s views about classical
realism?
Already answered in Q4 of 2019
Q10: What is the relationship between
language and thought explained by Belsey?
Already answered in Q9 of 2017
2015
Q1: What type of plot does Aristotle prefer to
capture the attention of the audience?
Aristotle prefers a complex plot with the
sudden downfall of the tragic hero through
peripety and anagnorisis to capture the
attention of the audience.
Q2: Define the term “Perripetcia” and
“Anagnorisis” given in Poetics.
Already answered in Q2 of 2018 and Q2 of
2020.
Q3: How much importance does Aristotle give
spectacle’, the element of tragedy?
Aristotle gives spectacle the least importance
in the elements of tragedy because he asserts
that tragedy can also be narrated through text
(much like an epic). Source
(http://www.english.hawaii.edu/criticalink/ari
stotle/terms/spectacle.html)
Q4: What is Sidney’s opinion about the heroic
or Epic poetry?
Already answered in Q4 of 2017
Q5: Sidney says “comedy is not merely to
provide delight” what is the other utility of
Role of Ideology in Shaping of the Subject –
Critical Practice – Catherine Belsey
comedy?
Already answered in Q5 of 2017
Q6: What is the origin of poetry according to
Aristotle?
Aristotle claims that poetry originated from
the soul of humanity with an instinct of
imitation and harmony. Source
(https://www.enotes.com/homework-
help/what-were-causes-that-led-origin-poetry-
elaborate-376276)
Q7: What do you mean by the phrase
“objective correlative” used by T.S Eliot?
Already answered in Q4 of 2016
Q8: Why does Eliot regard Milton as a bad
influence on classical poetry?
Eliot regards Milton as a bad influence on
Classical Poetry because of:
His lack of eyesight
His use of archaic or dead language
His style is not classical. Source
(http://neoenglishsystem.blogspot.com/20
practical-criticism-his-critical.html?m=1)
Q9: Does T.S. Eliot accept Wordsworth’s
theory of poetry is a “Spontaneous overflow
of powerful feelings”?
No, he does not. The reason is already stated
in Q7 of 2017.
Q10: What is Belsey’s view about classical
realism?
Already answered in Q4 of 2019
By Asad Imran
November 19, 2021
Categories: Literary Criticism
Introduction
Catherine Belsey’s Critical Practice is an
important milestone in structuring literary
criticism on an academic level. In this book,
Catherine Besley presents her opinions in
shaping up the meaning by dissecting the text.
The meaning of a text can be traced in the
light of a specific ideology. But Belsey asserts
that ideology is helpful in shaping up the
subject of a particular work.
Ideology – According to
Belsey
Before expanding Belsey’s view on ideology,
first, we have to learn what is actually meant
by ideology. Ideology is a system of ideas and
ideals that help in shaping the political and
social body of a nation. But Belsey utilizes the
view of Althusser to explain the function of
ideology. According to Althusser (and Belsey),
ideology works along with politics and
economics to format a society. Belsey makes
the trait of ideology much simpler and she
simplifies ideology as thus,
Ideology is a way of thinking,
speaking, experiencing.
Furthermore, Catherine also links ideology
with the language of that nation that helps its
spread.
Ideology and Reading of the
Text
Belsey conveys that there are two kinds of
ideologies. The one that is realistic (and can
be felt through the actions of a nation)
whereas the second one is the imaginative
ideology that lives in people’s hearts. It is the
imaginative ideology that helps a reader
connect with the text of a work. When the text
of a work is being read, a reader perceives the
said work on the basis of the imaginative
ideology that is hidden in his brain.
Imaginative ideology can differ from person to
person.
Ideology and the Subject
It is the imaginative ideology that shapes the
subject. And Catherine says that the subject is
the man himself or herself who identifies
himself or herself as “I”. When a reader reads
a certain text, the ideology hidden in the said
text affects the imaginative ideology of the
person who is attached to the certain book.
The subject is shaped partly by the
imaginative ideology of the person as well as
the ideology presented in the book. It is the
language that transmits the ideological
subject from the mind of a person to the mind and that is transmitted through
other. language.

Conclusion Source

Thus, ideology plays an important role in Text of Critical Practise – Catherine Belsey
establishing the subject that lives in a person’s

List of Important Long Questions of Literary

Criticsm in 2022 for MA English Literature
Part 2 – Sargodha University
By Asad Imran
December 9, 2021
Categories: Literary Criticism

concept-of-catharsis.html)
Poetics 6. Tragic Flaw
(https://www.thefreshreads.com/aristotles-
1. Plot and its Kinds concept-of-hamartia/)
(http://nazarbazmi.com/tragic-plot/) 7. Difference between Poetry and History
2. Superiority of Tragedy over Epic (https://www.gradesaver.com/aristotles-
(https://www.literaturexpres.com/the- poetics/q-and-a/what-difference-does-
reasons-of-superiority-of-tragedy-over-epic- aristotle-find-between-historyand-poetry-
poetry/) 257311)
3. Ideal Tragic Hero
(http://askliterature.com/literary- Note: This is just a rough estimate from the
criticism/aristotle/aristotles-views-on- past papers. Read everything included in
ideal-tragic-hero/) Current Notes regarding Poetics!
4. Importance of Plot over Character
An Apology
(https://bennykarinattu.wordpress.com/2014/06/29/aristotles- to Poetry
preference-for-plot-over-
character/comment-page-1/) 1. Sidney’s Defense of Poetry
5. Catharsis (http://192.168.1.100:8000/wordpress/202
(http://allrfree.blogspot.com/2009/10/aristotles-
 levelled-against-poetry-and-sidneys- of-t-s-eliots-hamlet-and-his-problems/) (A
defence-of-poetry/) Careful Measure)
2. Functions of Poetry
(https://literaturetimes.com/nature-and- Critical Practice – Catherine
function-of-poetry-for-philip-sidney/)
Belsey
3. Superiority of Poetry over Philosophy and
History 1. Expressive Realism
(http://192.168.1.100:8000/wordpress/2021/08/10/superiority-
2. Role of Ideology in Shaping up the Subject
of-poetry-over-philosophy-and-history/) (http://192.168.1.100:8000/wordpress/202
4. Sidney’s Views on Three Unities of-ideology-in-shaping-of-the-subject-
(https://spengtutor.blogspot.com/2020/04/sidneys-
critical-practice-catherine-belsey/)
view-on-three-unities-expressed.html) 3. Extracting meaning of the Text
4. Authority of Common Sense in Critical
Tradition and Individual Practice
Talent
Note: The interpretation of Critical Practice in

1. Influence of Eliot’s Theory Current Notes is pathetic. You are advised to

read the original book known as Critical
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tradition_and_the_Individual_Talent)
2. Theory of Impersonality Practice by Catherine Besley which is
available on Z Library for free to download.
(http://192.168.1.100:8000/wordpress/2021/08/12/poetic-
process-or-theory-of-impersonality/)
3. Eliot on John Milton The Well Wrought Urn –
Cleanth Brooks
(http://192.168.1.100:8000/wordpress/2021/08/14/ts-
eliots-commentary-on-john-milton/)
4. Eliot as a Critic I think Sargodha University has forgotten
(http://192.168.1.100:8000/wordpress/2021/08/13/ts-
about the inclusion of Cleanth Brooks in the
eliot-as-a-critic/) syllabus.
5. Eliot’s Sense of Tradition
(http://192.168.1.100:8000/wordpress/2021/08/11/t-
Critical Appreciation of a
s-eliots-concept-of-tradition-and-
individual-talent/)
Poetic Verse
6. Hamlet and His Problems
If you know what you are doing, go for it!
(https://literariness.org/2020/07/04/analysis-
Literary Criticism – Past Papers – MA English
Literature – Part 2 – Sargodha University
By Asad Imran
January 7, 2022
Categories: Literary Criticism

8. what is Belsey’s view about classical

Time Allowed: 3 Hours realism?
Total Marks: 100 9. How does Belsey draw the analogy
Passing Marks: 40 (As of 2020) between a reader and a consumer in her
Note: Objective part is compulsory. Attempt book critical practice?
any four questions from the subjective part.
10. What are three kinds of texts mentioned by
Belsey in her book critical practice?
2021
Long Questions
Short Questions
1. How does Aristotle’s view of character
1. What is Aristotle’s concept of an ideal inform the poetics? How does the
tragic hero presentation of the tragedy relate to
2. What do you know about the term morality? Discuss. How does the
“Peripeteia” about Plot in Aristotle’s presentation of character in tragedy relate
Poetics morality?
3. What are Sir Philips Sidney views about 2. What are Aristotle’s six elements of
poetry tragedy? What according to him is the
4. What were charges of the puritan against primary purpose of tragedy? Discuss.
poetry which Sidney answers? 3. What does T.S Eliot mean by objective
5. Why does Eliot oppose the romantic correlative? illustrate.
conceptions in his famous theory of 4. According to Raymond Williams the
impersonality in Art? concept of tradition is important to
6. What is T.S. Eliot’s view about understand modem tragedy discuss.
Wordsworth’s theory of Spontaneous 5. What is expressive realism according to
overflow of powerful feelings”? Catherine Belsey? Discuss.
7. what is the worst kind of tragic plot 6. Examine critically any one of the following
according to Aristotle?
(a)
Apparelled in celestial light,
The glory and the freshness of a dream,
It is not now as it hath been of yore:
Turn wheresoe’er I may,
By night of day,
The things which I have seen I now gan seen
no more.
10. What does Eliot want from a poet
b) Essence of winter sleep in on the night
Long Questions
The scent of apples: I am drowsing off
I cannot rub the strangeness from my sight
I got from looking through a pane of glass
I skimmed this moving from the drinking
trough
And held against the world of hoary grass.
2020
Short Questions
1. Differentiate between Simple and Complex
plot as suggested in poetics?
2. Define the term “Anagnorisis” given in
Poetics
3. How does Aristotle define “Comedy in
Poetics?
4. What are the three kinds of texts
mentioned by Belsey?
5. Where does ideology exist in Belsey’s
view?
6. What does Belsey mean by the term
“Common Sense?
7. How has Sidney established that poetry is
antique and universal in nature?
8. What does Sidney mean by a poet as a
“maker”?
9. Why, according to Eliot, “emotions
recollected in tranquillity” is an inexact
formula?
1. How does Aristotle define plot? What are
the various types of Plot? Critically
evaluate
2. Tragedy is the higher art, as attaining its
end more perfectly Compare Tragedy and
Epic poetry and establish the superiority of
Tragedy over Epic poetry in the light of
Poetics
3. Eliot’s conception of tradition is unique in
the sense that it both influences and gets
influenced by the individual poet” Elaborate
in the light of Eliot’s essay, Tradition and
Individual 7alent.
4. Sidney’s Apology for Poetry 1s a command
performance in English Criticism. how
does Sidney react to Stephen Gosson’s
School of Abuse? Elaborate with
arguments
5. What is Expressive Realism? Critically
evaluate Belsey’s ideas on expressive
realism in the light of Critical Practice
6. Examine critically any one of the following
a ) Let me not to the marriage of true minds
Admit impediments. Love is not love
Which alters when it alteration finds,
Or bends with the remover to remove.
O nol it is an ever-fixed mark
That looks on tempests and is never shaken
It is the star to every wandering bark,
Whose worth’s unknown, although his height
be taken
Love’s not Time’s fool, though rosy lips and
checks
Within his bending sickle’s compass come
Love alters not with his brief hours and weeks,
But bears it out even to the edge of doom.
1f this be error and upon me prov’d,
I never wTit, nor no man ever lov’d
b ) I shall be telling this with a sigh
Somewhere ages and ages hence
Two roads diverged in a wood, and
took the one less travelled by,
And that has made all the difference
2019
Short Questions
1. Enumerate the essential qualities of a good
critic?
2. List out the differences between Tragedy
and Epie poetry as given in Poetic
3. How does Aristotle describe plot as a
whole?
4. What does the term “Hamartia” mean?
5. Define poetry as per Philip Sidney’s view.
6. What kind of understanding about poetry
was felt in Sidney’s time?
7. what is the role of a reader in reading the
text as suggested by Belsey?
8. Define “Expressive Realism” as per Belsey?
9. Define “Tradition” in the light of Eliot’s
essay Tradition and the Individual Talent
10. What is the role of the poet’s mind in the
creative process?
Long Questions
1. What is Aristotle’s concept of an ideal
Tragic Hero? How far is it applicable to the
modern tragic heroes?
2. without action there cannot be a tragedy,
there may be without character”. Explain
Aristotle’s concept of tragedy in the light of
the given statement
3. How does Sidney prove that, in moral
doctrine, the poet surpasses historian as
well as the philosopher? Elucidate with
reference to An Apology for poetry.
 4. Define ideology. How does ideology shape
the subjeet? Explain with reference to
Belsey’s Critical Practice
5. Elaborate Eliot’s concept of impersonal
theory of poetry. How is it relevant to some
of the modern poetic texts that you have
read?
6. Examine critically any one of the following
a ) He who was living is now dead
We who were living are now dying
With a little patience
Here is no water but only rock
Rock and no water and the sandy road
The road winding above among the mountains 10. What does “deconstruction” mean in the
Which are mountains of rock without water
If there were only water amongst the rock
Amongst the rock one cannot stop or think
b ) We look before and after,
And pine for what is not:
Our sincerest laughter
With some pain is fraught,
Our sweetest songs are those that tell of
saddest thought.
2018
Short Questions
1. How literary criticism is different from
fiction?
2. What does the term “Peripety” mean?
3. List out four essential qualities of an
Aristotelian tragic hero
4. What does Aristotle mean by the term
“Comedy2
5. State briefly Sidney’s strong claim about
the poet?
6. How poetry is more philosophical than
history in Aristotle’s opinion?
7. What is Belsey’s view of “New Criticism?
8. Why, according to Eliot, “emotion
recollected in tranquillity” is an inexact
formula?
9. What does Belsey mean by “ideology”?
light of Belsey’s Critical Practice?
Long Questions
1. “The plot is the life and soul of tragedy
Examine critically in the light of Aristotle’s
Poetics
2. Tragedy contains incidents arousing pity
and fear, wherewith to accomplish its
catharsis of such emotions”. Elaborate in
the light of Aristotle’s Poetics
3. Write a detailed note on Eiiot’s theory of
Impersonality of Poetry in the light of his
essay Tradition and Individual Talent
4. Discuss the methods of extracting
meanings out of a creative text as
described by Belsey in Critical Practice
 5. What is Sidney’s view of poetry? What does
Sidney say about the functions of poetry?
6. Examine critically any one ‘of the following:
a ) No! I am not Prince Hamlet, nor was meant
to be;
Am an attendant lord, one that will do
To swell a progress, start a scene or two,
Advise the prince; no doubt, an easy tool,
Deferential, glad to be of use,
Politic, cautious, and meticulous;
Full of high sentence, but a bit obtuse;
At times, indeed, almost ridiculous
Almost, at times, the Fool.
b ) Fade far away, dissolve, and quite forget
What thou among the leaves hast never
known,
The weariness, the fever, and the fret
Here, where meu sit and hear each other
groan;
Where palsy shakes a few, sad, last grey hairs,
Where youth grows pale, and spectre-thin, and
dies;
Where but to think is to be full of sorrow
And leaden-cycd despairs,
Where Beauty cannot keep her lustrous eyes,
Or new Love pine at them beyond to-morrow.
2017
Short Questions
1. What type of man is suitable for imitation
in Aristotelian Tragedy?
2. What is the importance of Plot in
structuring tragedy?
3. Define the term “Anagnorisis” given in
poetics.
4. What does Sidney say about Epic Poetry?
5. According to Sidney what is the utility of
comedy other than providing mere delight?
6. How does Sidney condemn the tragic
comedy?
7. Why does T.S. Eliot reject the theory of
“Spontaneous overflow of powerful
feelings” by Wordsworth?
8. How does Belsey see the function of
reader in literary text?
9. What is the relationship between language
and thought according to Belsey in her
book critical practice?
10. Define the term “Catharsis”.
Long Questions
1. What is Aristotle’s concept of ideal tragic
hero? How far it is applicable to the
modern tragic heroes?
 2. How does Aristotle discuss Hamartia or My cheek is cold and white, alas!
Tragic Flow in his book poetics?
3. Discuss in detail Sidney’s views on three My heart beats loud and fast;
unities and compare his views with those
Oh! Press it to thine own again,
of Dryden and Johnson.
4. Discuss T.S. Eliot’s theory of tradition and
Where it will break at last.​
individual talent.
5. How does Catherin Belsey discuss the
authority of common sense and critical
2016
theory?
6. Critically evaluate any one of the following Short Questions
excerpts:
1. According to Aristotle what aspects of life

1.Beneath the lamp the lady bowed are represented by comedy?

2. What are the six elements that make up
And slowly rolled her eyes around tragedy?
3. What is the main difference between Epic
Then drawing in her breath aloud, and Tragedy?
4. S. Eliot used the term “objective co-
Like one that shuddered, she unbound relative” what does it mean?
5. What is T.S Eliot’s opinion about
The cincture from beneath her breast
wordsworth’s theory of poetry?
6. Why does Sidney prefer poetry to
Her silken robe, and inner vest
philosophy?
7. How does Sidney define comedy?
Drop to her feet, and full in view
8. What is the function of tragedy according

Behold! Her bosom and half her side to Sidney?

9. What is Belsey’s views about classical
A sight to dream of, not to tell. realism?
10. What is the relationship between language
2.. Oh life me from the grass! and thought explained by Belsey?

I die! I faint! I fail!

Long Questions
Let thy love in kisses rain
1. What is Aristotle’s concept of “Ideal Tragic
Hero”? Discuss in detail.
On my lips and eyelids pale
 2. What are the views of Aristotle on comedy
and how does he differentiate in with Epic
poetry?
3. What were the various objection raised by
the contemporary philistines against
poetry? How does Sidney answer them?
4. Discuss T.S Eliot’s theory of Impersonality
of Poetry”.
5. How does Catherine Belsey explain the
common sense view of literature?
6. Critically evaluate any one of the following
excepts of poetry.
a. To think of time— of all that retrospection,
Have you guess’d you yourself would not
continue?
Have you dreaded these earth beetles?
Have you feared the future would be nothing
to you?
Is today nothing? Is the beginningless past
nothing?
To think that the Sun rose in the East—- that
men and women were flexible, real, alive–That
everything was alive
To think that you and I did not see, feel think,
nor bear our part,
To think that we are now here and bear out
part.
b. I hear, it was charged against me that I
sought to destroy institution.
But really I am neither for nor against
institutions,
(What indeed have I in common with them? Or
what with the destruction of theme?)
One I will establish in the Mannahatta and in
every city of these states inland and sea-
board,
And in the field and woods, and above ever
keel little or large that dents the water,
The institution of the dear love of Comrades.
2015
Short Questions
1. What type of plot does Aristotle prefer to
capture the attention of the audience?
2. Define the terms “Perripetcia” and
“Anagnorisis” given in poetics.
3. How much importance does Aristotle give
‘spectacle’, the element of tragedy?
4. What is Sidney’s opinion about the heroic
or Epic poetry?
5. Sidney says “Comedy is not merely to
provide according to Aristotle?
6. What do you mean by the phrase “objective
correlative” used by T.S Eliot?
7. Why does Eliot regard as a bad influence
on classical poetry?
8. Does T.S. Eliot accept Wordsworth’s theory
of poetry is “Spontaneous overflow of
powerful feelings”?
 9. What is Belsey’s view about classical
realism?
Long Questions
1. What is the main difference between
poetry and history? What does Aristotle
apparently mean by the term “universal”?
2. What is Aristotle’s concept of ideal tragic
hero? How far it is applicable to the
modern tragic heroes?
3. Discuss the detail Sidney’s views on three
unities and compare his view with those of
Dryden and Johnson.
4. Discuss Eliot’s concept of ‘Tradition’. What
is its role in poetic creation?
5. Describe in your own words the modern
critical methods in the light of Belsey’s
critical practice.
6. Critically evaluate any one of the following
excerpts.
a. I’m going out to clean the pasture spring;
I’ll only stop to rake the leaves away.
(And wait to watch the water clear, I may”.)
I shan’t be gone long –you come too.
I’m going out to fetch the little calf.
That’s standing by the mother. It’s so young
It totters when she licks it with her tongue,
I shan’t be going long – you come too.
b. hear it was charged against me
That I sought to destroy institutions
But really I am neither for nor against
institutions,
(What indeed have I am common with them?
Or what with the destruction of them?)
Only will establish in the Mannahatta and
in every city of these states in land and sea
board,
And in the fields and woods; and above every
keel
Little or large that dents the water,
Without edifices or rules or trustees or any
arguments,
The institution of the dear love of comrades
2014
Short Questions
1. In what three ways does Aristotle
differentiate various art forms from one
another?
2. What is the Probable impossibility as
discussed by Aristotle?
3. Which comment of T.S.Eliot does Brooks
quote about Beauty is truth”.
4. What is a “Sylvan historian” according to
Brooks?
 5. how does Sidney relate the allegation
against poetry being the mother of lies?
6. How has Sidney established that poetry in
antique and universal in nature?
7. What was Sidney’s approach on Plato’s
banishment of poets from his ideal
republic?
8. What is Belsey’s opinion about Saussure’s
theory?
9. What analogy does T.S. Eliot use for the
poet’s mind?
10. What do you understand by the term
historical sense’ as introduced by T.S.
Eliot?
Long Questions
1. Is Aristotle’s conception of plot organic
or mechanical? Explain.
2. What were the objections against poetry
that Sidney chose to answer? Evaluate
Sidney’s answers critically.
3. Eliot’s essay, The Metaphysical Poets has
brought about a revaluation and
reassessment of Donne and other
Metaphysical poets, and has caused a
revival of interest in these poets who had
been neglected for a considerable time.
Comment.
4. Cleanth Brooks proposes his methods lor
the analysis of poetry by making the
lowest examination of what the poem says
as a poem”. How does he employ this
method while he discusses/ analyses
different poems?
5. Where do we find the meaning of the text:
in the author’s head? In the readers’ Or do
we, instead, make meaning in the practice
of reading itself? If so, what part do our
own values play in the process of
interpretation? Discuss with reference to
Belsey’s Critical Practice.
6. Critically evaluate any one of the following
excerpts.
a. What would it take may standing there for,
Holding open a restive door,
Looking open a restive door,
Summer was past and the day was past.
Somber clouds in the west were massed.
Out on the j-porch’s sagging floor,
L.eaves got up in a coil and hissed,
1Blindly struck at my knee and missed
Something sinister in the tone
Told me my secret must be known:
Word I was in my life alone,
b. Somewhere I have never traveled gladly
beyond
Word I had no one lefi but God.
any experience yout èyes have their silence:
nPond most frail gesture are thigs which
enclose me,
or which I cannot touch because they are too
near
your slightest iook will easily unclose me
though I have closed myself as fingers,
Literary Criticism – Short Questions – MA
English Literature – Sargodha University
By Asad Imran
May 22, 2022
Categories: Literary Criticism, Short Questions
Aristotle’s Poetics
1 What is literary criticism?
The process of weighing a certain piece of
literature, be it in the form of prose or poetry,
under certain theories and practices is called
literary criticism.
2 What does Plato say about poetry?
Plato despised poetry on account of being used
for spreading “immorality” and “lies about gods”.
He called poetry the imitation of an imitation,
twice removed from reality.
3 The subject of ‘Republic’ is politics.
Comment.
The subject of Plato’s Republic is not politics.
The book is based on the dialogues of Socrates
on how to live life justly and happily, and in
you open always petal by petal myself as
Spring opens
(louching skillfully, mysteriously) her first rose
explaining justice, he also adds political strain
to it. Source (https://iep.utm.edu/republic/)
4 What does ‘Poetics’ deal with?
The subject matter of Aristotle’s Poetics is
Tragedy, its elements and its function on the
onlookers of tragedy.
5 How does Aristotle define poetry?
Aristotle defines poetry as an art of imitating
the world through the help of words only.
6 In what three ways does Aristotle
differentiate various art forms from one
another?
Aristotle differentiates between various forms
of arts through their object/subject matter,
medium and manner of imitation. For example,
epic and tragedy may look similar as these two
forms depict the heroic deeds of a valiant
person. However, their distinction can be
measured by their medium and manner of
imitation. The manner of imitation of epic and
tragedy is narration and action respectively.
7 What is the difference between epic poetry
and tragedy?
According to Aristotle’s Poetics, the difference
between epic poetry and tragedy lies in how
these two approach the seriousness of a given
situation. Epic poetry can include a variety of
settings and time spans whereas tragedy is
limited to few settings. However, the limitation
of epic is narration as action in tragedy is more
immersive than narration.
8 Why does Aristotle value Homer so highly as
a poet in ‘Poetics’?
Aristotle admires Homer because of the
reduction of his own narration. Instead of the
narrator bringing the story forward, the
characters in his epic move the story
ahead. Source
(https://www.sparknotes.com/philosophy/poetics/section10/#:~:text=Aristotle%20is%20clearly%
Plot
9 How does Aristotle define ‘the universal’?
Aristotle defines “the universal” as a
phenomenon mutually acceptable among the
people of all ages and time.
10 What are the three meanings of imitation?
According to Aristotle, god constructed the
universe in his own image. The universe created
by him was the exact imitation of his own idea.
Similarly, a poet creates his own image of the
world around him and uses words to recreate it.
Thus, the recreation of a poem is based on a
poet’s own imitation of his surroundings and his
surroundings are the imitation of god’s image of
the poet’s world.
11 Define the term ‘mock epic’.
Narrating a trivial happening in the guise of the
grandeur and diction of a classical epic is called
mock-epic.
12 What is the main difference between poetry
and history?
As suggested by Aristotle, history narrates
facts of a certain frame of time whereas poetry
converts these facts into universal truths.
13 What are the six parts every tragedy must-
have? Which, according to Aristotle, is the
most important?
Aristotle asserts that every tragedy has 6
formative elements. These elements are:
Character
Thought
Diction
Spectacle
Song
Out of the 6 elements listed above, Aristotle
deems plot as the most important element as,
according to him, plot helps drive action in a
tragedy.
14 What, according to Aristotle, is the primary
purpose of tragedy?
Aristotle considers arousing the emotions of a closely-knit sequence of events and actions
pity and fear among the audience and catharsis that takes a hero to his final downfall.
of such emotions as the main function of a
tragedy. Thus making them understand the 19 What is the place of suffering in tragedy?
ways of gods and men as they leave the
theatre. Source The final scene of suffering of the hero despite
his sincere efforts to solve the problem, helps a
(https://www.cliffsnotes.com/literature/a/agamemnon-
the-choephori-and-the-eumenides/critical- great deal among the audience to feel

essay/aristotle-on- sympathetic for the downfall of the hero which

leads to the catharsis of harmful emotions.
tragedy#:~:text=The%20aim%20of%20tragedy%2C%20Aristotle,ways%20of%20gods%20and%2

15 What is the place of catharsis in tragedy?
Catharsis holds an integral place in tragedy as
Aristotle calls it the main function of a tragedy.
16 What is ‘anti-climax’ in drama?
20 Among the three unities, which one is
called Aristotelian?
Among the unity of action, time and place, unity
of action the only dramatic unity that is
suggested by Aristotle.

Anti-climax is the unsatisfactory and ludicrous 21 What are the characteristics of an ideal
result/outcome of a serious and climax-building tragic hero?
situation that ends up in a disappointed or a
boring one. Source An ideal tragic hero must be:
(https://literarydevices.net/anti-climax/)
Noble

17 What is the importance of plot in tragedy? Susceptible to tragic flaws

Aristotle considers plot as the soul of tragedy.
Plot helps a tragedy move the action forward.
Aristotle deems plot more important than the
characters inhabiting it.
18 What is the opinion of Aristotle about three
unities in the play?
Aristotle did not introduce the idea of three
unities. He only mentioned one unity and that
was Unity of Action. By Unity of Action, Aristotle
asserts that a tragedy must be centred around
His downfall must be the result of peripety
and anagnorisis Source
(https://www.litcharts.com/literary-
devices-and-terms/tragic-hero)
22 Why does Aristotle consider a saintly figure
inappropriate to be a tragic hero?
Aristotle considers a saintly figure to be an
inappropriate tragic hero as his downfall, due to
his excessive goodness will not arouse the
feelings of pity among the audience as his
sacrifice will be seen as a spiritual one.
However, T. S. Eliot, in his Murder of Cathedral
has proven that even a saint can be a suitable
tragic hero.
23 What does Aristotle mean by the singleness
in tragedy?
By the singleness in a tragedy, Aristotle means
to assert that a tragedy must follow a single
organic unity of events, from the beginning, to
the middle and till the end.
24 What does the term hamartia mean?
Hamartia means the error of judgment of the
tragic hero that leads to his tragic
downfall. View Poll for narration. However, in a tragedy, language is
(https://www.facebook.com/groups/1132201936968178/posts/1976334275888269/)
moulded in such a manner that makes a tragedy
25 What is the Probable Impossibility as
discussed by Aristotle?
Probable Impossibility can be a possibility that
can be interpreted as impossible by the
audience but can be made possible with
science. (Correction will be appreciated) Source
(https://www.quora.com/What-did-Aristotle-
mean-by-Probable-impossibilities-are-to-be-
preferred-to-improbable-possibilities)
26 Why is plot more important than character
or speech in a tragedy?
Aristotle deems plot to be preferable to
character. As controversial a statement as it
may sound, by plot, Aristotle means action.
Action is the most important factor in a tragedy.
Characters or dramatic personages can exit in
theory by their names but it is action or what
they do that makes them alive to the audience.
27 What are ‘recognition’ (anagnorisis) and
‘reversal’ (peripeteia)?
Peripeteia means the reversal of a particular
situation whereas anagnorisis is the discovery
of the reversal, that is not in favour of the tragic
hero and leads to his tragic downfall.
28 What role does language play in the
development of epic and tragedy?
The role of language or diction in epic or
tragedy is largely determined by its use in the
prestigious genres of story-telling. Language in
an epic is tweaked in such a way that is suitable
presentable on stage.
29 What is peripety? What is a discovery?
What is the best form of discovery?
Already answered in Q27. The best form of
discovery is the one that is proceeded by
reversal, without any gaps, for an acute tragic
effect.
30 What are the four requirements of a
character?
A character in a tragedy must be:
Essentially good
True to life
Consistent
Appropriate
An Apology for Poetry by The word “Poet” comes from the Greek word
“poiētēs” which means “to make”. The Greeks
Sir Philip Sidney revered poets as “Makers”. Source
(https://www.merriam-webster.com/words-at-
1 Who was Philip Sidney?
play/the-history-of-the-word-poet)
6 What is the nature and function of poetry
Sir Philip Sidney was an influential literary
according to Sidney?
figure of the Elizabethan Era. Sir Philip Sidney is
known for his Astrophel and Stella and his
The nature and function of poetry, according to
Defense of Poetry against the unjust charges of
Sidney, is to imitate the objects of Nature and
Stephen Gusson. Source
to make it more serene.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_Sidney?
7 How is poetry superior to philosophy and
oldformat=true)2 What was the purpose of
history?
writing “An Apology for Poetry”?

According to Sidney, poetry is superior to

The purpose behind “An Apology to Poetry” was
philosophy and history as history deals with a
to retort the false charges of a puritan, named
particular event whereas poetry converts it into
Stephen Gusson, on poetry and contemporary
a universal one. Similarly, philosophy suggests
literature that used poetry as a manner of
what may happen but poetry also adds example
imitation.
to the perception devised under philosophy.
8 How has Sidney established that poetry is
3 Define the term Renaissance.
antique and universal in nature?

Renaissance is a term which is used as an

Sidney asserts that poetry is the most antique
indication of the period of the revival of
form of knowledge and expression among
knowledge and learning in Europe after the
Greeks and Romans. Similarly, poetry was
darkness of the Medieval Era
universally adopted and nurtured from Red

4 What two ideas does “An Apology for Poetry”
deal with?
“An Apology to Poetry” not only deals with
refuting the charges levelled against poetry but
also highlights the importance as well as
superiority of poetry.
5 What is the origin and meaning of the word
“poet”?
Indians to Englishmen as well. Source
(https://www.literaturexpres.com/antiquity-
and-universality/)
9 What, according to Sidney, is the relationship
between pleasure and learning?
According to Sidney, the relationship between
pleasure and learning is essential for
knowledge. Poetry has the ability to make
someone learn sciences and arts with
pleasure.
10 How does the poet’s art differ from that of
the astronomer, geometrician, moral
philosopher, rhetorician, and others?
A poet’s art differs from others as he draws his
inspiration from his everyday experience of his
surroundings. Whereas an astronomer or a
mathematician might be inefficient in his
findings.
11 What, according to Sidney, did Greeks mean
by the philosophical term architectonike?
According to Greeks, the term architectonike
was used to denote the structural unity of a
piece of literature.
12 Is Sidney’s idea of mimesis Platonic or
Aristotelian?
Sidney’s idea of mimesis is Aristotelian. Sidney
follows the concept of Aristotle in defining
poetry as an imitation of the poet’s creative
facility but he also adds the element of teaching
as a purpose of poetry other than delight.
13 What are the three kinds of poetry
according to Sidney?
Sidney asserts that there are three kinds of
poetry which are listed below:
Religious Poetry: The most notable form of
poetry that revolves around the
“inconceivable excellencies of God”
Philosophical Poetry:
Imaginative Poetry: This kind of poetry is
composed by the poets who provide learning
and delightfulness in their compositions.
14 What is Elegy?
An elegy is a kind of subjective poem, that is
sombre or serious in nature and revolves around
a person who is dead. For example, the poem, O
Captain! My Captain! is an elegy composed by
Whitman on the departure of Abraham Lincoln.
15 What is the essence of Sidney’s defence
against poetry?
Sidney asserts that poetry is not a waste of
time as it is the most fruitful form of learning.
He further suggests that poetry is not a mother
of lies as he thinks a poet is the most truthful
being. Answering the charge of poetry
spreading immorality, he says that it is a poet’s
fault to use poetry for immoral purposes. Lastly,
he answers that Plato was not against poets but
the bad use of poetry.
16 What is Sidney’s opinion about the heroic or
Epic poetry?
Sidney is of the view that Epic or heroic poetry
is the greatest form of poetry that compels
readers to learn heroic deeds through the
heroes of great merit.
17 Why does Sidney says, “Comedy is not
merely to provide laughter”.
Sidney suggests that comedy should also
provide delight with learning.
18 What are the main objections brought
against poetry by its enemies?
Stephen Gosson, in his School of Abuse, levels
out these charges against poetry:
 Poetry is a waste of time.
Poetry is a mother of lies.
Poetry is a nurse of abuse.
Plato had rightly banished poets from his
Republic.
19 To what extent, ultimately, does Sidney
agree with Horace about the aim or “end” of
poetry?
Horace famously asserts that the aim of poetry
is to teach and provide delightfulness. Sidney
also agrees to Horace but he adds morality to
the mix.
20 Does “rhyming and versing” make a poet,
according to Sidney?
Sidney asserts that rhyme and versification
alone cannot make one a poet. It is his ability to
fuse images of virtues and vices with the
intention of making readers learn that makes
him a poet.
21 How does Sidney refute the allegation
against poetry that it is bound up with
“rhyming and versing”?
Sidney refutes poetry being tied to “rhyming and
versing” by presenting the Bible of the Old
Testament as an example of poetry. Be it Song
of Songs by Solomon, Psalms of David or the
Book of Job. Sidney also believes that it is a
person’s ability to imitate the world that makes
him a poet.
22 How does Sidney refute the allegation
against poetry being the waste of time?
Sidney rebuts the first allegation of poetry
being a waste of time by asserting that poetry is
the noblest and most fruitful form of learning.
By learning, he means virtuous deeds and
actions.
23 How does Sidney refute the allegation
against poetry being the mother of lies?
Sidney answers that a poet is the least a liar.
Unlike astronauts, physicians or historians, who
strive to elaborate what is and what is not, a
poet simply tells what should be and what
should not be.
24 How does Sidney refute the allegation
against poetry being the nurse of abuse?
Puritans like Gusson considered poetry as a
nurse of abuse as, according to them, it would
arouse lustful feelings among the readers.
Sidney replies that it is not the fault of poetry
for being considered as a medium of
immorality, it is the fault of those poets who
infact their poetry with immorality.
25 What was Sidney’s approach on Plato’s
banishment of poets from his ideal republic?
It was considered by Puritans that Plato
rightfully banished poets from his ideal
Republic because of their immoral poetry.
Sidney answered that Plato’s own republic was
based on many immoral ideas (i.e allowing
sexual relationships). Sidney further explained
that Plato was against the immorality and
disrespectfulness of gods in his Republic.
Sidney assumed Plato is a patron of poets.
26 Why has England grown so hard a step-
mother to poets? Asks Sidney.
Sidney himself answers the question asked
above by asserting that England has no good
poets as the poets of England try to produce
poetry like a product in a factory. They lack the
genuine instinct of a poet. Source
(http://neoenglishsystem.blogspot.com/2010/12/examine-
in-detail-main-ideas-in-sidneys.html)
27 What should be the qualities of a tragedy
according to Sidney?
According to Sidney, a tragedy should:
Imitate a noble action
The noble action should stir the admiration
and sympathy for the hero among the
audience
28 What should be the qualities of a comedy
according to Sidney?
Sidney suggests that a comedy should:
Imitate common errors of life in a ridiculous
manner
Provoke the audience to avoid such errors
Promote delightful learning Source
(https://neoenglish.wordpress.com/2010/12/16/critically-
examine-sidneys-views-on-a-tragedy-and-
tragi-comedy-b-comedy-and-c-the-
dramatic-unities/)
29 What argument does Sidney make
concerning the unity of place? Does his
comment seem fitting? Why or why not?
While mentioning Unity of Place, Sidney
maintains that the rapid change of place or
setting should be avoided. He thinks that usage
of the same stage for a garden, cave or a
pitched field can render a play unnatural.
According to my feeble judgement, the
comment of Sidney on Unity of Place does not
seem fitting as the audience of the play can
overcome the rapid shift of places on the same
stage by unconsciously applying willing
suspension of disbelief when watching a
play. Source
(https://spengtutor.blogspot.com/2020/04/sidn
view-on-three-unities-expressed.html)
30 What is the value of Sidney’s criticism?
Sidney’s criticism holds a strong value among
the other critics preceding next to him as he not
only presented sound theories but elaborated
them with practical criticism. His criticism is
also important for defending poetry against the
unjust allegations of Stephen Gosson.
Tradition and Individual
Talent by TS Eliot
1 Why does Eliot oppose the romantic
conceptions in his famous theory of
impersonality in Art?
Eliot opposes the romantic conception because
he thinks poetry should be an outcome of the
impersonal experience of the poet. The
subjectivity in romanticism dismays him the
most.
2 What is T.S. Eliot’s view about Wordsworth’s
theory of “Spontaneous overflow of powerful
emotions”?
Eliot rejects the Wordsworthian conception of
poetry. He considers poetry as an organization
of the feelings collected through objective
observation.
3 Why, according to Eliot “emotions
recollected in tranquillity” is an inexact
formula?
T. S. Eliot considers the Wordsworthian maxim
of poetry inexact because he thinks poetry has
no relations with tranquillity and emotions. He
considers poetry as an outcome of experiences
that are not subjective.
4 What does Eliot want from a poet?
Eliot wants from a poet to compose his work
based on his collected experiences. During the
poetic process, he should completely remove
himself from the poetry.
5 Enumerate the essential qualities of a good
critic?
According to T. S. Eliot, a good critic is the one
who remains completely impartial, objective
and unprejudiced in his approach, has a highly
trained sensibility as well as has a knowledge of
structural principles.
6 Define “Tradition” in the light of Eliot’s essay
Tradition and the Individual Talent.
According to Eliot, tradition is the living of the
present, formulated by the incidents of the past
and history.
7 Why does T.S. Eliot reject the theory of
“Spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings”
by Wordsworth?
Eliot rejects the Wordsworthian notion of
poetry because he thinks that the uncontrolled
emotions can give rise to chaotic literature and
also, he asserts that poetry is not about
personal emotions but about the impersonal
experience.
8 Eliot used the term “objective co-relative”
what does it mean?
Objective correlative is a term deviced by Eliot
which means objectives, events and chain of
situations which will arouse particular emotion
in the reader.
9 Why does Eliot regard Milton as a bad
influence on classical poetry?
Eliot regards Milton as a bad influence on
Classical Poetry because of:
His lack of eyesight
His use of archaic or dead language
His style is not classical
Critical Practise by
Catherine Belsey
1 Who was Catherine Belsey?
Catherine Belsey was a professor and a literary
critic whose work centred around post-
structuralism.
2 What subject does Belsey deal in Critical
Practice?
In Critical Practice, Catherine Belsey discusses
different theories to approach the meaning of a
literary text.
3 What is Belsey’s view about Classical
Realism?
According to Belsey, Classical Realism tends to
display individuals as characters whose
development are throttled by their choices. She
thinks that this kind of realism was a tool to
propagate certain agendas in the eighteenth
and nineteenth centuries.
4 What does Belsey mean by Expressive
Realism?
Belsey defines Expressive Realism as thus,
“The theory that literature reflects the reality of
experience, as it is perceived by one individual,
who expresses it in a discourse which enables
other individuals to recognise it as true. ”
Belsey, by Expressive Realism, means to suggest
that reality lies in text as perceived by a reader.
Who, then, passes his experience of reality to
others. “
5 How much the common-sense view of
literature is justified? Discuss with reference
to Belsey’s arguments.
The common-sense view of literature is partly
justified and partly refuted by Belsey. Belsey, at
first, accepts it as a natural response of a
reader to a literary text. But, later, she rejects it
as the learning or response of the common
sense of a reader can prove insignificant once
the author chooses a different set of words to
express the same idea.
6 What relationship does Belsey establish
between criticism and common sense?
Belsey draws relationship between Criticism
and Common Sense through the journey from
natural acquisition of meaning to something
that is obvious within the text.
7 What, according to Belsey, is the difference
between common sense and literary theory?
According to Belsey, the difference between
common sense and literary theory
How does Belsey discuss the authority of
common sense with respect to Saussure’s view
of linguistic theory?
8 What is Belsey’s opinion about Saussure’s
theory?
Belsey’s opinion regarding Saussure’s theory
which argued that the lingual analysis of a word
should be performed according to a specific
period of time, is mostly positive. She asserts
that Saussure’s linguistic approach has
eradicated the obscurities between the
relationship of a language with the ideology of a
certain word.
9 Explain the Post-Saussurean notion that the
transparency of language is an illusion.
According to this notion, the transparency of
the signifier can lead to the illusionary version
of the signified. For instance, in French, the
word (signifier) “mouton” is used to refer to the
two different signifieds, muton and sheep
simultaneously. Thus the dual meaning of the
aforementioned signifier is illusionary as it may
hint incorrectly hint at the meat when the
author intended for sheep.
10 What is post-structuralism?
Post-structuralism is a term that is used to
refer to the rejection of ideas and theories
offered and proposed by the
structuralists. Source
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-
structuralism?oldformat=true)
11 What are the three kinds of the texts
mention by Belsey?
Declarative Text: Which declares a certain
ideology in it
Imperative Text: Which compels a reader to
think against a certain ideology
Interrogative Text: The text which makes a
reader question the way a text is constricted
and the ideology which comes with it.
12 What do you understand by Dialectical
Text?
Dialectical Text showcases the address of a
speaker to a specific set of people in the form
of text. The speaker attempts to bring home his
philosophical and logical stance by asking and
answering. Source
(http://www.differencebetween.net/language/th
difference-between-rhetoric-and-
dialectic/#:~:text=Rhetoric%20is%20also%20r
13 Differentiate between Dialectical and the
Rhetorical Text.
Dialectical text may only appeal a specific
number of people, Rhetorical Text is intended to
be read by a large number of people. Source
(http://www.differencebetween.net/language/th
difference-between-rhetoric-and-
dialectic/#:~:text=Rhetoric%20is%20also%20r
14 Critical Practice is produced with a bias
in favour of the Interrogative Text. Do you
agree?
Critical Practice is written in such a way that it
seems as if it is biased
against favouring Interrogative Text, especially
her rejecting Expressive Realism and her keen
interest in deconstruction.
15 Discuss the concept of split and unfixed
subject with reference to the Interrogative
Text.
Will be answered later.
16 What, according to Lacan, are the three
stages of child development?
Lucan suggests three stages of child
development:
 The Real: The fulfilment of a child’s need
through his movements of urge.
The Imaginative Order: In this stage, a child’s
need may turn into (fantastic) demands as
he learns to differentiate between himself
and others as he looks into the mirror and
tries to control his (Imaginative) image
The Symbolic Order: A child’s acceptance of
the rules of the language of his society and
his ability to communicate regarding his
desires to the people around him. Source
(https://cla.purdue.edu/academic/english/theory/psychoanalysis/lacanstructure.html)
In literature, discourse is a term that is used to
17 In what ways did New Critics change the
approach of criticism towards a literary text?
Before New Criticism, the meaning of the text
was approached through its social and moral
context. New Critics emphasized that the
meaning of the text lied in the structure of the
text itself. They put text at the forefront of
criticism.
18 How can meaning be constructed by
reproducing what is familiar?
Deriving a meaning out of a familiar word
through its reproduction can be done by looking
into its usage by the people at a time.
19 Discuss Belsey’s arguments in the favour of
structural criticism.
Belsey favours Structural Criticism by arguing
that the meaning of a text lies in the structure
of the ideology of a society. For her, what
matters is not text but how and why the
meaning is extracted out of the text.
20 What are the three features that describe a
Classic Realist text?
1. It suppresses contradictions
2. Compels a reader to assume the position
that whatever he read is obvious
3. It is mystical (and enigmatic) by its
constructive nature.
21 Define the terms ideology and discourse
and explain their relationship to each other.
highlight the process of the presentation of
one’s thought through language. Ideology,
however, is the structure of beliefs and customs
which binds certain people together. Discourse
helps in providing ideology, a concrete shape of
words while ideology serves a key role in
shaping one’s discourse. Read more
(https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/73006)
22 How does ideology shape the subject?
Ideology shapes the subject by infusing itself
into the text, without a reader realizing it.
23 Can the subject find its way out of
ideology?
Ideology holds a firm grip in language and a
subject is also expressed in that language, the
subject cannot find its way out of a certain
ideology.
24 “There is no criticism without ideology”.
How does Belsey argue this thesis?
Belsey asserts that ideological beliefs are
personal and personal interpretation of a text
can be illusionary. In short, she rejects this
notion.
25 What is the influence of Marx and Althusser
on literary criticism?
Althusser believed that ideological propagation
in a text was only devised to achieve the goal of
controlling the narrative of the people. He
introduced the ideological effects of a text in
literary criticism. Source
(https://literariness.org/2016/04/12/althusserian-
marxism/amp/)
26 What is Deconstruction method? How has it
changed the concept of modern criticism?
Deconstruction is a close (structural) study of
the text. Deconstruction, in criticism, shifted
the authority of the author to the authority of
the reader in interpreting his text.
27 Explain the deconstruction of the text with
reference to Barthes and Macherey.
Barthes, in reference to deconstruction,
claimed in his “Death of the Author” that the
author knew about the book he wrote no more
than the reader.
28 Where does the meaning lie: in the text, the
reader, the writer, or the structure?
Expressive Realism in Critical Practice by
Catherine Belsey
Belsey asserts that the meaning of a text lise in
the structure of social formation.
29 Discuss the methods of extracting
meanings out of a creative text as described
by Belsey.
Belsey proposes the following methods:
Analytical Criticism: In which a reader
evaluates the different images presented in
the text.
Evaluating Criticism: In which the facts
contained in the text are evaluated.
30 What are the problems involved in the
production of text?
The chief problem involved in the production of
text is the allocation of an author’s intended
meaning inside it. As meaning may differ from a
reader who is casually reading his text to a critic
who is evaluating his text on the basis of factual
raw materials in his text.
31 What are the major drawbacks preventing
the attainment of a new and productive
critical practice?
The evaluation of the text will not be up to the
mark of the current necessities of the time.
By Asad Imran
July 13, 2022
Categories: Literary Criticism

Introductory
Catherine Belsey, in her Critical Practice,
strives to pinpoint the location of the meaning
of a text being criticized. Expressive Realism
places the author at the centre of the text and
makes him the only source of meaning of the
text for a reader. New Critics, who went ahead
to challenge Expressive Realism also became
an extension of Expressive Realism. Before
diving deep into the theory of Expressive
Realism, it is essential to know what realism
actually is.
Realism and Classical
Realism
Realism was a literary movement of the 19th
century, set in direct response to Romanticism
to portray and describe people, their feelings
and emotions as they actually are in real life,
without fantasizing it.
Classical Realism, according to Belsey, aimed at
propagating a specific version of ideology in a
capitalist system from 19th to 20th century.
That ideology would be pumped through books,
electronic and print media and it would become
the only source of meaning for the people as the
material was available in abundance and in a
language a significant majority of the people
knew and were familiar with.
Expressive Realism
A combination of two words, “Expressive” and
“Realism” hint at the realism perceived or
expressed through text. Expressive Realism is a
fusion of two concepts, the concept of Aristotle
of art as mimesis is combined with the concept
of Romantics of art as an expression of the
emotions of a person. The chief characteristics
of Expressive Realism are as below:
1. Expressive Realism puts a great deal of
emphasis on honesty and immediacy, and
rejects the inclusion of implausibility and
ideology.
2. Expressive Realism favours the notion that
literature is a reflection of life.
3. Expressive Realism deems literature as
authentic when it correctly describes social
relationships or highlights the inner
experience of a person’s struggle for
identity.
Catherine Belsey defines Expressive Realism as
thus, The theory that literature reflects the
reality of experience, as it is perceived by one
individual, who expresses it in a discourse
which enables other individuals to recognise it
as true.
As is evident from the definition of Expressive
Realism by Belsey, author is the centre of
meaning in the theory of Expressive Realism.
Challenges to Expressive Northrop Frye, an influential Canadian literary
critic of the 20th century, also rejects the idea
Realism of the projection of realism in literary texts. He
suggests that the depiction of realism is
The inclusion of Aristotelian as well as
undesirable and disdainful. He considers the
Romantic concepts of mimesis and expression
literature based on realism as immature and
of emotions respectively in the theory of
asserts that imaginative elements tend to
Expressive Realism lead to many challenges
appeal to more readers. Frye also asserts that a
and even rejections by the critics of the
writer’s aim is to produce a structure of words
twentieth century.
for words themselves, thus rejecting the
authority of author’s own expression as
New Critics concluded by Expressive Realism. Frye’s stance
is valid on the grounds of linguistics but his
The first notable challenge to Expressive
approach is limited to linguistics only as he
Realism came from New Critics like Thomas
ignores historical as well as cultural background
Stearns Eliot and Cleanth Brooks who claimed
which are linked indirectly to Expressive
that the meaning of a text lied in the text itself,
Realism.
not in the author. New Critics were of the view
that it was neither desirable nor possible to look
Reader Response Theory
for the intentions of an author while scanning
the text. They were keener on finding the
Reader Power or Reader Response Theory is
meaning of a text by peering through
considered as a serious threat to the authority
conventional elements of close-up readings like
of author in Expressive Realism. As is evident
themes, symbols, images, rhyme, meter,
from the name, the Reader Power Theory
characterization and plot etc. However, Belsey
constitutes the (well-informed) reader as an
rejects the idea of text as a source of meaning
authority for the interpretation of text. This
as text is written in a language and every
theory distinguishes the reader as an active
language has its own system of meanings,
agent who “imparts real existence” and
always going through the phases of evolution
completes its meaning after interpretation. The
and a shift of meanings is observed with the
reader makes use of the stylistic devices to
passage of time. Personally, the idea of text as a
construct the meaning. His psychological
source of meaning is not a challenge to
involvement is also an important factor behind
Expressive Realism as the text itself is an
a reader’s quest to figure out the meaning. This
outcome of the author’s own creative process,
theory also failed in challenging the authority of
involving observation, organization and then
an author as a reader’s own miscalculation of
framing them into text.
the result of an event can be contradictory to
the actual outcome, as intended by the author.
Northrop Frye
And the signifying system of each living society
of different time is different than the other.
Post-Saussurean Linguistics
In Post-Saussurean Linguistics, language is
classified as a system in which an individual
produces the meaning. A child learns to
differentiate different concepts through
socially controlled signified (a signified in
linguistics means the actual thing a signifier is
referring to. For example, the signifier
“smartphone” refers to a signified which is an
electronic device with large touch screen which
enables us to connect globally). This further
proves the point that language, in an individual
already exists as a child is already provided with
a signifying system particular to that society.
Language not only contains signifying systems,
but also images, social behaviours, gestures.
But most importantly, language is the “most
practical way of communication”. Thus, Belsey
concludes,
From this post-Saussurean perspective, it is
clear that the theory of literature as expressive
realism is no longer tangible, because, since
Extracting the Meaning out of a Text – Critical
Pracrise – Catherine Belsey
By Asad Imran
July 29, 2022
Categories: Literary Criticism
realism reflects the word constructed in
language.
Conclusion
Expressive Realism favours the projection of
reality but that reality is personal and is milited
to the people of a particular society and time
only. It is difficult, if not impossible to approach
the realism as expressed by the author but a
reader or a critic has to make himself aware of
the language of the society in which the author
lived while linking the historical, cultural and
economic background of his society in his work
being scrutinised.
Sources and Suggested
Readings
1. https://literarydevices.net/realism/
(https://draft.blogger.com/blog/post/edit/23
2. https://www.dartmouth.edu/~engl5vr/third.h
(https://draft.blogger.com/blog/post/edit/23
3. http://epicnotes1.blogspot.com/2017/05/crit
practice-by-catherine-belsey.html
(https://draft.blogger.com/blog/post/edit/23
Introductory
Catherine Belsey’s Critical Practice is all about
the extraction of the meaning out of a given
text. In this book, she does not tell a definite
method for the extraction of meaning, but she
explains theories being brought up through the
different schools of thought which were set
against the Common Sense view of Literature
like New Criticism and Reader Power. Belsey
was of the view that those theories were
trapped in their own problems of Common
Sense. She further claims that it was Post-
Saussurean Linguistics which guided the
literary and practical criticism to find out the
meaning of a text, not in the author, text or
reader but in the structure.
Common Sense
The common sense view of literature
propounds that literature is a (true) reflection of
one’s everyday life. Literature is based on
universal concepts. This is the reason behind
the familiarity of the characters in a novel or a
play to a reader as the characters are drawn
from real life. Such literature is produced
through the writers who take inspiration for
their stories from the observation of their own
society. Thus, a writer’s age and his life play an
important role in deducting the meaning of his
works. The interpretation of these works do not
require the knowledge of fancy theories as the
events presented in them are already
experienced by the readers. But it is worth
noting that the Common Sense View of
Literature is backed up by the theories of
Imitation, Humanism and Romanticism.
Expressive Realism is a critical practice based
on Common Sense.
New Criticism
New Critics, a group consisting of Thomas
Stearns Eliot, R. P. Warren, I. A. Richards, J. C.
Ransom and Cleanth Brooks, sought to liberate
the text out of the influence of the author. They
claimed that the meaning of a work does not lie
in the author, but in the text itself. Their version
of criticism was limited to a close reading of the
text and dissection of textual qualities like the
use of literary and structural devices. Belsey
rejected the practices of New Criticism as she
claimed that it was not correct to claim text as
the origin of meaning because the text is
written in a language and every language has its
own set of symbols which are used differently
by different people. If the text was not
conveying the intended meaning, then the
actual meaning was stored in the mind of the
author who wrote it. Thus, recognizing New
Criticism an extension of Common Sense.
Reader Power Theory
Reader Response Theory recognizes the reader
as a source of the meaning of the text he reads.
According to the particular theory, a reader is
an active agent who completes the meaning of
a text through his already acquired knowledge,
his emotions, his psyche and his day-to-day
observation. This theory was also rejected as a
reader was vulnerable to the false
interpretation of a text which would lead to a
meaning contrary to what the author intended.
Structuralism
Belsey asserts that the meaning of a work Methods for the Extraction
neither lies in the author, nor in the text or the
reader, but in the structure of social formation.
of Meaning
(This structure of social formation can be
Catherine Belsey has outlined two approaches
loosely termed as Structuralism). The Linguistic
to find out the meaning of a creative text.
Theory of Ferdinand de Saussure who divided
linguistic signs into Signifier and Signified
(learn more about them through this link). A
Analytical Criticism
Signifier is either a spoken or a written
This version of criticism or the process of the
symbol/image whereas a Signified is a concept
extraction of meaning involves the image of a
linked directly to the concerned Signifier. For
reader in the mind of a writer when he is
example, the image of “chair” is associated with
developing his work. Thus, the first critic is the
a small piece of furniture with four legs and a
writer himself and as the text travels to the
back that is used for people to sit on it. The
reader, he unconsciously becomes a critic too
formation of the connection between Signifier
as he tries to fill in the gaps of meanings left by
and Signified is not controllable and is
the author. But a writer also optimises his work
dependent on the culture of a specific time and
on the basis of the society he is targeting. Thus,
place.
for a common reader to assess the meaning out

Langue is a system of rules for a specific
language. Whereas Parole is a person’s
utilization of the rules specified by the Langue
when he speaks or writes something. Similarly,
a society functions on a specific set of rules,
beliefs and customs which can be termed as the
of a writer’s work, he has to make himself
acquainted with the psychology and activities
of the writer as well as the prominent themes of
a literary work. Common Sense and Classical
Realism are two notable movements
representing Analytical Criticism.

Langue of that society, and the thoughts and

views of an individual person, a Parole
dependent on Langue. The unconscious
expression of an individual becomes a part of
the overall belief of a society which Belsey calls
Evaluating Criticism
This kind of criticism prioritizes text over a
reader or a writer. It is based on the facts and

an ideology. This is the reason behind the
rejection of the individual as a source of
meaning as the meaning is generated through
the social formation. So, the quest of meaning
of a work should revolve around the social,
political and economic conditions of a society.
content provided under text. The followers of
this critical technique do not hold the
importance of the personal life of an author or
the image of a reader as they deem (the
structure of) text as the only complete source
of meaning. Catherine Belsey also seems to be
favouring this technique as she advocates the
dissection of a text over its lingual roots.
Conclusion Source

It is difficult to deny the significance of an 1. http://epicnotes1.blogspot.com/2017/05/crit

author, his text or the reader he is writing when practice-by-catherine-belsey.html
approaching for the meaning. Removal of one (https://draft.blogger.com/blog/post/edit/23
entity can result in a meaning which may lack
individual, cultural or lingual strain in it.
 Li
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50
An Introduction to Essays
By Asad Imran
February 25, 2021
Categories: Literary Essays
Definitions
An essay is a loose sally of the mind, an
indigestive piece, not a regular and ordinary
composition. Dr. Johnson
Essay is a literary composition, usually in
prose and short. Oxford Dictionary
Literary essays are evaluation of a piece of
work, an era of literature, a literary movement
or any special aspect of it.
The definition of Dr. Johnson fits perfectly to
the essays presented by Sir Francis Bacon. All
other kind of “regular” essays follow the
Oxfordian definition but without writing abort.
A literary essay must be composed of 3,000
words at least.
Foundation of an Essay
An ideal essay has an introductory phase,
body and conclusive phase. The introductory
phase focuses on providing an introduction to
a specific topic. The body is the main lengthy
part of an essay in which a topic is discussed
thoroughly. The conclusive phase gives an
essay a conclusion of the particular topic. The
introductory phase and the conclusive phase
must be allocated 20 % of the entire essay
while the other 80 % must be dedicated for its
body.
Important Aspects behind
Writing an Essay
1. Reading: Firstly, one must read books to
accumulate the baseline for one’s essay.
2. Observation: One must observe one’s
surroundings and ponder over one’s
findings in the context of one’s essay.
3. Thinking: It is the most important factor
behind writing an essay. One must think
about how one will tabulate and divide
one’s essays in solitude.
4. Writing: When everything is thought up
appropriately about an essay, one should
start writing it.
Qualities of a Good Essay
Unity: A good essay presents its content by
keeping its unity. Unity in an essay means
that the essay is only about a specific topic
and does not include any other irrelevant
details.
 Coherence: A well-written essay is
presented in a logical manner. Its
development of points is governed by the
sequence.
Balance: A good essay is a good blend of
balanced introduction, body and
conclusion.
Types of Essays
Narrative Essays: These kinds of essays deal
with the narration of an incident or a
personality in a chronological level.
Examples: A Trip to Lahore, My First Day in
School or Quaid-e-Azam.
Descriptive Essays: These type of essays
present an incident, place or country in a
descriptive manner.
A Critical Essay on the Aristotelian Concept
of Greek Tragedy (4355 Words)
By Asad Imran
April 8, 2021
Categories: Literary Essays
Introductory
Greek Tragedy, though an old genre it is, but it
is still a genre of great significance, important
and inspirational for modern plays in general
Example: Geography of Pakistan or The
Himalayas
Reflective Essays: These kind of essays are
written after being thought, observed and
analyzed by our brain. It is rather difficult to
compose such essays because of the mental
labour they require.
Examples: Corruption, Terrorism
Argumentative Essays: This is the most
difficult kind of essay to write as one has to
present one’s arguments and the arguments
on the behalf of another person through one’s
brain.
Thankfully, most of the literary essays belong
to the narrative side of the essay.
and modern tragedies In particular. But what
is a Greek Tragedy and how did it originate
and what set it apart from the rest of
tragedies like Shakespearean or Marlowian
ones? Let’s begin:
The word “Tragedy” is derived from a Greek
word tragōidia which means “a goat’s song”.
But it is a play that is serious in nature so what
is its relation to goats? During the festival of
Dionysus, 4 plays were presented in which
three of these plays were serious tragedies
but one of them was a comic play dedicated
for tragic relief. The writer of the best play was
awarded with a goat.
The difference between modern tragedy and a
typical Greek tragedy lies in its ending. A
modern tragedy ends on a serious note while
it was not essential for a Greek Tragedy to end
in a serious note. It would house some tragic
scenes in either its beginning or middle but it
would end happily. In order to understand a
Greek tragedy, we have to resort to Aristotle.
Although he presented 4 plots, one of them
transcended from misery to happiness but
Aristotle favoured the modern-day plot for a
tragedy that would start happily and would
end in tragic misery.
Aristotle’s Concept of Greek
Tragedy
Aristotle defines the concept of an ideal
(Greek) tragedy as follows,
Tragedy, then, is a representation of
an action that is worth serious
attention, complete in itself, and of
some magnitude in language
enriched by a variety of artistic
devices appropriate to the several
parts of the play; presented in the
form of action, not narration; by
means of pity and fear bringing
about the purgation of such
emotions.
This is, by far, one of the most comprehensive
definitions of tragedy. It can be divided into
the two parts for a better comprehension of
the classic genre. The first half deals with the
imitative enterprise while the second half
makes clear the functions of a tragedy.
Imitative Enterprise of the
Classical Tragedy
Before discussing at length about the imitative
qualities of an ancient tragedy, first, we have
to make ourselves acquainted with the term
imitation itself. The literal meaning of
Imitation is to copy or to mimic a person or a
thing into a different thing. For example, the
sea is an actual earthly body, painting it to a
canvas can be called a visual imitation of the
sea.
Plato used the term imitative arts in his book,
discussing about an ideal state, to define
“useless” arts in contrast to the “useful” arts
he divided. He condemned the “useless” arts
especially poetry by calling it an “imitation of
an imitation, twice removed from reality. ”
Plato deemed the whole world an imitation of
god’s idea of creating a world. He suggested
that he would banish poets from his ideal
republic for spreading ‘lies’.
However Aristotle came in defence of poetry
as an imitation of the “poet’s idea” that he
derives from the actual world itself. Aristotle
further divided the concept of imitation into
three sub-categories,
Object or Subject Matter of Imitation
Medium of Imitation
Manner of Imitation
Let’s discuss this in connection with Aristotle’s
definition of tragedy since Aristotle deems it
one among the imitative arts.
Object of Tragedy
Object or subject-matter of an imitation
means the source or the topic of an imitation.
Tragedy, in this regard, differs itself from its
sister genre comedy. As the name suggests,
the subject matter of a typical Greek Tragedy
is serious. While comedy follows a light or
satiristic object in it. It is the subject matter
that determines the function of an imitation.
That is why, the function of tragedy of bringing
about the catharsis of the emotions of fear
and pity, as compared to the comedy which is
only purposed for spreading waves of laughter
and smiles.
Manner of Tragedy
Manner of an imitation means how it is
presented before its audience. Classical
tragedy differs from an epic in this field. The
two prestigious genres may present a serious
story but in a different manner. An epic
presents an incident through narration. But a
tragedy presents a story with action on the
stage. When a story is presented through
actors performing on stage, it makes the story
more immersive and understandable.
Medium of Tragedy
Medium of Imitation means what medium is
used to illustrate it. We may set a distinction
of tragedy with a lyric. Although both of the
genres use verse to convey their idea to the
public. Tragedy uses dialogues to unfold the
hidden action to its audience.
Proper Plot
One of the core requirements of a tragedy that
it should be complete. Which means that it
should not leave any patch of the story
behind. It must have a proper plot with an
appropriate beginning, middle and the end.
Beginning means the action that is not
followed by a prior action and establishes a
base for the story. Usually, characters and
problems are introduced in this phase. The
middle follows the beginning and then gives
rise to the ending. It is a point in which a
solution to the problem is exposed and the
hero or characters try to alleviate the problem.
While the ending follows the middle but it is
NOT followed by anything. This is a crucial
part of a story as it can either make or break a
story. Almost all the Greek Tragedies
unintentionally followed the simple concept of
plot structure to bring home the message of a
story (mostly the role of gods) to the people.
Magnitude
Some critics argue that magnitude, in
Aristotle’s definition of tragedy, means a grand
story or subject matter. But Aristotle meant it
for the length. He suggests that tragedy
should not be too long that people find it
difficult to recall and not too short that people
cannot even understand the story. Its length
should be maintained appropriately so that it
may be performed within a day and actors
may remember dialogues easier.
Law of Probability and
Necessity
This law means that the actions of a character
must be up to the mark of people’s
expectations. His actions must be justifiable
and should align properly with the story.
Similarly, his actions must be necessary in
accordance with the story. For instance,
Oedipus was expected to send a person to
Delphi to bring an Oracle that may help his
people get out of the plague. But he had
already sent one. Oedipus’ action was
necessary and appropriate to the demanding
situation and problem. So, he emerged as a
responsible figure in Thebes.
Functions of Classical Greek
Tragedy
Aristotle makes it obscurely easy for us to
trace the functions of the Greek tragedy since
he has mentioned it in his definition. Its main
function is to bring about the catharsis of the
emotions of pity and fear. But his
interpretation of functions of tragedy is lost
that he supposedly may have discussed it in
the second half of his Poetics. Therefore,
different interpretations of catharsis have
been exposed by different critics.
Purgation Theory
Purgation Theory deals with the medical side
of Catharsis. In ancient times, Greeks believed
that a human body was made of four humours
(liquids), which were blood, black bile, yellow
bile and plagum. A proper balance was
essential to maintain a healthy life but excess
of one of the humours could put the life of a
human being at stake. Therefore, partial
removal of excess was known as “Purgation”.
Like Curing the Like
Behind this rhetoric was the concept of
homoeopathic treatment. It was explained
that “a little solution of something can cure
the excess of the same thing. ” But this
homoeopathic interpretation does not make
any direct sense in the realm of tragedy. This
segment of the theory says that the scenes of
fear may cure the fear in the audience the
same way as a crying child is silenced by the
sound of something or music, calming a
mental melancholy.
Unlike Curing the Unlike
This neo-classic and allopathic segment says
that an excess of something can be cured by
its opposite counterpart. Critics of the
eighteenth century believed that one of the
major problems of their society was pride and
anger. That pride and anger could be cured by
their opposite emotions of pity and fear
respectively.
Purification Theory
Purification theory also deals with the
alleviation bad emotions but differently as
compared to the above-mentioned theory of
purgation. Purification deals with the quality of to extent that a tragedy can be without a
emotions that are to be purified from the
excess of those emotions and those emotions
to return or reduced to an intermediate state.
Clarification Theory
Clarification Theory overlooks the above-
mentioned theories of catharsis that put the
audience of a tragedy at the centre. Rather it
puts the pleasure within a tragedy on top of
the hill. But that pleasure is to be attained by
learning. That learning comes through the
probable actions in the play. Therefore, the
centre of catharsis is the spectator who learns
from the probable actions of a hero.
Six Formative Elements of
Greek Tragedy as Discussed
by Aristotle
Aristotle says that an ideal tragedy is made of
six essential elements that are plot, character,
thought, diction, spectacle and song. The first
three are internal elements while the latter
three are external. Plots, characters and
thoughts are the subject matter of a tragedy.
Diction and song are medium of tragedy while
spectacle is the manner of tragedy.
Plot
Plot means an arrangement of events or
incidents that happen in a story. These
arrangements are set by the author himself.
According to Aristotle, plot is the most
important element of a tragedy. He even goes
character but not without a plot. This
statement of Aristotle has upset many critics
as it is rather impossible to create a story
without a character.
But here, Aristotle meant something else.
Characters are of two types. The first one that
exhibits actions while the second one
demonstrates the mental or psychological
approach to it. Aristotle wants to say that a
tragedy can be created without the mental
side of characters since it directly relates to
the action (of heroes).
Aristotle has divided plots into three kinds:
1. Simple Plot: Simple Plot is a plot that does
not exhibit sudden changes. Also, the story
contains only one plot.
2. Complex Plot: Complex plot may have
different sub-plots linking to the main plot
in the end. This plot showcases sudden
changes propelled by Peripeteia and
Anagnorisis.
3. Plot of Suffering: Aristotle suggests that it
is the most inferior kind of plot. This type
of plot depicts a story full of sufferings and
killings. Aristotle says that scenes of
sufferings should follow the law of
probability. It is also known as the plot of
revenge. Seneca, a Roman tragedian, has
written most of his tragedies in this plot. In
fact, Shakespeare’s flagship tragedy,
Hamlet is based upon the very plot.
Peripeteia: This term means a sudden
reversal of situation. For example, when
Oedipus is too eager in capturing the
murderer of King Laius, things start to turn
upon him. -Remember Teiresias’ Prophesy?
]
Anagnorisis: It is the revelation of
peripeteia. For example, When Oedipus
learns from the Corinthian Shepherd that
he is the one who is the son of Laius who
not only killed his father but married his
own mother, he gauges out his own eyes.
Criticism
Modern critics do not seem to agree with
Aristotle’s point of view of the plot. They are
more inclined towards breaking the unity of
events or presenting them in different order.
Just a Quick Sidenote: There is a fundamental
difference between Plot and Story. A story is
the chronological sequence of events while a
plot is a specific arrangement of events
according to the liking of a writer.
Character
A character is the one who moves the story of
a tragedy forward through his or her actions.
Characters are divided into two kinds:
Dramatic Persona: Name and identity of a
character. For example, the name Oedipus
directly hints at a Theban king who received
the prophecy of committing patricide and
incest.
Moral Bent of Mind: The psychological
intinctions of a person which highlight his or
her inner personality.
Aristotle has described four qualities of a
dominant character (hero) in ancient Greek
Tragedy. And those qualities are, goodness,
appropriation, true to life and consistency.
Thought
Though in a tragedy is the intellectual
questioning of the themes of a writer. A writer
can either approve his themes or disapprove it
through the medium of thoughts. But those
thoughts cannot be expressed without
diction.
Diction
Diction is the language in which a tragedy is
unfolded and the thoughts of a writer are
expressed through it. Aristotle says that a
tragedy should have a lofty diction that should
be enriched by the apt use of figurative
elements that should beautify the language
instead of obscuring it.
Spectacle
Spectacle has its association with the stage
and it is the background that is used before a
stage to present a scene of, for example, a
forest. But, in Greek Tragedies, it was not
limited to the backgrounds but to the stage
effects that were produced through the
costumes and masks actors wore.
Song
Song is one of the embellishments that was
used to intensify the scenes of a tragedy. The
songs or odes were usually performed by the
Chorus who not only explained the situation to
the audience but also commented on it.
Quantitative Elements of a
Tragedy
These elements of tragedy are directly
connected with the content or writing of a
tragedy itself. These elements are Prologue,
Episodes, Exode and a choral portion that is
further divided into Parode and Stasimon.
Parode or Parodos
The first initial part of a tragedy begins on a
choral performance that is called Parode or
Parodos.
Prologue
This portion of a tragedy is directly followed
by Parodos. This portion makes people aware
of the problems of a tragedy.
Episode
Episodes are a series of an action that is
either divided on the basis of setting or
incidents that are directly interlinked.
Exode or Exodos
This portion of tragedy is presented at the end
of it, featuring its moral lesson or its final
outcome.
Stasimon
It is a choral song with a specific poetic
meter.
Characterization in Tragedy
As discussed earlier a character in a tragedy
must be good, appropriate, his caricaturing
must be true to life and his actions must be
consistent or inconsistent throughout the
play.
Goodness: The concept of goodness in the
present day is different as compared to the
 concept that was traditionally accepted in
the Ancient Greece. Today, we associate
goodness with everything that is morally
good but the ancient Grecians believed
that goodness is hidden in the show of
valour, bravery and courage in the
battlefield. That influence of goodness is
clearly visible in the Greek Tragedies of
their time.
Appropriate: Greek Tragedies, in general,
demanded appropriate characters that
were given appropriate roles. For example,
a woman of that time was not expected to
be brave or a slave was not identified as a
good person, so portaging them brave and
good respectively would create
inappropriate characters in a tragedy.
True to Life: A character in a tragedy is a
true representation of the actual person of
that time. If a tragedy is showcasing a
historical figure, then the main historical
character must be accurate to the actual
historical personality.
Consistent: The actions of a consistent
character should remain consistent
throughout the play while the inconsistent
character should remain inconsistent.
Ideal Tragic Hero
Aristotle has defined two major qualities of an
ideal tragic hero in a Greek Tragedy. He
suggests that a hero must be essentially good
and his tragic downfall must be propelled by
his good nature. And his downfall should
affect a large number of people under him.
Essentially Good: An ideal tragic hero is
expected to be good. But Aristotle says
that his character must be a mixture of
both his good and bad qualities.
Hamartia: The tragic downfall of an ideal
tragic hero is accelerated through his
hamartia. But it is to be noted that
hamartia must be executed through his
goodness instead of his wicked intinctions
or else the tragedy will not be able to
produce the effect that is expected from it.
Competitive Importance of
Plot and Character
Aristotle said that there can be a tragedy
without a character but not without a plot. As
stated earlier, it dismayed many critics of past
and present.
Aristotle has divided characters into two
types. One is a dramatic persona that only
indicates at the identity of a character but it is
a character’s inner moral belt of mind that
really exhibits the true form of a character. In
fact, it is the moral belt of mind that shows
how a character will behave if he is put on the
test by a problem and how will he come out of
it. It is the plot that provides him ample
opportunities for his inner decisions to shape
into outward actions.
Dramatic Unities
Dramatic Unities in tragedy was hinted by
Aristotle but the Neo Classics made it
mandatory for the plays without realizing the
core motive behind these unities. They
believed that those unities were essential for
creating dramatic illusions. There are three
dramatic unities. Unity of plot, unity of time
and unity of place. Aristotle only emphasized
on the unity of plot.
Unity of Plot
As mentioned above, Aristotle gives great
importance to the unity of plot. He suggests
that in the ideal Greek Tragedy, plot should be
one and simple, that should have proper
beginning, middle and end and the events of
the story must be interlinked together. But
Aristotle does not favour sub plots within a
plot. He accepted single plot with a single
action. For instance, if a play begins as a
tragedy, it should end on a tragic note while a
comedy should follow the same rule. He
believed that those two genres could not be
mixed together in the form of tragic comedy.
But modern critics argued Aristotle’s point that
a Man’s life is a mixture of both happiness and
misery. Portraying only one side of the coin
may not hold up to the idea of realism. In fact,
the Elizabethan dramatists did not follow
Aristotle’s concept of stern dramatic unity of
plot and (tragic) action. They added some
minor comic elements to their flagship
tragedies to increase the entertainment value
of their plays. For example, in Othello, we see
a brief mention of clowns and musicians while
Iago’s destructive but amusing tongue helps
retain the entertaining value of the tragedy.
While in Oedipus Rex, we cannot trace any
comic elements because the action begins in
a tragic tone and ends on an extreme tragic
note. Some critics even argued Aristotle’s idea
to the fact that in the festival of Dionysus,
three plays were serious while one play was
comic in nature so how could Aristotle defy
the role of comic elements in tragedy?
Unity of Time
Unity of time is something that Aristotle did
not present as a rigid rule of writing tragedies.
It was something that he observed. He states
that the actions of a tragedy are attempted to
be presented within “one revolution of the
sun”. The phrase “one revolution of the sun”
annoyed the French critics of the seventeenth-
century and English critics of the eighteenth
century. English critics argued that the actions
in a tragedy must be presented within the
actual setting of time in tragedy on stage. For
example, if a tragedy consists of an action
that spans over 6 months, Neo Classics
suggested that the tragedy must be presented
for the 6 months on the stage! The idea in
itself is strange and impractical as people will
lose interest in the play if it is prolonged for an
unreasonable amount of time. While the
French critics went to the extent to find the
actual time through the above-mentioned
phrase. Some said that Aristotle suggested a
year while others speculated only a day or a
month.
Unity of Place
Aristotle did not present the rule of unity of
place. It was attributed to him by the
misinterpretation of Neo Classics of his
comparison of Epic and Tragedy. Epic, he said,
had a variety of places to narrate. While a
tragedy had to be presented in a smaller
setting because it was small in magnitude as
compared to Epic. Also the limitation of stage
attributed to the lack of places. Because even
today, it is difficult to transition from the scene
of a forest to the scene of an ocean in
theatres and we are talking about an era that
was two thousand and five hundred years
before us. So the limitation of spaces had to
be chosen by the writers so that their plays
would not be bottlenecked by the limitation of
the stage.
Limitations of Aristotelian
Concept of Tragedy
Aristotle, no doubt, gave a comprehensive
definition of tragedy but as time changes, the
requirements of tragedy has been changed
significantly. Let’s discover some of the
limitations that are traced in Aristotle’s
concept of tragedy.
Lack of Religious Elements
Aristotle does not allude to the importance of
religion in tragedies despite its presence in
plays as these plays were intended for the
purpose of celebrating the god of fertility,
Dionysus. For instance, we see some clear
references to gods (Apollo) and the role of
oracles in characters’ lives as a strong
religious influence but Aristotle did not
mention about the role of religious elements
in the tragedies he was scrutinizing.
Lack of Conflicts
Another core point that is missing from his
comprehensive definition is the role of internal
and external conflicts in driving a person’s
tragedy. He merely focuses on the outer
actions but the inner turmoil that takes place
is equally as important as the outward
conflicts. In fact, it is the “inner weather” that
creates a sense of superiority of humans
among other living beings. And internal
conflict also adds its significant share to the
arousal of catharsis. Modern writers tend to
depict both internal and external conflicts.
His Unsatisfying Explanation of
‘Action’
Aristotle defined action as something that is
serious and of some magnitude in his famous
definition of tragedy. But he was unable to
explain the true magnitude of a tragedy as he
only limitized it to its size in pages. He could
have added more to it to explain it a bit further
like the loftiness of an action or the nature of
an action whether it can be external or
internal.
His Idealization of Oedipus Rex
Aristotle presented Oedipus Rex as an ideal
tragedy that checked all the required boxes to
create the most noticeable tragic effect in the
mind of a reader. Oedipus Rex was a success
of its time due to the quality of intense
concentration. Intense concentration is
something that is achieved through starting a
story from its catastrophic point of the plot.
For instance, Oedipus Rex opens when
Oedipus has unknowingly killed his father and
married his mother. But the story of the play
begins when Oedipus’ parents receive an
oracle that their son will kill his father and will
marry his mother. If Shakespeare had written
this play, he would have started it with Laius
and Jocasta, receiving the prophecy. Intense
concentration was used to create a tragic
effect that was stronger than the Elizabethan
tradition. But it did not provide a strong
foundation of character development. Also, it
imposed a limitation of its own upon writers to
present a story in its limited glory. But some
modern writers are also taking a fancy to
intense concentration in the form of the
stream of consciousness technique.
Lack of Subjectivity in Greek
Tragedy
One point that modern critics raise is the
classical Greek Tragedy lacks subjectivity as
these tragedies are mainly objective. Which
means it only displays the outer conflict of a
hero. But his inner psyche and intinctions are
of a significant value that is to be shown to
the audience. Shakespeare, although he is an
Elizabethan playwright, but, he masterfully
strikes a balance between subjectivity and
objectivity in his plays.
Qualities of a Tragic Hero
This is the point of which Aristotle is critiqued
the most. Firstly, he says that a tragic hero
must belong to a higher class. But modern
writers are more democratic in their approach.
They believe that the tragic downfall of a
miner is as significant as that of a dictator.
Another point critics argue is Aristotle’s
concept of essential goodness. He suggests
that a hero can be neither too good, nor too
bad but a simple blend of the both. The critics
say that tragic heroes can be extremely good
or extremely bad. We can see the example of
Macbeth or the Jew of Malta by Marlowe as
the heroes exhibiting extreme bad characters.
While TS Eliot’s Murder in the Cathedral and
Shaw’s St. Johns portray extremely good
characters or (tragic) heroes.
Rigid Plot
Aristotle favours plots that have a definite
beginning, middle and end. But modern
writers, lulled in the stream of consciousness
technique, do not use the unity of plot in their
novels. In fact, for them, the concept of a rigid
plot is dead.
Conclusion
Despite some serious limitations and
shortcomings of the Greek Tragedies and
Aristotle’s Concept of it as discussed by the
critics of every time, it is worth noting that, in
fact, it was the Grecian Tragedy that pioneered
tragic stage performances with their own set
of embellishments while influencing the big
names like Shakespeare and Marlowe to
further clear the grounds for modern writers.
Tragedy, now, is not limited to the plays only
but it is magnificently present in novels in its
own form and colour. But all those colours are
An Essay on Art for Art’s Sake
By Asad Imran
April 20, 2021
Categories: Literary Essays
Introduction
There is a heated debate on the subject of
arts for art’s sake and arts for morality or life’s
sake. This debate has formed two different
groups with different opinions. One group is
called Moralists. Moralists believe that a
writer can and should influence his readers
through his writing. They also say that art can
be either a food or a poison. Thus prioritizing
moral lessons and morality in arts. While the
other group is called Aesthetes. They
emphasize that a writer’s work should only
give pleasure and entertainment to the
readers. If a writer has the ability to influence
his readers, he should not even try to.
indebted to the Classical Greek Tragedy for its
stouter foundation.
This essay was written by assembling the
pieces of lecture given by Sir Fazal Ur Rehman
on the Greek Tragedy and its Aristotelian
Concept. So, a big shout out to him for making
this possible.
What is Art
The word ‘Art’ is derived from a Latin word
‘ars’ which means a skill. While a skill is the
productive practice of something that is either
useful or beautiful. Productive skills are, then,
divided into two major groups, Arts and
Science. Arts is a practical form of a
productive skill while science theorizes
something and then provides a knowledge
base. For instance, if a carpenter makes a
chair, he is performing an art. If he writes on
the subject of making a chair from scratch, he
is contributing to science.
Fine Arts
Fine Arts is also a sub-branch of Arts but it
mainly emphasizes on the esthetic beauty of
an object or an emotion. It may have some
utilitarian purpose hidden in it but it should
mostly serve its joyful purpose of providing
esthetic beauty. For instance, architecture is
one of the Fine Arts that is both esthetically
beautiful because of its pleasing looks and
marvellous structure and symmetry but it also
provides shelter, thus exhibiting its utilitarian
purpose.
Fine Arts are further divided into its seven
forms. Those forms are further divided into 3
main categories:
1. Shaping Arts: Architecture, Sculpture and
Painting
2. These three arts are called Shaping Arts
because we can see, feel and touch the
existence of such Arts.
3. Speaking Arts: Poetry and Music are called
Speaking Arts because they are either
spoken or heard.
Performing Arts: Dance and Drama are known
as Performing Arts because both of them are
performed on the stage and in theatre.
Aestheticism
Aestheticism was a French Movement that
strived to give importance to aesthetic
pleasure and beauty. This nineteenth-century
movement was based upon the word esthetic
which is derived from a Greek word
aisthetikos which means beauty perceivable
by sensation (five senses). The followers of
this movement were called Esthetes. It was
them who introduced the phrase “L’art pour
l’art” which means “Art for Art’s Sake”.
Although the pioneer of the slogan was Victor
Cousin but it was Gautier who put meaning in
the movement. Gautier emphasizes on the
importance of esthetic pleasure as thus,
A town merely interests me for its
buildings. Let the inhabitants be
utterly vile and the town a haunt of
crime. What does this not signify to
me so long as I am not
assassinated by the town’s people
during looking at the buildings.
Here Gautier has used building as the symbol
of Arts.
A French tragedian and novelist Flaubert
suggests that no great poet has ever drawn
conclusions.
Aestheticism in England
Aestheticism in England arrived in the late
nineteenth century also known as the Naughty
Nineties. It was a revolt against the
conventional and moral standards set by
Victorian Writers in the past. The writers of the
Naughty Nineties removed morality from their
writings and they only focused on the
aesthetic values of the art in general. Their
efforts were greatly liked by the University
scholars and students equally. It was
introduced in English Literature by an Oxford
professor, Walter Peter and Oscar Wilde
carried his lineage further through the might
of his pen.
It is worth noticing that the Moralists were
interested in the Subject Matter, thought and
imagination in a literary work. While Aesthetes
were drawn towards technique, form and
diction (aesthetic elements) in a writing.
Walter Pater was a renowned English Critic
who published a book, Studies in the History
of the Renaissance in 1873. In this book, he
looked through the Renaissance movement
from the lens of aestheticism. But it was his
sheer misunderstanding as Renaissance
movement had achieved more prominent
traits other than its aesthetic nature. Walter
even goes to the extent that a critic should
scrutinize a piece of literature how good its
form is instead of its subject matter. Also, his
criticism on Wordsworth’s poetry is limited
because he only sees the aesthetic value of
Wordsworth’s poems but these poems have
some morals in it.
Oscar Wilde further continues the services of
Walter Pater through the practical implications
in literature. He says,
There is no such thing as moral or
immoral book. Books are well
written, or badly written. That is all.
That is purely the voice of an aesthete. He
adds further,
No artist has ethical sympathies. An
ethical sympathy in an artist is an
unpardonable mannerism of style.
In the preface to the same book (The Picture
of Dorian Gray), he declares
All art is quite useless.
So, it is quite obvious that Oscar Wilde does
appear as an ardent supporter of aestheticism
on the surface level. But it is clear that Wilde’s
writings had hidden morals in it. For example,
The Importance of Being Earnest may
apparently look like a light hearted comedy
but if we peep under layers, it will appear as a
satire on the follies and absurdities of the
aristocratic class. But the short story of the
Happy Prince does not provide any aesthetic
pleasure rather it is a direct attack on the
people sitting on the thrones.
There were also two well-known periodicals
that would publish the work of Aesthetes.
They were Yellow Book and Sevoile. The
Yellow Book began its publishing from 1894 to
1897. Different short stories poems, essays
and even illustrations by the Aesthetes were
published in it.
Some other renowned English Aesthetes were
Charles Conder, Ernest Dowson, WB Yeats,
Arthur Symons who sparked through the very
movement.
Criticism
The French slogan has been criticized by
many writers as well as influencers for its
limited approach to Arts in general and
literature in particular. The first to scrutinize
this movement is Friedrich Nietzsche who
suggests that there is no ‘Art for Art’s Sake’, he
argues:
When the purpose of moral
preaching and of improving man
has been excluded from art, it still
does not follow by any means that
art is altogether purposeless,
aimless, senseless.
He wants to stress the fact that it is
impossible to separate morality from literature
as it has to be exhibited in some way or the
other, depending on the context of his writing.
Socialists and Marxists proclaimed that Art
for Art’s Sake was an empty phrase and art
An Essay on Art for Morality
By Asad Imran
April 24, 2021
Categories: Literary Essays
Introductory
should be used to spread socialist ideas.
Diego Rivera, who had been a member of the
Mexican Communist Party stated that the
slogan could further extend the social divide
between poor and the rich. He argued that it
would hammer the final nail in the coffin of Art
(literature) as a social tool for the “cause of
revolution”. It would serve as a currency, that
would only be enjoyed through a few (rich)
people.
Sources and Suggested
Readings
1. Lectures of Sir Fazal Ur Rehman
2. A Critical History of English Literature by B.
R. Mullick – Chapter 5
3. https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Aestheticism
4. https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Art_for_art%
5. http://neoenglishsystem.blogspot.com/201
nineties-in-english-literature.html
6. https://www.google.com/amp/s/theculture
things-oscar-wilde-taught-us-about-
art/%3famp=1
7. https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Yellow
The function of arts and literature have been
argued upon their aesthetic as well as
moralistic approach to life. As discussed in
the previous essay, Moralists are of the view
that art and literature serve its purpose for
either a food or a poison. If an art is useful for
the members of a society, it is a relishing and
delicious food. Or on the flip side, if an art is
harmful to the standard set of rules of a
society and its members, it will be constituted
as a poison, as described by the Moralists.
They also suggest that a writer should
influence his readers if he has the power to do
so. Aesthetes, on the other hand, argue that
art should only provide pleasure and if a writer
has the ability to influence his readers, he
should refrain himself from doing so. But the
slogan of Art for Art’s Sake was limited in its
approach to life and was mocked by many
critics who were successful to trace down the
hidden moral lessons of the so called
Aesthetes and their work.
Moralists are large in number as compared to
their aesthetic counterparts. In fact, they even
date back in the era of the Ancient Greece.
Grecian Moralists
As stated above, Moralists existed even during
the era of Ancient Greece. They were Plato,
Aristotle, Aeschylus and Euripides. Chief
among the ancient Moralists were Plato and
Aristotle. Plato was of the view that the real
purpose of the art was to inculcate moral
values. He condemned poetry in his famous
book, Republic in which he said that Poetry is
the imitation of an invitation, twice removed
from reality. Plato was a practical-minded
politician so he detested the element of
beauty and sensation because it may result in
violence. Although Plato’s idea is
unacceptable in our time but he stood for the
moral cause of art and literature.
Later, Plato’s student, Aristotle came in the
scene and corrected his teacher’s biased view
of poetry and literature. He stated that the
main function of a tragedy was to catharsize
the aroused feelings of pity and fear. Aristotle
even went to explain that poetry was an
imitation of the ideal world in the mind of a
poet and the inspiration for his ideal world
would come straight from the actual world he
was living into. Thus Aristotle was also a
moral advocate of art and literature who
corrected the stinging approach of Plato to
Arts.
Sir Philip Sydney
Sir Philip Sydney, also an Elizabethan,
published a book called An Apology for Poetry
in which he focused on the moral aspect of
poetry. He discussed about philosophy, history
and ethics and how they helped in
establishing morality in a society. But he led a
strong emphasis on poetry. According to
Sydney, it was poetry that was a perfect
medium to impress morality in human beings.
Epic Poets of Renaissance
Edmund Spenser and John Milton were both
inclined towards proclaiming moral ideas
through their epics. Spenser through his life; a poetry of indifference towards
Faerie Queene tried to versify in detail about moral ideas is a poetry of
twelve moral virtues but he could only
indifference towards life.
accomplish writing about six. For example, the
first book of The Faerie Queene symbolizes Arnold constitutes morality mandatory for life
the virtue of Holiness through the character of and to function it properly. His approach to
Red Cross Knight while Una represents truth. morality is rather stern which is obvious from
his saying.
On other hand, Milton, through his Paradise
Lost, attempted to justify the ways of God to
Wordsworth and Shelley
men through presenting the Biblical account
of the Fall of Adam and Eve and how Satan
Among Romantics, Wordsworth and Shelley
duped the “Confident” Eve and they were
are considered as great Moralists. Although
expelled from Paradise as a result. Through
Wordsworth’s poetry was wrongly attributed to
the tragic fall of Both Adam and Eve, Milton
aestheticism. But the moral and spiritual
tried to convey stern and Puritan view on
purpose are vividly available in his poems. In
morality.
fact, his poetry is didactic as he himself
states,
Dr. Johnson suggested that poetry must be
didactic (it should teach something). He
I am nothing but a teacher.
criticized Shakespeare for not including the
moral purpose in his poetry.
Shelley also emphasizes on the importance of
morality in poetry. He is of the view that poetry
Shakespeare seems to write
has a specific kind of moral belt of mind. He
without any moral purpose. denied Johnson’s remarks regarding
Shakespeare and said,
Shakespeare only wrote Sonnets so it was
unsuitable for him to include moral values
Shakespeare, Dante and Milton are
directly.
the philosophers of the loftiest
power.
Matthew Arnold
Keats’ poetry outwardly may look aesthetically
Arnold is also one of the strong advocates of
pleasing but it has hidden moral secrets into
Art for Morality. He famously states,
it. In his poem Sleep and Poetry, he notes,

A poetry of revolt against moral

ideas is a poetry of revolt against
 That it should be a friend
To soothe the cares and lift the
thoughts of men.
Keats indirectly wants to say that poetry
should provide enough material to take a
person away from the worries of the world
which helps to retain moral values in him.
Ruskin and Plato
John Ruskin had acquired a great name in the
nineteenth century when he unveiled his book,
Art and Morality. He is remembered for his
empathetic behaviour towards Arts and
Literature. He is often compared with Plato.
For instance, Plato proclaimed that Arts and
Morality conflicted from each other. While
Ruskin is of the view that Arts and Morality
coincided with each other. Plato would banish
poets from his Republic while Ruskin states
that their work is superbly moral. Plato
announced that poetry was a pack of lies
while Ruskin explains that poetry comes as a
result of the divine intelligence. Plato asserted
that poetry was a major cause of immorality
while Ruskin demonstrates that it is the good
deed of a person, (not poetry) that makes him
moral. Resultantly, Ruskin was also an ardent
supporter of morality in Arts just like Plato but
he was less biased than Plato.
G B Shaw
George Bernard Shaw is the second one to
come after Shakespeare in writing plays.
Shaw also glorifies morality and he believes
that writers make us, the readers, aware of the
spitefulness of life instead of being
enamoured of its beautiful charm. Shaw was a
socialist at heart so he gave a reasonable
importance to the moral and didactic function
of literature. His pleasant and unpleasant
plays explicitly exhibit both the moral and anti-
moral side of life. Shaw alludes to the
relationship of Art with Morality as thus,
I cannot write a play for the mere
glorification of Art.
Conclusion
After looking at a close distance, it is obvious
that both the Moralists and the Aesthetes
have been exaggerating the role of Arts and
Literature. Aesthetic beauty and entertaining
value in Literature is as important as its moral
purpose. The main function of literature is to
entertain and educate its readers or audience.
A writer can give a moral lesson but he should
not impose it upon the readers. His main duty
is to convey his message. The readers are
capable enough to derive moral purposes
from their desired readings. Therefore, Art
should neither be written solely for the sake of
Art nor for morality but Art should be
produced and valued for Life.
Sources and Suggested
Readings
1. Lectures of Sir Fazal Ur Rehman
2. A Critical History of English Literature by B.
R. Mullick – Chapter 5
3. https://www.ipl.org/essay/Ethics-And-
Moralism-In-George-Bernard-Shaws-
FCSSNE22SG
A Critical Essay on the Novel in the Victorian
Era
By Asad Imran
June 15, 2021
Categories: Literary Essays
Introduction
Victorian Novel is marked with a shift from the
novel of adventures to the novel for life. As the
name suggests, Victorian Novel denotes to
the novels and novel writers that appeared in
the Victorian Era, an era that is known for the
dynamic rule of Queen Victoria. The Victorian
Era in history began from 1837 to 1901 but in
literature, it began in 1832 as a shift from
romantic poetry because the mature poets of
the romantic era (1800 – 1828) met an
uncertain death and no quotable literary
genius was produced between 1820 to 1830.
It was the political and industrial revolution
that sparked a whole new level of creativity in
Novelists. Let’s explore the political and social
background of the Victorian Era to get
ourselves acquainted with changes taking
place in that epoch.
Political Background
As mentioned above, the Victorian Era
directed towards a new direction for politics.
There took many political reforms that
increased the power of the Merchant Class
while the collapse of the Feudal Class was
gradually on the horizon. The political
revolution began when in 1832, a bill was
approved that allowed the merchant class to
grant the right to vote. In 1846, Corn Law
appeared that reduced the artificially high
price of grains, thus making bread, much
affordable. More noticeable political
achievements were attained through the
National Education Act of 1852 and reform
bills of 1867 and 1888. All these political
reforms affected the lives of the common
people.
Social Background
Victorian Era, like Elizabethan Era, witnessed
scientific and social development but on a
massive scale. It was an age of
industrialization in which more opportunities
to earn a livelihood was opened in the urban
areas while rural areas had to change
themselves significantly. Darwin’s theory of
Evolution recked religion significantly.
Meanwhile, the discovery of the Solar System
and Universe made people realized that they
were not the only one who were superior
beings as there were (and still are) chances
for the other intelligent life on other planets in
a different solar system. People questioned
when two plus two makes four, why one god?
It filled people with pessimism and a sudden
change in morals was observed. But people
like John Ruskin marched ahead for
spiritualism. While the Oxford Movement tried
to test Old Testament on scientific rules.
Manifestly, a host of writers took to the art of
writing novels and they can be divided into
three major categories:
1. Pre Victorians
2. Early Victorians
3. Later Victorians
Before discussing at length about the writers
of this era, let’s discover the basic features of
Victorian Novel
Basic Features
The basic features of Victorian Novel are
explained below:
Expansion of Novel
As education became reachable to more
people, their outlook on life was diversified.
Similarly, the political and social growth
expanded the subject matter of novels from
being a genre of adventure to the inclusion of
more democratic characters, themes; more
realistic picture of the society and voyages
and discoveries of new islands etc. was
introduced in the novel. The new outlook of
the people added new possibilities for more
new genres in Novel.
Increasing Number of Novelists
Novel-Reading grew exponentially during the
Victorian Era because of the more educated
public as well as an easy and cost-effective
access to libraries. Sometimes, libraries
moved on a cart to deliver a book on a
person’s doorstep at the cost of a few
pennies. Such growth proved a beneficial
opportunity for the people who could not
attain their livelihood after education could
just become a writer. So, a large number of
people became authors. Their construction
eclipsed poetry in a way poetry eclipsed novel
in the Romantic age.
Popularity of Social Novel or
Novel of Manners
Social Novel is a novel that highlights the
social issues of a particular age or ages. This
genre of novel grew popular among
Victorians. Benjamin Disraeli was the first
person who wrote on the very subject. He
published Vivian Gray in 1826, critiqued
politics of his time and favoured church and
Jews.
Pre-Victorian Novels
Pre Victorian Novelists levelled the plainfield
for the early Victorian Novelists through their
work. Some honourable mentions may include
Verbal Little for his historical novels and novel
of crime; Miss George for her Silver Fork
which is a novel showcasing the life of
aristocratic people; Peasse Hagen portrayed
the lives of the people belonging to the lower
class; Benjamin was seen critiquing political
problems of that era; William H. J. was
famous for his historical and romantic novels
while a navy captain wrote about the naval
life. In short, the Pre-Victorian Novelists had
offered a variety of subjects for the Early
Victorians to work on.
Early Victorian Period
The Early Victorian era proved very fruitful for
the growth of novel as more and more people
were tempted to adopt novel reading as their
habit. It seemed as if a novel could be written
on almost every subject. Charles Dickens and
Thackeray were two shining stars among the
early Victorian Novelists but there were some
minor novelists as well who wrote on more
subjects. They were Benjamin Disraeli, Bronte
Sisters, Mrs. Gaskell, Charles Kingsley, Charles
Reade, William Collins and Trollope. They were
fairly large in number but they had much more
in common. They were the spokesmen of their
society and they did not criticize their society
as severely as the novelists from the later
Victorian Era like Thomas Hardy and George
Meredith. In short, their criticism of society
was light-hearted.
They believed that due to the rapid income
they had been claiming through the industrial
revolution and colonization, their financial
suffering would come to an end. So, they were
optimistic in their approach. They gave a
considerable importance to morality in their
society. They avoided any sexual reference in
literature. For instance, Thomas Bowdler
presented a book called The Family
Shakespeare in which he removed sexual and
blasphemous material from Shakespeare’s
famous plays to be read aloud in the family
without any embarrassment. Novelists also
followed a stern approach to morality as
compared to Fielding or Richardson of the
previous era whose novels had an obvious
sexual tone.
Charles Dickens
Charles Dickens is the signature name to
highlight the concerning epoch and novel in
Britain. He was and is still famous in both
England and around the world due to his
distinctive but not-so-pessimistic approach to
life. Born in 1812 and died in 1870, Dickens
created some fictional characters that are
remembered till this very day. His first
published novel was The Pickwick Papers. His
novels mostly centre around showcasing the
plight of the working class and the oppressed.
Let’s explore some of the features of his
novelistic genius.
Weaker Plots
Dickens followed the picaresquian
adventurous style of Smollett and Henry
Fielding. Due to the adventurous tales in their
picaresque novels, their genius lacked
connection in between incidents or they were
devoid of any strong plot. Dickens’ novels also
suffer from the same problem. The incidents
described in his most novels lack a proper
beginning, middle and end. For instance, The
Tale of Two Cities mixes many stories under
one plot that take place in two cities. However,
in his later novels, he seems to have matured
his plot construction but despite his attempt,
weaker plots remain one of the core weakness
of his novels.
Idealism
Dickens idealizes his novels. He acquired
idealism through sensational feelings which
were derived from the romantic adventures of
the previous novelists. Dickens is seen
idealizing honour, courage, sacrifice,
magnemity and fidelity. For instance, in A Tale
of Two Cities, Dickens idealizes love and
sacrifice through the character of Sydney
Cartoon who sacrifices himself for Lucie and
Darney. Dickens stealthily gives a Biblical
reference for Cartoon:
Greater love hath no man than this.
Optimism
Dickens believes that the humans are overall
good and our world is a place worth living.
Thus, he is mostly optimistic regarding his
approach to life despite belonging to a poor
family and struggling hard. His novels mostly
go through hard times but they end
optimistically.
Humour
Dickens is blessed with a strange quality to
mix pleasure with pain. He uses humour as a
tool to create an optimistic atmosphere. Two
of his novels are known for their homouristic
identity. They are Martin Chuzzlewit and The
Old Curiosity Shop. While David Copperfield is
regarded as a pure comedy.
Realism and Reformation
Dickens, despite being an idealist, is a realist
in the sense that he removed Romantic
Medievalism from his society through his
work. While he tried to reform his society from
social problems like Child Labour or
revolutions.
William Makepeace
Thackeray
Thackeray is the second name that scored
name and fame in the Early Victorian Era. He
was born in 1811 in Kolkata, India and he
breathed his last in 1863 in England. He was
contemporary to Dickens and a direct rival
too. Although he came off of a wealthy family,
yet pessimism could be traced easily from his
novels. Being from a well-off family, he
scanned his class and presented their
problems as well as their crooked behaviour.
As a Realist
Thackrey is utterly a realist because he writes
what he observes as compared to Dickens
who idealizes certain things. Thackrey himself
says,
I have no brains besides my eyes. I
describe what I see.
As a Satirist and a Moralist
Thackrey was a cynical writer. He was
sensitive and he was offended by the wrongs
of society. Just like Dickens, he was good at
heart and he tried to morally reform his
society. But that was not an artistic move
since a writer’s duty is to present the two
sides of a picture and led the reader to decide
for themselves. But his prose style was pure,
simple and charming that attracted many
readers. His most known work is Vanity Fair
that appeared in 1846. While the second novel
he wrote was Pendennis that was an
autobiography just like Dickens David
Copperfield. This novel debuted in 1849. The
third most renowned novel of Mr. Thackrey
was a historical one that was titled as The
History of Henry Esmond featuring Queen
Anne. This novel appeared in 1852. It
showcased his deep knowledge regarding the
history and converting it into a story. The
Newcomes that hit the shelves in 1858 was
regarded as the best novel by critics. While
The Virginians was a sequel to The History of
Henry Esmond that ended on 1859.
Minor Novelists
Benjamin Disraeli
Benjamin Disraeli was an accomplished writer
who was not only good at writing but also
good at maintaining his political position as
the prime minister of England during the reign
of Queen Victoria. His novels dealt with the
political issues of his time. He believed that
the working class should be uplifted by the
aristocratic class. His notable works are listed
as under:
1. Vivian Grey – 1826 – 27
2. Comingsby – 1844
3. Sybil – 1845
4. Tancred – 1847
Brontë Sisters
Brontë Sisters was a group of three sisters
who acquired a great deal of fame through
writing novels in the Early Victorian Era. Those
sisters were Charlotte, Emily and Anne
Brontë.
Charlotte Brontë was the eldest of the trio.
She depicted strong romantic passions in her
novels. Jane Eyre was the defining work of
Charlotte that appeared in 1847. While two of
her other novels are Villette and The
Professor.
Emily Brontë was the second sister in Brontë
Sister Trio who only lived for thirty years (1818
– 1848). Her famous work is Wuthering
Heights that appeared just 1 year before her
death. In this novel, Emily illustrated the
problems of romantic relationships. It is still
recalled as a tragedy of love.
Anne Brontë was the youngest of the bunch.
She also died earlier. Her famous work is The
Tenant of Wildfell Hall.
Mrs. Gaskell
Elizabeth Gaskell was also a known English
novelist who wrote about the social evils and
the problems caused by industrialization. Her
famous works are given below:
1. Mary Borton – 1848
2. Cranford – 1851 to 1853
3. Ruth – 1853
4. North and South – 1855
She even featured Charlotte Brontë in her
biography that appeared in 1857.
Charles Kingsley
Charles Kingsley was a Christian Socialist. So
Yeast and Alton Locke are considered to be
his socialist novels. While some notable
works are listed below:
Hypatia – 1853 – Deals with the early form
of Christianity
Westward Ho! – 1855 – As the name
suggests, this novel portrays the
adventurous spirit of Elizabethan
navigators.
Hear World The Wakes – 1865 – Narrates
the story of the attacks of the descendants
of Vikings
Wikie Collins (1824 – 89)
Wikie Collins is yet another name who
acquired his fame through writing about crime
with suspense. He tried to reveal the
(psychological) mystery behind crimes. His
famous novels are:
1. The Woman in White
2. The Moonstone
Later Victorian Novelists
Later Victorian novelists began a new trend
for novels. They are, sometimes, loosely
referred as “modern” novelists because they
changed the way a novel was presented. The
novel of this age discussed the problems of
the very age with a clear view of character’s
inner minds. The chiefs amongst the Later
Victorian Novelists were George Eliot, Thomas
Hardy and Meredith. When Eliot published her
first novel, Adam Bade in 1858, Dickens and
Thackrey published A Tale of Two Cities and
Virginians which signified a major change on
how those three writers saw different things
through their lens of distinction. Before
discussing about the novelists of this age, let’s
make clear the features that were traced in the
novels of the very age.
Improvement of the Plot
Later Victorian Novelists improved the
deficiency of somewhat unconnected events
those were found in the novels of the Early
Victorians. They added well-knit events those
were the result of a precious event. For
example, in The Mill on the Floss, the suffering
of Maggie is interconnected with different
incidents that come in sequence, from her
childhood to her adulthood.
More Philosophical
The novels produced by Later Victorians are
more philosophical as compared to the ones
written by Early Victorians. Early Victorian
writers followed Dafoe, Richardson and
Fielding. Those writers were more
adventurous by nature. But the Later
Victorians discussed problems of humanity in
a coherent way. For example, in Meredith’s
novel, The Ordeal of Richard, Meredith asserts
that a stern watch over one’s children can turn
a child into a villain for his father.
Poetic Seriousness
As mentioned before, The Early Victorians
wrote about adventures. So they lacked poetic
seriousness in their work. What is poetic
seriousness? A French novelist, Flaubert, puts
it as thus:
To want to give to prose the rhythm of verse
(but keeping it very much prose), and to want
to write about ordinary life as one writes
history or the epic (without denaturing the
subject) is perhaps an absurdity. That’s what I
wonder sometimes. But perhaps it’s also a
grand undertaking and very original!
Here, Flaubert is referring to the Poetic
Seriousness as an experiment. Which is
undertaken by Meredith because he got
educated in Germany where there he read
about French Literature. He looked at English
Literature through his critical eyes. Both Eliot
and Meredith used Poetic Seriousness to
discuss serious thoughts.
Psychological Realism
The most significant achievement of Later
Victorian Writers is their introduction to
Psychological Realism. Psychological Realism
is a technique in which a writer fully indulges
himself to comment on a character’s motives
behind his actions in a story. This type of
novel is based upon a technique called Direct
Method. While Indirect or Dramatic Method
revolves around creating a character, letting it
do its job on its own and making readers
decide about the story. George Eliot is the first
novelist who introduced the world with
psychological realism. Later, psychological
Realism transitioned into the Stream of
Consciousness technique to illustrate the
inner workings of the human brain.
Mary Ann Evans
The actual name of George Eliot is Mary Ann
Evans. She is also known as Mary Anne or
Marian. George Eliot is one of the most
renowned novelists of the Victorian Era in
general and among Later Victorian Novelists
in particular. She opened her eyes in 1819
while she breathed her last in 1880. Eliot as a
novelist witnessed a major shift from
adventurous novels to the ones centring
around the innermost instinct of mankind. The
famous works of George Eliot are listed as
under:
1. Adam Bede (1859)
2. The Mill on the Floss (1860)
3. Silas Marner (1861)
4. Romola (1862)
5. Middlemarch (1872)
The features of Eliot’s novels are explained
below:
Rural Background
Eliot used to live with her father in
Warwickshire. Her stay in a rustic locality like
this one made it easy for her to observe the
habits and psyche of the people of rural areas.
Unlike Dickens and Thackrey, who depicted
the life in the city and the problems faced by
the Aristocratic class respectively, Eliot tends
to show the simply complex life of the people
of the countryside. For example, in The Mill on
the Floss, Eliot showcases the narrow-
mindedness of the people at St. Oggs towards
Maggie when the news of forced elopement is
revealed.
Unified Plot
As mentioned before, Eliot wrote novels at a
time when there was no unity of action(s) in a
story. Like many other Later Victorian
Novelists, Eliot wrote stories with a well-
structured plot. The events of her novels are
interlinked.
Serious Thoughts
Her novels are written to promote the Poetic
Seriousness of Flaubert. When Eliot was
writing novels of her age, people were greatly
baffled by the new but worrying theories
prevailing in their society like Theory of
Evolution, the significance of God and religion
began to be questioned openly.
Industrialization had disrupted the natural flow
of humanity. Such seriousness is clearly
visible in her Mill on the Floss in which a
serious impact of industrialization is depicted
as how losing a lawsuit can bankrupt the
owner of a mill.
Gradual Development of
Characters
The characters in Eliot’s stories do not
undergo from a sudden change. The
development of characters is gradual but
persistent in some cases. For instance,
Maggie’s persistent devotion to her brother,
Tom Tulliver does not permit her to get into a
permanent company of philosophical
discourse of Philip Wakem. But in Romola, we
Nobel Prize in Literature seven times. His
famous works can be included as:
1. The Ordeal of Richard Feverel (1859)
2. The Egoist (1879)
3. Diana of the Crossways (1885)
The prominent features of his novels are:

see the gradual development of characters.

For instance, the first initial impression of Titu Subjective View of the Novel
is somewhat good in the eyes of Romola. But
Meredith did not follow the specific traditions
Titu’s true manipulative personality is revealed
of the novel. Nor did he form a specific school
when he mistreats his adopting father who is
of thought. He added subjectivity to his novels
a prisoner and when he betrays his brother-in-
so that the idea of a character should be
law to leave the city of Florence.
made prominent through his own judgement.

George Meredith
Poetic Element
George Meredith is one of the most greatest
Novel before Meredith was written in prose
novelists and poets of the Victorian Era. He
with prosaic nature. But Meredith wrote prose
was born in 1828 while he kicked the bucket in
with poetic seriousness. As mentioned before,
1909. Besides being a successful novelist,
in this regard, he carried forward the
Meredith was initially a poet who was mainly
experiment of Flaubert and added his own
impressed and influenced by John Keats. Due
version of success to it.
to his poetic nature, his novels were also
enriched in complex but beautiful poetic
rhythm. Oscar Wilde puts it as thus,
Philosophical Thoughts

As discussed earlier, Meredith and Eliot

chaos illumined by brilliant flashes
transitioned from adventurous novels to the
of lightning
ones those provided indirect solutions to
complex problems of life through the means
Due to his poetic novels he is, sometimes,
of philosophical proceedings.
regarded as Flaubert of English Novels. His
novels mostly deal with the social problems of
his characters through their psychological
Psychological Realism
bent of mind. Meredith was nominated for the
Another feature of Meredith’s novels is the
inner mechanics of characters’ mind and their
true motives behind a certain action. Dickens
used to present the action in his novels
through external narration while Meredith and
Eliot showcase the prevailing action through
internal narration.
Optimism
While Hardy was pessimistic about mankind,
Meredith was optimistic in his own scientific
ways. Meredith believed in the theory of
Evolution and he had a belief that men are still
evolving. Their problems would come to an
end when their evolution is completed.
Thomas Hardy
Thomas Hardy is yet another big name among
the novelists (and the poets) of Later Victorian
Era. He was born in 1840 in Dorchester, while
he breathed his last on January 19th, 1928.
Hardy was influenced by the novelists of his
time and the romantic poetry during romantic
era, especially that of William Wordsworth. He
sharply criticized the declining morals of the
people living in Rural England. His novels carry
a stream of tragic pessimism. His famous
novels are:
1. From the Maddening Crowd (1874)
2. The Return of the Native (1878)
3. The Woodlanders (1887)
4. The Mayer of Casterbridge (1886)
5. Tess of the D’Urbervilles (1891)
6. Jude the Obscure (1895)
Here are the prominent features of his novels:
Pessimism
Thomas Hardy’s novels are primarily geared
towards a pessimistic outlook of life.
Therefore, the stories presented in his novels
are mainly tragic in contrast to the comic
scenery in Meredith’s novels. In some novels,
the intensity of pessimism is low but Tess of
the D’Urbervilles is among those novels which
are manifested in pessimism.
Role of Chance
We know that Hardy’s vision of life is
pessimistic. But how does he achieve his level
of pessimism? The simple answer to this
question is the use of role of chance. Although
in real life, chance, at times, plays an
important role in moulding a person’s way to
his success. But in Hardy’s novels, it is chance
that brings about the tragic destruction of a
character. For example, Tess has been trying
to tell Angel Clare about her rough “history”
before her marriage and she writes a letter to
let him know indirectly about the situation. But
the letter is eaten up by the carpet and it isn’t
discovered by Angel. If the letter was not
confiscated by the carpet, Angel would have
known about her past and he would have
taken the necessary actions.
Wessex Element
Most of Hardy’s novels (and short stories) are
based in an imaginary town known as
Wessex. This town symbolically denotes to
the South-west area of England where there
grew up and observed life.
Poetic Seriousness
Hardy also used novel as a medium to
broadcast serious thoughts and philosophies
like Meredith and George Eliot.
Minor Novelists of Later
Victorian Period
R L Stevenson
Robert Louis Stevenson was a Scottish story
teller and romancer. He was born in 1850 and
died in 1894. He is best known for his
adventurous stories those still lure small
children. His notable works are:
1. The Treasure Island
2. New Arabian Nights
3. Kidnapped
4. The Black Arrow
5. Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde
He was writing a novel during his death bed
and critics regarded his last uncompleted
novel as the finest representation of his art.
George Gissing
George Gissing was rather an unpopular
novelist but the themes in his novels matched
those in Dickens’ novels. He was of the view
that poor people cannot revolt against the
callus authorities because rich people cannot
afford to yield their influence while an
intellectual person stuffers the most because
intellectuals are sensitive to the pangs that
are inflicted upon the poor people. His famous
novels are:
1. The Worker in the Down
2. The Unclassed
3. Dones
4. New Grub Street
5. Born in Exile
6. The Old Women
Conclusion
Victorian Novel has some merits and demerits
of their own. Firstly, the plot structure of
Victorian novels is not strong. Secondly,
Victorian Novelists give uncontrollable
importance to moral values. That’s why, the
novels like Tom Jones were kept away from
the sight of children because the frank
expression of sex was tabooed. While this age
of the novel provided a stout foundation to
strong story-telling; more realistic sketches of
life and psychological realism to read through
the minds of characters. Surely this age of the
novel was not as impactful as Elizabethan
Drama and Romantic Poetry but it proudly
comes after the third good contender in
English Literature.
Sources and Suggested
Readings
1. Lectures of Sir Fazal 9. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_Bront%C
2. https://crossref- 10. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_Gas
it.info/articles/263/characteristics-of- 11. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Kings
victorian-britain 12. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Eliot
3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victorian_era 13. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romola
4. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Dickens14. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Mered
5. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Makepeace_Thackeray
15. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Hard
6. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Disraeli
16. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Louis_
7. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlotte_Bront%C3%AB
17. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Gissin
8. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emily_Bront%C3%AB

A Critical Essay on Metaphysical Poetry

By Asad Imran
June 27, 2021
Categories: Literary Essays

poetry in which a poet pictures his

Introduction
The term, Metaphysical Poetry has been
derived from the word Metaphysics. Which
separately means beyond the physical and
natural world where there we live.
Metaphysics tries to answer philosophical
questions like does God really exists? What is
the actual reality of our world of substance?
What is the origin of man? And what happens
after death.
emotions through the means of far-
fetched conceits, intellectual
analysis and dramatic action (in
some cases). It was Dryden who
first used the term Metaphysical
Poetry to describe the metaphysical
properties in Donne’s poetry. Dr.
Johnson further performed critical
analysis on Donne’s poetry denoting
that it is the style that makes

On the other hand, Metaphysical Donne’s poetry metaphysical, not

Poetry does the opposite to what
Metaphysics promises to do.
Metaphysical Poetry is a kind of
the subject matter. But he criticized
Donne and other poets who
followed the path of Donne as their
poetry was a manifestation of their
 learning, not of their emotions
towards their beloveds.
About the beginning of the seventeenth
century appeared a race of writers that may be
termed the metaphysical poets. The
metaphysical poets were men of learning, and
to show their learning was their whole
endeavour: but, unluckily resolving to show it
in rhyme, instead of writing poetry, they only
wrote verses and very often such verses as
stood the trial of the finger better than of the
ear; for the modulation was so imperfect that
they were only found to be verses by counting
the syllables.
But in reality, the statement of Dr. Johnson is
rather based on prejudice and exaggeration.
Characteristics of
Metaphysical Poetry
Metaphysical Poetry is distinguished by some
traits of its own. Here are some notable
characteristics:
Difficulty: Metaphysical poetry, usually, is
very difficult to understand for a common
person because a metaphysical poet
shows a comparison between two varying
concepts or things (that makes no sense
for a layman).
Intellectual: Metaphysical poetry is
intellectual in its nature because it is a
product of a poet’s analysis of his
experiences and emotions.
Fusion of Emotion and Intellect:
Metaphysical poetry is a combination of
both intellectual as well as emotional
thoughts and feelings. Therefore, a
metaphysical poet is both a classic and a
romantic simultaneously because they
used their head and heart.
Full of Conceits: Conceits or far-fetched
comparisons are the soul of the
metaphysical poetry. It is difficult for the
metaphysical poetry to exist without
conceits.
Argumentative: Metaphysical poetry is
argumentative in a sense because it is a
bold show of the subtle evolution of
thoughts. Then metaphysical poets give
arguments like a lawyer to prove their
unrecognizable evolution of thoughts.
Originality: Metaphysical poetry is original.
It was not produced as a copy of an
already established mode of poetry. It was
a creative and subtle work of the poets like
John Donne.
Unusual Imagery: Metaphysical poetry is
illustrated by the unique Images of its own.
The images mostly contradict or have no
apparent resemblance in a comparison but
it is the style of metaphysical poets that
adds a connection between the
corresponding Images.
Dramatic: Metaphysical poetry is a drama
of ideas. It’s dramatic in the sense of being
an argumentative confession of one’s
emotions. A metaphysical poet uses the
 tool of argumentation to create a dramatic
atmosphere.
John Donne as a
Metaphysical Poet
John Donne, who opened his eyes in 1537 and
died in 1631, is considered to be the leader of
metaphysical poets. But Donne was more
than a poet. He was a Dean of St. Paul and his
main duty was to deliver religious sermons,
yet Donne wrote poetry on higher subjects.
His famous works may include as under:
1. The Progress of Soul
2. An Anatomy of the World (Elegy)
3. Epithalamium
4. Songs and Sonnets
5. Divine Poems
While the poetry composed by John Donne
can be divided into three parts:
1. Amorous (Of Love)
2. Metaphysical
3. Satirical
Amorous Poetry
Amorous Poetry is the type of poetry that
deals with the concept of love and how love
influences our lives. Before Donne, love was
portrayed in a colourful painting of eternal
bliss and beloveds were sketched without any
flaws in them. But Donne, through his own
version of Love Poetry, presented a realistic
picture of love, lover and his beloved. In
Donne’s realm of love, no lover or the beloved
is flawless. Therefore, his love poetry is his
revolt against the Elizabethan traditions of
painting an idealistic picture of love.
Therefore, his version of Love is not
Petrarchan, rather Platonic.
Metaphysical and Divine Poetry
It is Donne’s metaphysical poetry that tries to
connect the human soul with its creator
metaphysically. But it is also the metaphysical
element in Donne’s poetry that makes his
verses difficult to comprehend for a common
reader. Because the content and the Images
Donne uses in his poems was not well-
recognized by the general public at that time.
The Progress of Soul is the first metaphysical
work of Donne in which he presents the idea
of the migration of the soul from a bird to a
fish. The idea was new to the public of that
time. Therefore, Donne’s metaphysical
caricaturing entitled him to be as complex a
poet as Robert Browning(as compared to an
easy poet like Lord Tennyson) of the Victorian
Era. Both the poets had a love for
metaphysical taste and enriched their poems
with rhythmic music. But Donne was a poet of
wit while Browning was a poet of passion.
Donne’s poetry is devoid of the Elizabethan
sweetness of rhythm and music. He
introduced a rather harsh level of poetry.
Donne had a strong influence over his
followers and Elizabethan poets were eclipsed
by the witty poetry of Donne.
Like Browning, Donne does not sympathize
with the readers. He did not care if readers
were able to grasp his metaphysical
references. Donne’s poetry is difficult because
of its excessive terseness (brevity).
A Detailed Note on Love Poetry
Donne’s love poetry is a revolt against the
Elizabethan traditions of love. Elizabethans
were the Petrarchan in their expression of
love. Petrarchan Poetry of love is
characterized by the element of woman
worship in it. Many reverend poets of
Elizabethan age were tempted to praise
different physical traits of the body of a
woman, be it her eyes, face, the colour of her
hair and her height. Petrarchan poets painted
their beloveds as the indifferent creatures
devoid of the feelings of love towards their
lovers. Petrarchan poets used the images of
common universal (like sun and moon) and
earth to praise the physical features of their
beloved. For example, Shakespeare uses the
imagery of a pleasant summer day to praise
the gentle companionship of his beloved,
Shall I compare thee to a summer’s
day?
John Donne revolted against the Petrarchan
show of love through sensual realism in his
(metaphysical) poetry. Donne was against the
one-sided version of Love. He believed that
sensuous as well as spiritual compatibility is
essential for a satisfactory relationship
between the lover and his beloved. There are
various modes present in the poetry of John
Donne.
Cynical Strain
At first, the love poetry of John Donne appears
to broadcast his cynical views on the
unfaithfulness of women whom he loved
(passionately). For instance, in his poem, The
Flea, Donne is asking to his beloved for her
sensual favour which is eventually rejected by
his lady, he eventually grows bitter at it.
Cruel and sudden, hast thou since
Purpled thy nail, in blood of
innocence?
Wherein could this flea guilty be,
Except in that drop which it sucked
from thee?
Conjugal Strain
In this phase of love poetry, Donne grows
affection for his wife and his cynicism is
rather put on control. He seems to find peace
in love. A Valediction: Forbidden Mourning and
The Sunne Rising are the prime examples of
the very strain.
Platonic Strain
Platonic love favours spiritual connection
between the soul of the lovers. This kind of
love is typically shown before and after the
marriage. For example, in Canonization, Donne
perceives love as a holy passion.
Reflective Strain
Another mode of Donne’s love poetry is his
reflective strain. It is reflective in the sense of
a show of Donne’s innermost emotions that
are governed by the experiences of the poet
himself. It is worth noting that John Donne
had relationships with various girls during his
adulthood. So, his experience of love should
have been vast enough to convey it through
the poems he wrote.
Style
Donne had masterfully played with the style of
rhymes and stanzas in his poetry. Donne was
not contented on the abandoning of
Petrarchan love, but, he was eager to deviate
from the style of the poems, exercised by the
poets of the Elizabethan era. It is said that
Donne played with 40 different forms of
stanzas in his poetry.
A Detailed Note on Divine
Poetry of John Donne
John Donne had been an ardent religious
person in his life. In fact, he did not consider
his poetry important despite its distinctive
approach to both love and religion. When he
opened his eyes, he was a follower of the
Roman Catholic Church. But he was sceptical
regarding the code of the very religion. He,
then, converted to the Protestant branch of
Christianity. He became a Dean at St. Paul and
his primary duty was to deliver sermons. But
Donne also wrote many religious poems to
show his personal attachment to God. He
remained doubtful of his Faith. Most of his
religious poems focus at his repentance of the
sins that he might have committed in the past
or will commit in future.
Introspection
Introspection is a combination of two words,
internal and inspection which literally means
internal inspection. Through religious poetry
John Donne inspects his relationship and
association with the God Whom he thinks is
the right light. Just like the Love Poetry of
Donne dealt with the inspection of his
relationship with his beloved, Donne puts him
own personality at the trial to know about the
true reality between himself and God.
Themes
The religious poetry of John Donne is
characterized by the themes that Donne
implies to convey his connection with the God.
The first prominent theme of his religious
poems are the frailty and decay of the
universe. In the grand scheme of the Universe,
nothing is permanent. The world of ours shall
go to the ruins one day. The second prominent
theme of Donne’s religious poetry is the
insignificance of Man in the hands of God.
Just like the temporary world, Man is himself
temporarily staying in the crowded void of the
earth and he shall be consumed by death one
day. Fear of death is yet another notable
theme that is present in the poetry of Donne.
When Donne is in his adulthood, he feels
afraid of death but as he grows up, his fear of
death bids a farewell to him that can be traced
in his poem, Death be not Proud.
Variety of Tones
Just like love poetry, the religious poetry of
John Donne is recognized by the different
modes it exhibits. The two modes are
debatory and profoundness. Donne also uses
his unmatched ability of wit to create a
pleasant effect of wordplay. Grierson
comments on the religious poetry of Donne as
thus,
To be didactic is never the first intention of
Donne’s religious poems, but rather, to express
himself, to analyze and lay bare his own
moods of agitation, of aspiration and of
humiliation, in the quest of God, and the
surrender of his soul to Him. The same erudite
and surprising imagery, the same passionate,
and reasoning strain, meet us in both.
Sex Imagery
Sensual imagery is vividly used in the poetry
of love but it is strange to find sexual images
in the religious poetry of John Donne. For
instance, in Batter my Heart, Three Person’d
God, Donne pleads to God to attack the devil
who has corrupted his soul. There are images
like divorce, bend and blow which are
somewhat amorous.
Batter my heart, three-person’d God,
for you
As yet but knock, breathe, shine,
and seek to mend;
That I may rise and stand, o’erthrow
me, and bend
…
But am betroth’d unto your enemy;
Divorce me, untie or break that knot
again,
Take me to you, imprison me,
Minor Poets of Metaphysical
Poetry
Other poets of the Metaphysical school of
thought may include as under:
Robert Herrik (1591 – 1674)
Herrik wrote both amorous as well as religious
poems. But he is recalled for his poems of
love. Although his poetry mostly resembles
the Elizabethan spirit, it is his thoughtful
fantasy and meditative strain that is present in
his religious poetry is that makes him a
metaphysical poet.
Thomas Carew (1598 – 1639)
Carew is recalled for the strong influence of
Donne. He was a fineslyric writer of the age to
which he belonged. Although his poetry may
lack the freshness of Herrik, yet his poems are
well-rhymed.
Richard Crawshaw (1613 –
1639)
Crashaw selected a different path as
compared to Carew and Herrik. He entirely
wrote religious poems. His famous work is
The Flaming Heart.
Henry Vaughan (1622 – 1695)
Henry was as mystic a poet as Crashaw, but
he was equally at home in sacred as well as
secular poetry.
George Herbert (1593 – 1633)
George Herbert is the second most read
metaphysical poet after John Donne. He is
famous due to the clarity of expression and
transparency in the conceits he uses. His
religious poetry is simple and didactic.
Conclusion
Literary Essays – Past Papers – MA English
Literature – Part 2 – Sargodha University
By Asad Imran
January 10, 2022
Categories: Literary Essays
Time Allowed: 3 Hours
Total Marks: 100
Metaphysical poetry was kept alive by the
metaphysical poets carrying their own
distinctive approach to the emotions of love
and spirituality. We see the spirit of a Puritan
in their religious poetry. While we witness an
amorous flow of love just like Elizabethans.
Some metaphysical poets sought comfort in
love while others sought a permanent refuge
into the spiritual realm of their own. While
Donne exercised his passion and emotions of
both physical love and divine love in his
metaphysical poetry, giving it a different
meaning to metaphysics that we know today.
Sources and Suggested
Readings
1. Lectures of Sir Fazal
2. https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Donn
3. A New History of English Literature by B. R.
Mullick – The Puritan Age – The Poets of
Metaphysical School – Page 55
Passing Marks: 40 (As of 2020)
Note: Write an essay on any one of the
following topics.
2021
1. Literature is the most agreeable way of
ignoring life.
2. Romanticism is a Disease, Classicism is
health
3. Aestheticism
4. Character is Destiny
5. Shakespearean Clowns
6. Art for Art’s Sake
7. Depiction of life in Postmodern Fiction
8. To be or not to be that is the question
2020
1. The “stream of consciousness” style of
literature
2. Concept of mortality in Shakespearean
tragedies.
3. Characteristics of Metaphysical poetry
4. “What though the field be lost? All is not
Lost; the unconquerable will,
And study of revenge, immortal hate, and
the courage never to submit or yield.”
5. Education makes a people easy to lead, but
difficult to drive, easy to govern, but
impossible to enslave.
6. Not economy but politics is a key to
success.
7. Global Warming, fact or fiction?
8. Women sportspersons are new
ambassadors of the soft image of
Pakistan.
2019
1. Thomas Hardy was mee of a realist than a
pessimist
2. Beauty lies in the eyes of the beholder
3. To be or not to be that is the question
4. “Made weak by time and kale, but strong
1n will
To strive, to seek, to tind, and not to yield. “
5. Literature is the most agreeable way of
ignoring life.
6. Shakespearean Comedy
7. Acstheticium
8. Depiction of life in postmodern fiction
2018
1. Had there been no Marlowe, there would
have been no Shakespeare.
2. Victorian Novel
3. Earlier Romantics vs Later Romantics
4. Hardy and Shakespeare as tragic artists
5. In tragic life, God wot, No villains need be!
Passions spin the plot: we are betrayed by
what is false within.
6. Art for Art’s sake
7. To be or not to be, that is the question
8. Style is the man
2017
1. Frailty thy name is woman.
2. Better to reign in Hell then serve in heaven
3. Child is the father of man.
4. Literature is twice removed from reality.
5. As flies to wanton boys are we to the gods.
6. Shakespearean Tragedy.
7. Neo classicism vs Romanticism.
2016 1. Modern Tragedy
2. Romantic Comedy
1. Literature and Society. 3. Epic Poetry
2. Romanticism in a Disease, Classicism is 4. Comedy of Manners and Comedy of Errors.
Health. 5. Literature is the Mirror of Life
3. Modern Tragedy. 6. Destiny is Character
4. Character is Destiny 7. Orientalism in English Literature
5. Shakespearean Clowns
5014
6. Art for Art’s Sake
7. Trends in Victorian Novel

2015