SG 1 - Module 1-IR 2

FM-AA-CIA-15 Rev.
0 10-July-2020
Study Guide in IR 2 – INTEGRATED REVIEW (Forensic 1-6, CDI 1-9, CA 1-3 and CFLM 1 & 2)
Module No. 1
STUDY GUIDE FOR MODULE NO. ___

1
FORENSIC 1 - 3
MODULE OVERVIEW
Forensic relates or denotes the application of scientific methods, techniques and process of the
investigation of crime. It can also be referred to as forensic science which is a critical element of the criminal
justice system in the process of crime investigation and solution. Forensic scientists are responsible of
examining and analysis evidence from crime scenes and elsewhere to develop objective findings that can
assist in the investigation and prosecution of perpetrators of crime or absolve an innocent person from
suspicion.
This module is an integration of Forensic 1 – 3. Forensic 1 or Forensic Photography covers the
historical development, principles and processes of photography in relation to law enforcement and criminal
justice. This includes the evolution of camera, photographic processes and personalities behind the
development of modern photography, use of forensic light sources and techniques and related laws and
jurisprudence in photography. Forensic 2 or Personal Identification Techniques on the other hand is designed
to enumerate and describe the different personal identification techniques applied in crime detection and
investigation. Specifically, it focuses on fingerprint recording, developing of latent prints and identification and
classification of fingerprints for purposes of court presentation. Whereas, Forensic 3 or Forensic Chemistry
and Toxicology provides an overview of the major disciplines of forensic chemistry and forensic toxicology,
with examples to demonstrate their specific contributions to identification, collection, preservation,
investigation, presentation, and biological and chemical analyses of physical evidence for the effective
dispensation of justice.
MODULE LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this module, the student should be able to:
1. Identify and recall the theories and principles in Forensic Photography.

2. Recognize the theories and principles in Personal Identification Techniques.
3. Recall the principles and process in the Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology.
LEARNING CONTENTS (title of the subsection)
1.1. Forensic Photography
A. HISTORICAL EVENTS
 THE MARCH OF PHOTOGRAPHY

(Persons and their contribution in photography)
Hasan Ibn al-Haytham – a pioneering scientific thinker who made important contributions to the
understanding of vision, optics and light.
ARISTOTLE - Famous Greek philosopher who invented the first pinhole camera that was known later as
camera obscura literally translated as ‘darkened box’
ISAAC NEWTON - English philosopher, mathematician and physicist who discovered and proved that the
strongest light is white light; he defended his theory by allowing a white light to pass through a prism thus
refracting and diffracting the light into its component parts
1519 – Leonardo Da Vinci draw the camera obscura
Giovanni Battista Della Porta – was the reputed inventor in 1569 of the “camera obscura”. The outcome of
the discovery of the possibility of projecting an image through a minute hole.
Angelo Sala - a self educated chemist, he discovered that when paper contained powdered silver nitrate it
would react with sunlight, causing it to darken. These pioneering experiments with silver salts were a crucial
PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 1

FM-AA-CIA-15 Rev. 0 10-July-2020
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step towards the later invention of photography. He published his findings in a pamphlet in 1614.
Anna Atkins - (1799- 1871) an English Botanist, she is considered to be the first female photographer.
1727 – Johan Heinrich Schulze, proved that the darkening of the silver salts is due to the action of light and
not to heat.
1885 – Gelatin emulsion printing paper was commercially introduced based films.
1848 – Abel Niepce de Saint Victor, introduced a process of negatives on glass using albumen (egg white)
as binding medium.
1850 – Louis Desirie Blanquart-Evard, introduced a printing paper coated with albumen to achieve a glossy
surface
1851 – Frederick Scott Archer, published a “wet plate” process when collodion – a viscous liquid that dries
to a tough flexible and transparent film – replaced albumen
1856 – John Herschel - coined the word photography (then introduced the terms negative and positive in the
following year) and pointed out that images can be made permanent by dissolving away unexposed silver
compounds with a solution of hyposulfite of soda (hypo or sodium thiosulfate), which he had discovered in
1819
1860 – Richard Norris, a doctor of medicine and professor of physiology at Queen's College, Birmingham, is
generally credited with the first development of dry collodion plate in the 1860s. In 1894 he took out a new
patent for dry plate used in photography.
1861 – James Clark Maxwell, researched on color, he is the father of colored photography.
1890 – full corrected lenses were introduced.
1906 – a plate was placed on the market that could reproduce all colors in equivalent shades of gray.
1914 – U.S. Eastman Kodak made a color subtractive process called kodachrome.
1935 – color process came out together with electronic flash.
1947 – Edwin H. Land, introduced “Polaroid” the one step photography.
1839 – Louis Jacques Mande Daguerre, invented the “Daguerreotype” (picture made of metal)
DAGUERREOTYPE - description of the first photographs that were scientifically produced immediately after
the birth of photography
1839 – Sir William Henry Fox Talbot, invented the “Calotype” (picture made of paper) the basis of modern
photography. made the first demonstration on a photographic technique to the Royal Society of London; the
English scientist who pointed out the basis of modern photography
1840 – J.W. Draper, one of the first to produce photographs portraits using a lens.
1840 – J.M. Petzval, designs the first lens specifically for photographic use.
Gustav Le Gray – invents the waxed paper process (treats paper to make it nearly transparent before
sensitized and exposure).
1871 – Richard Leach Maddox, invents the first truly practical dry plate negative process, using gelatin in
place of collodion.
1880 – Sir William Abbey, discovers the use of hydroquinone(white crystalline compound, a photographic
developer in paints, motor oil, medicine) as developing agent.

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1822 – Joseph Nicephore Niepce, was credited for making the first photograph. Produced heliographic
drawings (contact-print image of engravings or other line copy on glass, paper or metal coated with a bitumen
varnish that hardens when exposed)
1895 - Roentgen, discovered the X-ray photography.
1802 – Wedgewood, discovered that silver chloride is more sensitive than silver nitrate
documentation of evidence and crime scenes.
1666 – Isaac Newton, (English physicist and mathematician) discovered wavelength.
1550 – An Italian, Girolamo Cardano fitted a biconvex lens to the camera obscura.
1558 – Daniele Barbaro suggested the use of a diaphragm to sharpen the image.
1777 – Karl Wilhelm Scheele, a Swedish chemist investigated the darkening of silver chloride by light and
found out that the salt was reduced to metallic silver.
1835 – Daguerre discovered that mercury fume will develop an invisible (latent) image on a silver plate that is
sensitized with iodine fumes before exposure.
1845 – F Von Marten, France, invented the panoramic camera, wherein the lens is rotated about its optical
center while a curved film is scanned by a slit.
1853 – England, JB Dancer makes the first model of a twin lens camera for stereo photography, suggested
by Sir David Brewster.
1856 - Hamilton Smith - he patented the Tintypes, another medium that heralded the birth of photography. A
thin sheet of iron was used to provide a base for light-sensitive material, yielding a positive image.
1858 – France Nadar takes the first aerial photograph over Paris from a free balloon.
1861 – The first single lens reflex camera was patented by Thomas Sulton.
1880 – The first twin-lens camera was produced by the British firm, R.&J. Beck.
1888 – US, John Carbutt begin the manufacture of celluloid base sheet film.
1895 – The pocket camera was designed by Frank Brownell & called it “Brownie”.
1925 – The German firm of Ernst Leitz brought out to market the popular camera, LIECA.
1928 – The famous twin-lens reflex camera, the Rolleiflex was marketed by the German firm Franke and
Heidecke.
1929 – J. Ostermeier produced the first commercially acceptable self-contained flash bulb; aluminum, foil
sealed in an oxygen- filled bulb.
1934 – Holland, The first wire-filled bulb was introduced by Phillips.
1935 – A gas discharge tube emitting white light is introduced for electronic flash photography.
1932 – The first photoelectric exposure meter is produced by Weston Electric Instrument Company.
Fuji DS-1P of 1988

1. The first true digital camera that recorded the image as a computerized file.
2. It is recorded to a 16 MB internal memory card that used a battery to keep the data in memory.
3. This camera was never marketed in the USA.

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1992 Kodak DCS-100
1. The first commercially available digital camera.
2. It used a 1.3 mega pixel sensor and was priced at $13,000.
10 Casio QV
1. The first consumer camera with a Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) on the back in 1995.the
Kodak DC-25
1. First camera to use compact flash in 1996.
Nikon D1
1. A 2.74 mega pixel camera was the first digital SLR with a price of under $6,000 introduced in 1999.
2. This camera also used Nikon F-mount lenses which means that film based photographers could use the
same lenses the already own.
Canon
1. Introduced in 2003 the 300D camera also known as digital rebel
2. A Six (6) mega pixel and the first DSLR priced lesser than $1,000 to consumers.
LEGAL FOUNDATION OF PHOTOGRAPHIC EVIDENCE:

 For Black and White Photographs
1859 – Daguerreotype was used in a civil case, Lueo vs. United States, to decide on the authenticity of
photographs in comparing signatures.
1874 – In a criminal case introducing photograph as identification evidence
 For Color Photographs
1943 – Civil litigations, Green vs. City and County of Denver, Involving color photography of spoiled meat in
violation of a health ordinance prohibiting the sale of putrid meat to the public.
1960 – In criminal case, State vs. Conte, showing the graphic wound of the victim.
Criminal Application of Photography
1854 – An Englishman, Maddox developed a dry plate photography eclipsing Daguerre’s wet plate on tin
method. This made practical the photography of inmates for prison records.
1859 – In the United States, one of the earliest applied Forensic Science was in Photography. It was used to
demonstrate evidence in a California case. Enlarged photographs of signature were presented in a court case
involving forgery. (Lueo vs. United States)
1864 – Odelberch first advocate the use of photography for the identification of criminals and the
documentation of evidence and crime scene.
1910 – Victor Baltazard developed a method of photographic comparison of bullets and cartridge cases
which act as an early foundation of the field of ballistics.
CRIMINOLOGY EDUCATION:
1902 – Dr. R.A. Reis professor at the university of Lausanne Switzerland set up one of the first academic
curricular in forensic science.
1950 – August Vollmer, chief of Police Berkeley, California established the school of Criminology at the
University of California, Berkeley.
1954 – In the Philippines, the school which pioneered criminology education is the Plaridel Educational
Institution now the Philippine College of Criminology at 641 Sales St., Sta. Cruz, Manila.
Principles of Photography

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Photography – As an art, it simply means the art of taking pictures. As a science, it is the study concerning
the production of images by the combined action of:
1. light on sensitive surfaces (films and photographic papers);
2. a mechanical device (camera); and
3. chemicals during processing (film development and printing).
Photography is the technology geared towards the reproduction of images by using the action of light on a
sensitive surface (photographic film) with the help of an image-forming device (camera) and the chemical
process (developing and printing) involved therein. It is a process or method of using light to produce identical
image of an object that can be preserved permanently by employing:
1. camera to regulate, absorb, and filter (RAF) light; and
2. film (any sensitized material) to record the light.
Photograph = Is the mechanical and chemical result of Photography. Picture and photograph are not the
same for a picture is a generic term is refers to all kinds of formed image while a photograph is an image that
can only be a product of photography.
Photography = Derived from the Greek word “Phos” or “Photos” which means “light” and “Grapho”
means “Writing” or “Graphia” meaning “to Draw”. Literally, photography means "to draw with light". In
photography, the light ‘writes’ when it strikes tiny crystals of light-sensitive chemical compounds (i.e. silver
halide) in the film emulsion thereby causing very subtle change in the crystals. Thus, photography is the
production of visible images by using the action of light upon a sensitive surface.
Sir John F. W. Herschel coined the word photography when he first wrote a letter to Henry Fox Talbot.= Is
the art and science of reproducing image by means of light through some sensitized material with the aid of a
camera, Lens and its accessories and the chemical process required in order to produced a photograph.
Police Photography – is an art or science that deals with the study of the principles of photography, the
preparation of the photographic evidence, and its application to police work.
- Is the application of the principles of photography is relation to the police work and in the administration of
justice.
Forensic = Derived from the Latin word “Forum” which means “a market place” where people gathered for
public discussion.
= When used in conjunction with other science it connotes a relationship to the administration of justice. It
is sometimes used interchangeably with the word legal.
Forensic Photography – is an art or science of taking photographs of crime in progress, crime scene and
evidences for laboratory examination and analysis for purposes of court trial.
- (forensic imaging)(crime scene photography) it is the art of producing an accurate reproduction of a crime
scene or an accident scene using photography for the benefit of a court or to aid in an investigation.
- is that field covering the legal application of photography in criminal jurisprudence and criminal investigation.
It is that branch of forensic science, dealing with the:
1. Study of the fundamental but pragmatic principles of photography;
2. Application of photography in law enforcement; and
3. Preparation of photographic evidences needed by prosecutors and courts of law.
Digital photography - uses an array of electronic photo detectors to capture the image focused by the lens,
as opposed to an exposure on photographic film.
Photographs allow police investigators to understand the elements of a crime under investigation;
clarifying and revealing what is not immediately seen and understood during the initial investigation of the
crime scene. It provides a permanent record of the facts discovered at the crime scene. They record facts for
future references; they provide necessary information needed in crime scene reconstruction and logical
analysis of the crime.

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Photograph of the crime scene is a factual record of an incident because it captures place, time and
event in a single photograph or in a series of shots. A photograph is capable of ‘catching and preserving’ the:
1. ‘place’
2. ‘time’
3. ‘event’ of a crime.
ESSENTIALS OF PHOTOGRAPHY
1. LIGHT = is an electromagnetic energy that travels in a form of a wave with the speed of 186, 000 miles per
second.
2. CAMERA= a light tight box designed to block unwanted or unnecessary light from reaching the sensitized
material.
3. LENS = is the light gathering mechanism of the camera that collect the reflected light coming from the
object to form the image.
4. SENSITIZED MATERIAL= composed of a highly sensitized chemical compound which is capable of being
transformed into an image through the action of light and with some chemical processes. ( Film and Photo
Paper).
5. CHEMICAL PROCESS= is the process necessary for reducing silver halides into a form so as a latent
image and a positive image be made resulting to what we called Photograph.
B. USES OF PHOTOGRAPHY
1. PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION
= Personal Identification is considered to be the first application of photography is police work.
ALPHONSE BERTILLIONwas the first police who utilized photography in police work as a supplementary
identification in his Anthropometry system.
2. FOR COMMUNICATION
= Photograph is considered to be one of the most universal methods of communication
considering that no other language can be known universally than photograph.
3. FOR RECORD PURPOSES

= Considered to be the utmost used of photography in police work.
DIFFERENT VIEWS IN PHOTOGRAPHING

GENERAL VIEW
= taking an over-all view of the scene of the crime. It shows direction and location of
the crime scene.
MEDIUM VIEW
= Is the taking of the photograph of the scene of the crime by dividing it into section. This
view will best view the nature of the crime.
CLOSE-UP VIEW
= Is the taking of individual photograph of the evidence at the scene of the crime. It is
design to show the details of the crime.
EXTREME CLOSE-UP VIEW
= Commonly designed in laboratory photographing using some magnification such as
Photomacrography and photomicrography.
4. FOR PRESERVATION
= Crime scene and other physical evidence requires photograph for preservation purposes. Crime
scene cannot be retain as is for a long period of time but through photograph the initial condition of the
scene of the crime can be preserved properly.
5. FOR DISCOVERING AND PROVING

= Photography can extend human vision in discovering and proving things such as:
a. THE USE OF MAGNIFICATION

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PHOTOMICROGRAPHY = Taking a magnified photograph of small object through
attaching a camera to the ocular of a compound microscope so as to show a minute details of the
physical evidence.
PHOTOMACROGAPHY = Taking a magnified (enlarged) photograph of small object by

attaching an extended tube lens (macro lens) to the camera.
MICROPHOTOGRAPHY = is the process of reducing into a small strips of film a

scenario. It is first used in filmmaking.
MACROPHOTOGRAPHY= used synonymously with photomacrogaphy.
TELEPHOTOGRAPHY = Is the process of taking photograph of a far object with the aid of a long focus
and Telephoto lens.
B. USED OF ARTIFICIAL LIGHT SUCH AS X-RAY, ULTRA-VIOLET AND INFRA-RED RAYS TO

SHOW SOMETHING WHICH MAY NOT BE VISIBLE WITH THE AID OF HUMAN EYE ALONE.
6. FOR COURT EXHIBITS

= Almost all evidence presented in court before formally be accepted requires that they satisfy the
basic requirements for admissibility which is relevancy and competency. A question of relevancy is
usually proved by proving the origin of the evidence and its relation to the case and this is usually
supplemented by photograph of the evidence giving reference as to where it came from.
Evidence presented in court once accepted became known as Exhibit. Either Exhibit 1,2,3 etc. for the
defense or Exhibit A, B, C etc for the prosecution.
7. CRIME PREVENTION
= with the used of video camera (hidden camera) and other advanced photographic equipment
crimes are being detected more easily and even to the extent of preventing them from initially occurring.
8. POLICE TRAINING
= Modern facilities are now being used as instructional material not only in police training as well
as in other agencies.
9. REPRODUCING AND COPYING

= With the use of photography any number of reproduction of the evidence can be made those
giving unlimited opportunity for its examination and even allowother experts or person to examine the
specimen without compromising the original.
C. ESSENTIALS OF PHOTOGRAPHY
6. LIGHT = is an electromagnetic energy that travels in a form of a wave with the speed of 186,
000 miles per second.
7. CAMERA= a light tight box designed to block unwanted or unnecessary light from reaching the
sensitized material.
8. LENS = is the light gathering mechanism of the camera that collect the reflected light coming
from the object to form the image.
9. SENSITIZED MATERIAL= composed of a highly sensitized chemical compound which is

capable of being transformed into an image through the action of light and with some chemical
processes. ( Film and Photo Paper).
10. CHEMICAL PROCESS= is the process necessary for reducing silver halides into a form so as a
latent image and a positive image be made resulting to what we called Photograph.

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D. THEORIES OF LIGHT
1. The WAVE Theory (Huygens)

= It is the theory that was transcribed from the motion of the water that if we observe a piece of
log floating in the ocean and with the force of the air would naturally will make the log move up and
down.
2. Corpuscular theory (Newton)

= this later opposed the wave theory stating that light has its effect by the motion of very small
particles such as electrons.
3. Modified Wave theory (Maxwell and hertz)

= Based on electromagnetic.
All these theories are still considered to be of little lacking that law enforcement need not to
be very focus on this but rather go along with the accepted conclusion that light is a form of energy,
which is electromagnetic in form.
E. LIGHT: ITS NATURE, CHARACTERISTICS, SOURCES AND CLASSIFICATION
Light is defined as an electromagnetic energy with the speed of 186,00 miles persecond. Its wave
travelis said to be characterized in certain extent based on velocity, wavelength and frequency of the
number of vibration of the wave per second.
Light wavelength is the distance measured between two (2) successive crest or through of wave and it is
expressed in either Millimicron (nanometer) or Angstrom.
Millimicron is the units of light wavelength which is equivalent to one-millionth part of a millimeter which the
Angstrom is relatively smaller for it has an equivalent measurement of ten (10) millionth part of a
millimeter.
Once light hits a certain medium, its action can be characterized as either: Reflected, Transmitted or
Absorbed (RAT). Reflected once the light hits a mirror and it bounce back. Transmitted when the light hits a
transparent glass which would allow the light to pass through its medium and Absorbed when the light hits a
dark colored object and prevents it from either bouncing or passing through.
Isaac Newton in 1666 proved that the light which men see as white light is actually a mixture of all
colors of the spectrum. This is produced when we allow light to hit a glass prism (Sharp Edge of the Glass). A
rainbow array will then be shown with colors red, orange, yellow, green, blue and violet colors (from top to
bottom). The visible light is also said of have a wavelength of between 400-700 millimicronor
nanometer.
1. Types of Light
Lights can largely be classified into visible and invisible light.
a. Visible Light
= Is the type of light that produces different sensation when reach the human eye. It is the
type of light, which is capable of exciting the retina of the human eye.
b. Invisible Light
= lights in which their wavelength are either too short or too long to excite the retina of the
human eye i.e. X-ray, Ultrat-violet and Infra-red lights.
2. Photographic Rays
a. X-ray
=Light with the wavelength between .01 to 30 millimicrons. It is produced by passing an
electric current through a special type of vacuum tube. It was incidentally discovered by Conrad
Welhelm Roentgen. This type of light works in the principle of shadow photography.
b. Ultra-violet ray (Before the violet)

= Radiation having a wavelength of 30 to 400 nanometers designed to photograph fingerprints in multi
colored background, documents that are altered, decipherment of erase writing and developing invisible

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writing. It is commercially known as “black Light”.
c. Visible Light
= It refers to the type of radiation having a wavelength of 400 to 700 millimicrons designed for ordinary
photographing purposes.
d. Infra-red (Beyond the Red)

= Considered as the photographic rays with the longest wavelength ranging from 700 to 1000
millimicrons. It is designed to take photograph of over-written documents, obliterated writing, and
charred documents or for black out photography. It is sometimes referred to as heat rays).
3. Light Source
Natural Light=are those light which come to existence without the intervention of man e.i. Sunlight,
moonlight and starlight.
1. Bright Sunlight
= object in an open space casts a deep and uniform shadow and the object appears glossy.
2. Hazy Sunlight
= object in an open space casts a transparent or bluish shadow. This is due to thin clouds that
cover the sun.
3. Dull Sunlight
= object in an open space cast no shadow due to thick clouds covering the sun.
Daylight may still be classified as: open space bright sunlight, under shade bright sunlight,
hazy sunlight, cloudy sunlight and cloudy dull sunlight.
These conditions and their colors affect the appearance of the object being photograph.
Factors such as atmospheric vapor, atmospheric dust and quality of the reflected light coming and not
coming from the source should likewise be considered.
B. Artificial Light = otherwise known as man-made light e.g. fluorescent bulb, incandescent bulb and
photoflood lamp.
1. Continuous radiation
Photoflood lamp= is likewise known as Reflectorized light or Spot light. It is a light with a
reflector at the back which focus the light to the object the common wattages of this lamp is 500
watts.
Flourescent Lamp = are tube lamps in which the walls are coated with fluorescent powders
with both ends is mounted with a holder that serves as the reflector. This is commonly used by
everybody more than it is used in photographing.
Incandescent bulb = are bulb with a wire filament connecting two wires which sustain the
electrical charge that produces the light. Everybody likewise commonly uses this although it is
more expensive in terms of electrical consumptions.
Infra-red Lamp
Ultra-violet Lamp
2. Short Duration type

Flash bulb = are chemical lamps, as it generate lights by the rapid combination of metal in
oxygen. The bulb can be used only once as the bulb is busted when fired electrically. There are
thin filaments inside the bulb with two electrical contacts. When the current flows through the
filament, it becomes incandescent and ignites the explosive primer that ignites the aluminum foil
that burns, giving flash of tense light.
Electronic Flash = produces light by an instantaneous electrical in charges between two

electrodes in a gas filled glass bulbs. The electrical energy for the discharge is kept in
capacitor or condenser. It usually ranges from 1/300 second and 1/5000 second, and
because of this, subject in fast motion can be arrested or stopped in the photographs.

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4. SENSITIZED MATERIAL
= It refers to the film and photographic paper that basically composed of emulsion containing Silver
Halides suspended in gelatin and coated on a transparent or reflective support.
Parts of the Sensitized Material
1. Emulsion = is that part of the film or photographic paper which contains the silver grains which is
the one sensitive to light. In a colored film this emulsion surface can be composed of three layers
(Blue, Green and Red) with filters intervening.
2. Anti Halation Backing = is the one designed to hold back the light and prevents halation.
3. Base = Support the emulsion
I. Types of Film
A. According to Use
1. Black and White Film = usually represented by a prefix or a suffix “Pan” or
“Ortho” and generally used in black and white photography. Examples are
Ortholith film, Tri X-Pan and Pan X-plus.
2. Colored Film = can be divided into two: the Negative type and the reversal
type of colored film. The former is usually having names ending in color while
the word chrome represents the latter.
e.g. Blue sensitive film, Ultra-violet film, Infra-red film, Orthochromatic
film and Panchromatic film.
B. According to Spectral Sensitivity
Spectral sensitivity = is the responsiveness of the film emulsion to the different
wavelength of the light course.
1. Blue – Sensitive film = sensitive to U.V. light and Blue Color.
2. Orthochromatic Film = Sensitive to U.V. Light up to the green. ( popular in the
marker as KODALITH FILM)
3. Panchromatic film = Sensitive to U.V. Light up to red (sensitiveto all colors of
the visible light)
3.1. Process Panchromatic film = permit short exposures under average
lighting condition and has the advantage of the grain structure.
3.2. Grain Panchromatic film
3.3. High Speed Panchromatic film designed originally for photographing
object under adverse lighting condition.
4. Infra-red Film = Sensitive to all colors and to infra-red light.
FILM SPEED (Emulsion Speed)

This refers to the degree of sensitivity of the film to light.
1. ASA (American Standards Association) = this is expressed in arithmetic value system. The
bigger the number the more sensitive the film is.
ASA 10, 20 , 30 , 40,50, 100, 200, 400, 800, 1000
2. DIN ( DeutcheIndustreNormen) = expressed in Logarithmic value system. Used in the same
principle as the ASA.
Din 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, 27, 30, 33 etc.
3. ISO (International Standard Organization) expressed as combination of ASA and DIN rating.
II. Photographic Paper

It is that sensitized material that will record the visible image in the final development and
become the photograph.
Types of Photographic Papers

A. According to Emulsion Used (Silver halides content)

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1. Silver Chloride paper = used for contact printing, the size of the positive print is the
same as the size of the negative used. Sensitivity to light is low and give blue-black tones
when properly developed.
2. Silver Bromide paper = used projection, printing and enlarging process. This is one of
the most ideal photo paper used for police photography. Will give a black tone when
properly developed.
3. Silver Chlorobromide paper = used both for projection and contact printing. Slow
emulsion.
4. Variable contract paper = combines the contrast range in one paper it uses a special
chlorobromide emulsion that produces varying contrast responses upon exposure to
different colors of light.
B. According to Physical Characteristics
b.1. Weight
1. Light weight = designed for high flexibility and when paper thickness is not of
consideration. Intended for purposes, which involves folding.
2. Single Weight = papers used for small prints or which are need to be mounted on solid
and fine details necessary in the production. Used in ordinary photographic purposes.
3. Double weight = generally used for large prints because they stand up under rough
treatment.
b.2. Surface Texture
a. Glossy paper =designed for fine details and brillant image formation.
b. Semi-mate paper = obscure the fine details
c. Rough papers = used for large prints or where breath rather than detail is
necessary.
b.3. Color
a. White = better used in police photography.
b. Cream = preferred for pictorial effect, portraits, landscape or when warmth
effect is desired.
c. Buff papers = prepare for tone prints
C. According to Contrast (grade)
1. Velox No. 0 = used for printing extremely contrast negative or extremely exposed film.
2. Velox No. 1 = used for high contrast negative (over exposed film)
3. Velox No. 2 = used for normal exposed film
4. Velox No. 3 = used for negative with weak contrast (under exposed)
5. Velox No. 4 = used to provide sufficient contrast to compensate for very thin or weak
negatives. It is useful imprinting which high contrast is desired.
6. Velox No. 5 = for flat negative that are unprintable.
5. CAMERA
Is a light tight box with light gathering device and a means of blocking unwanted or unnecessary light
from reaching the sensitized material.
Basically, camera can produce image with its four-(4) basic parts such as light tight box, lens, and
shutter, Holder of sensitized material.
Essential Parts of a Camera

Light Tight Box – a box designed to keep light out and serve as a frame to hold other parts.
Lens – designed to collect or to focus the reflected light from an object to form an image on the film.
Shutter – designed to control the time during which the light reaches the film
Holder of the sensitized material – located at the opposite side of the lens designed to hold firmly the
sensitized material to prevent the formation of the multiple or blurred image
View finder – designed to determine the field of view of the camera or the extent of the coverage of the
given lens
OTHER PARTS OF A CAMERA

Viewing System
Is that part of the camera which provides the means of showing to the photographer the entire

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scene coverage that can be recorded in the sensitized material.
Film Advancer (film advance lever or knob) =designed to transfer the exposed film to the other
side or to the take up spool and the unexposed film will be the opposite side of the lens for
another exposure.
Shutter speed = is that part of the camera which regulates the time exposure of the film thus,
affecting the amount of light reaching the sensitized material. It is usually expressed in a
fraction of a second.
1/1 1/2 1/4 1/8 1/15 1/30 1/60 1/125 1/250 1/500 etc.
The speed number in the left is always two times powerful in terms of light gathering than that of the
right number
Using a fast shutter speed the photographer can stop or “freeze” the action of a person provided that
necessary adjustment on the lens opening be made in order to maintain normal exposure.
Lens Aperture = the ratio between the diameter of the whole lens in relation to the focal length of
the lens. It is the light gathering power of the lens. Otherwise known as lens opening or
relative aperture and it is expressed in F-number.
f 2.8 f-4 f-5.6 f-8 f-11 f-16
The lower the f-number, the bigger the lens opening and the bigger the lens opening the greater the
volume of air that will passed through the lends and reach the sensitized material.
If the objective of a photographer is obtain the widest possible coverage of the lens in which objects
are all sharp, It will be advisable to used a smaller lens opening.
Focusing = is that mechanism of a camera designed to control the degree of sharpness of the
object to be photograph. It is usually obtained by estimating the distance from the camera
and that of the object that will make a sharp or clear image.
Types of focusing device:

1. Range finder (Either coincidence or split image type)
Coincidence otherwise known as superimposed image focusing. In this type of focusing a single object will
appeared double once the object is not in focus, but moving the focusing adjustment this double
image will coincide or superimposed to form a single object.
Split Image focusing on the other hand will show an image in split or two parts once the object in not in
focus once the two parts of the image has been united then the object is already focused
2. Ground Glass
This is observed from the viewing system of the camera, once the object is not in focused the object
will be viewed to be blurred and will turn sharp and clear once adjusted.
3. Scale Bed
Estimating the distance of the object and adjusting the camera control based on his estimation do
this.
TYPES OF THE CAMERA

1. View Finder Type– it is considered as the smallest and the simplest type of camera
2. Single Lens Reflex Camera – it is a type of camera best suited for police work due to its
interchangeability of the lens
3. Twin Lens Reflex Camera – A type of camera with dual lens, one for focusing and the other for
forming the image.
4. View or Press type – is considered the biggest and expensive type of camera, used for movie
making
5. LENS
= It is the image-forming device of the lens that actually has a greater effect on the quality of the
image to be formed.
= a medium or system which converge or diverge light rays passing through it to form an image.
= Can be a glass or transparent material, which permit light to pass through and change the direction
of light.
Daniel Barbaro = first to introduce the use of lens in the camera.

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CLASSIFICATION OF LENSES
1. According to the type of image to be produced
a. Positive or Convex Lens (Converging Lens) Characterized by the fact that it is thicker at the
center and thinner at the side which is capable of bending the light together and forms the
image inversely.
b. Negative or Concave Lens (diverging Lens) Characterized by the fact that it is thinner at the
center and thicker at the side and forms the virtual image on the same side of the lens.
2. According to Degree of Corrections

a. Meniscus Lens = lens that has no correction.
b. Rapid Rectilinear Lens – lens corrected of distortion
c. Anastigmat Lens – correcting astigmatism
d. Achromatic Lens – correcting chromatic aberration
e. Apochromatic Lens – correcting both astigmatism and chromatic aberration
INHERRRENT LENS DEFECTS

1. Spherical Aberration= Inability of the lens to focus light passing the side of the lens producing an
image that is sharp in the center and blurred at the side.
2. Coma = (Also known as lateral aberration) = Inability of the lens to focus light that travels straight or
lateral, thus making it blurred while the light reaching the lens oblique is the one the is transmitted
sharp.
3. Curvature of Field = the relation of the images of the different point are incorrect with respect to one
another.
4. Distortion = Is a defect in shape not in sharpness. It can either be Pincushion distortion (curving
inward) or Barrel (curving outward).
5. Chromatic Aberration = Inability of the lens to focus light of varying wavelength. The lens refracts
rays of short wavelength more strongly than those of longer wavelength and therefore bringing blue
rays to a shorter focus than the red.
6. Astigmatism= is a form of lens defects in which the horizontal and vertical axis are not equally
magnified. Inability of the lens to focus both horizontal and vertical lines.
7. Chromatic Difference of Magnification
8. Flares = condition of the lens producing multiple images.
LENS CHARACTERISTICS
1. Focal Length – is the distance measured from the optical center of the lens is set to focus at infinite
position. As according to focal lenses may be classified as:
a. Wide Angle or Short Focus = with focal length not longer than the diagonal half of the
negative. Useful in taking photograph at short distance with wider area coverage.
b. Normal or Medium Focus = with focal length approximately equal but not longer than twice
the diagonal half of the negative.
c. Long or Telephoto Lens = with focal length longer than twice the diagonal half of the
negative. Best used in long distance photographing but with narrow area coverage.
d. ZOOM lens = lens with variable focal length or that which can be adjusted continuously by the
movement of one or more elements in the lens system.
2. Relative Aperture – the light gathering power of the lens expressed in F-number
a. Depth of Field – is the distance measured from the nearest to the farthest object in apparent
sharp focus when the lens
b. Hyperfocal distance = Is the nearest distance at which when a lens is focused with a given
particular diaphragm opening will gives the maximum depth of field.
3. Focusing = is the setting of the proper distance in order to form a sharp image. The one that
controls the degree of sharpness of the object.
6. CHEMICAL PROCESS
The process of making the latent image visible and permanent.
a. Development (Use of either D-76, Dektol or Universal Solution)
= Is the process necessary for reducing the silver halides to form the image.
Elon, Hydroquenone = used as main developing agents

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b. Stop bath = normally composed of water with little amount of dilute acetic acid that serves as
a means to prevent contamination between the developer and the acid fixer.
c. Fixation = Is the process by which all unexposed silver halides are dissolved or removed
from the emulsion surface and making the image more permanent.
Sodium Thiosulfate (hypo) is the main fixing agent that dissolves unexposed silver
halides.
Other chemicals used:
Acetic Acid and Boric acid = serves as neutralizer

Sodium Sulfate = serves as the preservative
Potassium Bromide = restrainer or hardener
Sodium bicarbonate and borax powder = serves as accelerator
Dodging = is the process of eliminating unwanted portion of the negative during enlarging.
Cropping = is the process of omitting an object during the process of enlarging and printing.
Vignetting = is the gradual fading of the image towards the side through skillful adjustment on the
dodging board.
Dye toning = is the process designed in changing the color tone of the photograph.
Burning-In = refers to additional exposure on a desired portion of the negative used for purposes of
making a balance exposure.
1.2. Personal Identification Techniques
DEFINITION OF TERMS:
1. Fingerprint – An impression of the friction ridges of all or any part of the finger. A friction ridge is a raised
portion of the epidermis on the palmar (palm and fingers) or plantar (sole and toes) skin, consisting of one
or more connected ridge units of friction ridge skin. These ridges are sometimes known as "dermal ridges"
or "dermal papillae".
2. Dactyloscopy – is the practical application of fingerprints or the process of identification by fingerprint
comparison and the classification of fingerprints.
3. Dactylography – is the scientific study of fingerprints as a means of identification.
4. Poroscopy – the scientific study of pores or science of identification by means of the pores.
5. Podoscopy- the science of identification through friction ridge characteristics existing on the sole of the
human foot.
6. Chiroscopy – the science of identification through friction ridge characteristics existing on palms.
7. Ridgeology–the study of poroscopy, edgeoscopy, and ridge characteristics for the purpose of the positive
identification of fingerprints.
8. Edgeoscopy – the study of the characteristics formed by the sides or edges of papillary ridges as a
means of identification.
Dogmatic Principle of Fingerprint
1. Principle of Individuality – no two fingerprints are exactly alike

2. Principle of Permanency – configuration and details of individual ridges remain constant and
unchanging.
3. Principle of Infallibility – fingerprint is the most reliable means of identification.
Fingerprints in other species
The Koala is one of the few mammals (other than primates) that have fingerprints. In fact, koala
fingerprints are remarkably similar to human fingerprints; even with an electron microscope, it can be quite
difficult to distinguish between the two.

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History and Development
A. Primitive Knowledge
1. Egypt – The earliest evidence of ridge detail on the hands and feet of humans was seen in the 4,000 year
old mummies of ancient Egypt. The hands and feet of mummies have been examined on numerous
occasions and they confirmed the presence of ridge detail on the mummies’ digits.
2. China – It was a common practice for the Chinese to use ink fingerprints on official documents, land
scales, contracts, loans and acknowledgements of debt. Finger seals for sealing documents to prove
its authenticity. Early in the 12th century, in the novel, “The Story of the River Bank,” fingerprint found
itself already in the criminal procedure of China; and in the 16th century, a custom prevailed in
connection with the sale of children. Palm and sole impressions were stamped of sale to prevent
impersonation.
3. Japan – A Japanese Historian, KamagusuMinakatafurthere commented about blood stamping.

Apparently, contracts were accompanied by a written oath confirmed with a blood stamp. The blood
stamp was a print of the ring finger in blood drawn from that digit.
4. France – The most famous ancient stone carvings is found in the L’lle de Gavrinis of the coast of France.
Here a burial chamber, or dolman, was discovered dating back to Neolithis times. Its inner walls are
covered with incised designs- systems of horse-shoe form, more or less circular concentric figures,
spiral, arching lines sinuous and straight lines and other markings occurring in various
combinations. Many anthropologists interpret these lines as representing finger or palm print
patterns.
5. Nova Scotia – An outline of a hand was scratched into slate rock beside Kejiomkujil Lake by an
aboriginal Indian. The carving is an outline of a hand and fingers. Within the outline the flexion creases of
the palm and fingers are depicted. This carving has considerable historical significance. Although it
does not demonstrate knowledge of the individuality of friction ridges or palmar flexion creases, it
clearly illustrates an early awareness of the presence of those formations.
6. Babylonia - References by ancient historians have been found describing how finger seals were used
on legal contracts from 1855-1913 B.C. This practice identified the author and protected against
forgery.
7. Palestine – William Frederick Bade, Director of the Palestine Institute of Archeology, conducted
excavations at various sites in Palestine and at one place found finger imprints on many pieces of
broken pottery. These “identifications” permitted the confuse debris to dated accurately to the fourth
century A.D. Commenting on his case, Fingerprint magazine (1973) stated that “these impression were
obviously intentional and no doubt, represented the workman’s individual trade mark.”
8. Holland and Ancient China – Identification of individuals was by means of branding, tattooing,
mutilation and also manifested by wearing of cloths of different designs.
B. PERSONALITIES
1. Constantinople - In treaty ratification, the sultan soaked hi hand in a sheep’s blood and impressed in
on the document as his seal.
2. Thomas Bewick (1753-1828) – A British author, naturalist and engraver became England’s finest
engraver who made fingerprint stamps. He made wooden engravings of fingerprints and published
their images in his books where he used an engraving of his fingerprints as a signature. The engravings
demonstrate familiarity with the construction of skin ridge. In two of the books he added “Thomas
Bewick, his mark” under the impressions.
3. Sir William J. Herschel – Credited as being the first European to recognize the value of friction ridge
points and to actually use them for identification purposes.
4. Dr. J.C.A. Mayer (1788) of Germany – He published the following statements in his anatomical atlas;
although the arrangement of skin ridges is never duplicated in two persons, nevertheless the

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similarities are closer among some individuals. In others the differences are marked, yet in spite of
their peculiarities of arrangement all have a certain likeness.” This deduction was published 100 years
before the Konai contract.
5. Dr. Henry Faulds (1843-1930) – In 1875 Faulds had opened a missionary hospital and a year later
started a medical school in Japan where he may have been exposed to fingerprints. He wrote a letter to
Charles Darwin telling him of his studies and requesting assistance. He mentioned that fingerprints can
be classified easily and that ridge detail is unique. He pointed out the value of fingerprints of being
in “medico legal studies” and commented that photographs of people change over the years but
rugae (friction ridges) never change.
6. Thomas Taylor (1877) - A microscopist of the Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC who also
suggested that fingerprints could be used to solve crime.
7. Alphonse Bertillon (1853-1914) – He devised the first truly scientific method of criminal identification in
Paris France called anthropometry or Bertillonage. He conceived the idea of using anatomical
measurements to distinguish one criminal from another. He decided to use various body measurements
such as head length, head breadth, length of left middle finger, length of the left cubit (forearm)/ length of
left foot, body height, face breadth, face height and other descriptions including features such as scars
and hair and eye color to distinguish criminals.
8. Dr. Henry P. De Forrest - He utilized the first official municipal use of fingerprints for non-criminal
registration on December 19, 1902 in the Municipal Civil Service Commission in the City of New York.
He required civil service applicants to be fingerprinted to prevent them from having better qualified
persons take test for them and put the system into practice.
9. Capt. James I. Parke – He advocated the first state and penal use of fingerprint which was officially
adopted in Sing-sing prison on June 5, 1903 and later at Auburn, Napanoch and Clinton Penitentiaries.
10. Sgt. Kenneth Perrier – An Englishman and first fingerprint instructor at the St. Luis Police Department,
Missouri. He was one of the pupils of Sir. Edward Richard Henry and through personal contact during the
Worlds Fair Exposition held in St. Luis, a fingerprint bureau was established on April 12, 1904.
11. Mary K. Holland – She was the first American Instructor in Dactyloscopy.
12. Harry Mayers II – In 1925, he installed the first official foot and fingerprint system for infants at the
Jewish Maternity Hospital, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA, and the first system in the state.
13. Juan (Ivan) Vucetich (1855-1925) – The fast face of the advancement of fingerprinting in England was
due to the ingenuity of Juan Vucetich, who was employed as a statistician with the Central Police
Department at La Planta, Argentina. In July 1891, the Chief of Police assigned Vucetich to set up a
bureau of Anthropometric Identification.
14. Sir Edward Henry (1850-1931) – At the same time that Vucetich was experimenting with fingerprinting in
Argentina, another classification system was being developed in India. This system was called “The
Henry Classification System.”
FINGERPRINTING IN NORTH AMERICA (1877-1900)
15. Isaiah West Taber (1880) – In 1880, a photographer in San Francisco who suggested that fingerprinting
be adopted for the registration of Chinese immigrant laborers.
16. Gilbert Thompson (1882) – He used his thumbprint to ensure that the amounts were not changed or
altered on payroll cheques. When issuing a payroll cheque, he would put an inked thumbprint over the
amount. This is to prevent fraudulent cheque alterations.
17. Mark Twain (1894) – An America author and lecture, Twain enhanced the position of fingerprints when
he included their use in the plot of a novel entitled Pudd’n Head Wilson. In the novel, a bloody
fingerprint is found in the murder weapon and Pudd’n Head, the defense attorney, has the whole
town fingerprinted. He lectured the court and jury on the basics of fingerprinting, how fingerprints

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are immutable, and that two fingerprints will never be found to be the same. He also commented
on how identical twins can be indistinguishable in appearance, at times even by their parents, but
their fingerprints will always be different.
Fingerprinting in Canada (1904-1920)
18. Edward Foster (1863-1956) – Foster, Canadian constable of the Dominion Police attended the world’s
Fair to guard a display of gold. He attended Ferrier’s presentation at the convention and intrigued by the
possibilities that fingerprinting had to offer, he felt that a bureau would be effective than an anthropometry
bureau. He also felt that a national organization in Canada, similar to the International Association of
Chief’s of Police, would encourage cooperation among Canadian police departments and be an ideal
body to promote a national interest in fingerprinting.
Scientific Researchers
19. Nehemiah Grew (1641-1712) – Grew, English botanist, physician and micropist. In 1684 he published a
paper in the philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London describing his observations of
the “Innumerable little ridges of equal big ness on the ends of the first joints of the fingers.” He
described sweat pores, epidermal ridges, and their various arrangements. Included in his paper was
a drawing of the configurations of the hand displaying the ridge flow on the fingers and palms.
20. GovardBidloo (1685) – Bidloo, anatomist in Amsterdam, Holland, published a book on human anatomy
illustrating friction ridges and pore structure on the underside of the fingers. His comments were
morphological in nature and he did not refer to or mentioned the individuality of friction ridges.
21. Marcello Malpighi (1628-1694) – A professor in 1685 at the University of Bologna, Italy, published the
results of his examination of the friction skin with the newly invented microscope. He has been
credited with being the first to use a microscope in medical studies. His paper dealt mainly with the
function, form, and structure of the friction skin as a tactile organ, and its use in the enhancement of
traction for walking and grasping.
He was known as the ‘Grandfather of Dactyloscopy” according to Dr. Edmond Locard, the “Father of
Poroscopy.” He originated the terms “loops and spirals.”
22. JCA Mayer (1788) – A German doctor and anatomist whose paper on fingerprint clearly addressed the
individuality of the friction ridges.
23. Johannes (Jean) Evangelista Purkinje (1787-1869) – A professor at the University of Breslau,
Germany, published a thesis that contained his studies on the eye, fingerprints and other skin features
entitled, “Commentatio de Examine PhisiologicoOrganiVisus et Systematis.” He classified nine principal
configuration groups of fingerprints and assigned each a name he was known as the “Father of
Dactyloscopy.”
24. Arthur Kollman (1883) – The first researcher to address the formation of friction ridges in embryos and
the topographical physical stressors that may have been part of their growth. He identified the presence
and locations of the valor pads of the human hand and foot.
25. H. Klaatsch (1888) – From Germany who examined the walking pads and eminences of several
pentadactylous of five fingered mammals. He was credited being the first researcher to examine the
walking surface of other mammals. He also referred to the arrangement of the fundamental limits of the
friction ridges as the reason why all ridge formation are different.
26. David Hepburn (1895) – He is connected with the University of Edinburgh, Scotland, published a paper
on the similarity in appearance of the eminences or walking surfaces of primates entitled, “The
Papilliary Ridges on the Hands and feet of monkeys and men.” He was the first to recognized that
ridges assist gripping by creating friction and that they had a function other increasing tactile
stimulus.
Historical Background – Philippine Setting

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27. Mr. Jones was the first to teach fingerprints in the Philippine Constabulary sometime in the year 1900.
The Bureau of Prisons in the year 1918, records show that the fingerprints already existed in the
“carpetas”
28. L. Asa N. Darby, under his management during the re-occupation of the Philippines by the American
Forces, a modern and complete Fingerprint File has been establishment in the Philippine Commonwealth.
29. Mr. Genoroso Reyes was the first Filipino Fingerprint Technician employed by the Philippine
Constabulary.
30. Capt. Thomas Dugan of New York City Police Department and Mr. Flaviano G. Guerrero of the Federal
Bureau of Investigation, Washington, gave the first examinations for fingerprint in 1937.
Plaridel Educational Institution (PEI), now the Philippine College of Criminology (PCCr), Manila is
the first governmental recognized school to teach the science of fingerprints and other police sciences.
C. Legality of Fingerprints
1.People vs. Jennings [252 III. 534, 96 NE 1077 (1911)] pass upon the admissibility of fingerprint
evidence. Fingerprint evidence was admitted as a means of identification. It was also held that persons
experienced in the matter of fingerprint identification may give their opinions as to whether the fingerprints
found at the scene of the crime correspond with those of the accused. The court’s conclusion were based
on a comparison of the photographs of such prints with the impressions made by the accused, there
being no questions as to the accuracy or authenticity of the photographs. It was stated that the weight to
be given to the testimony of experts in the fingerprint identification as a question for the jury.
2.New Jersey State vs. Cerciello, in which fingerprint evidence was permitted to be introduced. The
defendant argued that it was an error to allow the testimony by experts explaining the comparison of
fingerprints obtained from the defendant voluntarily with those fingerprints found upon a hatchet near the
body of the deceased when the body was discovered. The New Jersey Court of Errors and Appeals held,
“in principle, its admission as legal evidence is based upon the theory that the evolution in practical affairs
of fife, whereby the progressive and scientific tenderness of the age are manifested in every other
department of human endeavor, cannot be ignored in legal procedure. But, that the law it its effort to
enforce justice by demonstrating a fact in issue, will allow evidence of those scientific processes which
are the work of educated and skillful men in their various departments, and apply them to the
demonstrations of fact, leaving the weight and effect to be given to the effort and its results entirely to the
consideration of the jury”.
3. In the case of State Vs. Conners [87 N.T.L. 419, 94 Atl.812 (1915)] it was held competent to show by a
photograph the fingerprints upon the balcony post of a house entered, without producing that post in
court, and to show by expert testimony that the fingerprints found on the post were similar to the
fingerprints of the defendant.
4. Lamble vs. State [Lamble v. State, 96 N.T.L. 231; 114 ATL. (N.J) 346 (1921)] which involved the
discovery of fingerprints on the door of an automobile, the court was of the opinion that it was not
necessary to produce the door as evidence. The court stated that a photograph of the fingerprints noted
on the door should be sufficient along with the identification of the fingerprints by an expert to show these
of the defendant. The court referred to the previous decided case of States v. Conners.
5. Commonwealth v. Albright, [101 Pa. Sup. C.L.317 (1931)] - a fingerprint expert testified that the
fingerprint on a piece of glass, established to be from a pane in a door that had been broken to effect
entrance to the house was the same as the impression of the defendant’s left index finger and he
explained in detail the points of identity which led him to that judgment. In the Albright case, the court
stated, “it is well settled that the papillary lines and marks on the fingers of every man, woman and child
posses an individual character different from those of any other person and that the chances that the
fingerprints of two different persons may be identified are infinitesimally remote.
6. People v. Corral [224 cal. 2d 300 (1964)] - it is completely settled law that fingerprints are the strongest
evidence of the identity of a person”. This Doctrine was reasserted in another California case, People v.
Riser [47 cal. 2d. 566 (1956)] in which the court stated, “fingerprint evidence is the strongest evidence of
identity and is ordinarily sufficient alone to identify the defendant”.

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7.Schmerber v California [Schmerber v. California,384 us,757,767(1966)] - The introduction into evidence

of fingerprint impressions taken without consent of the defendant was not an infringement of the
constitutional privileged against self incrimination. The high court held that it is constitutional to obtain real
or physical evidence even if the suspect is compelled to give blood in a hospital environment, submit to
fingerprinting, photographing or measurement, write or speak for identification, appears in court, stand or
walk, assume a stance or make a particular gesture, put on cloth that fits him, or exhibit his body as
evidence when it is material. The Schmerber case points out the fact that the privilege against self-
incrimination is related primarily to “TESTIMONIAL COMPULSION”.
In the Philippines:
8.In the BILANGAWA v. AMADOR case, (Court of Appeals No.37320-b) a fingerprint expert and
constabulary sergeant testified and successfully defended fingerprint evidence based on eight identical
ridge points.
9. People of the Philippines vs. Medina, 59, Phil. 330 of December 23, 1933 were the first conviction
based on fingerprint and led to the judicial decision in the Philippine jurisprudence.
Types of Ridge Formation
1. Recurving ridge – Is the ridge that curves back in the direction in which it started. It looks like a hair pin.
2. Converging Ridges – Two or more lines forming an angle, a ridge whose closed end is angular and
serves as a point of convergent.
3. Diverging ridges – Two ridges running side by side and suddenly separating, one ridge going one way
and the other ridge in another way.
4. Bifurcating ridge – A single ridge which splits into two forming a “Y” shape, formation or structure. It is
Ridge Characteristics
1. Island, Eyelet, lake or Eye – It is a single ridge which bifurcates where the bifurcating ridges converge at
a certain point to form again into a single ridge.
2. Dot or Series of dots – They are fragmentary ridges formed like a dot or dots.
3. Short or Series of Short Ridges – They are fragmentary ridges formed by short or series of short ridges.
4. Ridge-ending – It is a termination or ending of ridge or ridges.
5. Fragmentary Ridges – They consist of disconnected sequences of short ridges embodied intensely.
These ridges are considered in the classification of fingerprints if they appear as dark and as thick as the
surrounded ridges within the pattern area.
6. Ridge Hook – It is a ridge that divides to form two ridges which are shorter in length than the main ridge.
7. Ridge Bridge – This is a connecting ridge between two ridges.
8. Incipient or Nascent Ridge – This is a kind of ridge which is madly formed, thin, short or broken which
appear or appears in the depressions between two well formed ridges.
9. Sufficient recurve – The space between shoulders of a loop, free of any appendage, and abutting at
right angle.
10. Appendage- a short ridge at the top or summit of a recurve usually at right angle.
11. Envelop – Is a single recurving ridge enclosing one or more rods or bars.
12. Rod or bar – Is a single ending ridge at the center of a recurving ridge of a loop pattern.
13. Uptrust– Is an ending ridge of any length rising at a sufficient degree from a horizontal place.
14. Dissociated ridges – Are unusual ridge structures having no well defined patterns; the ridges are
extremely short, appear like a series of “patches” caused by a disturbance of developmental process at
early fetal life of the individual.
15. Shoulder of a loop- It is that point at which the recurving ridge definitely turns or curve.
16. Shoulder of a loop- It is that point at which the recurving ridge definitely turns or curve.
17. Puckering- As growth ceases at several ends, the ends curls slightly.
18. Creases- Are thin, usually straight narrow white lines running transversely or formed side to side, across
the print, causing the puckering of the ridges.
19. Staple- Single recurving ridge at the center of the pattern area.
20. Spike- An ending ridge at the center of a pattern which forms the upthrust.
21. Enclosure – a bifurcation which does not remain open but which the legs of the bifurcation, after running
along side by side for a short distance, come together again to form a single ridge once more.

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Focal Points of Fingerprint Pattern
1. Core – Is a point on a ridge formation usually located at the center or heart of a pattern.
2. Delta or Triradial Point – Is a point on the first ridge formation directly at or in front or near the center of
the divergence of the type lines. It may be: a) a bifurcation b) an abrupt ending ridge c) a dot d) a
short ridge e) a meeting of two ridges f) a point on the first recurving ridge located nearest to the
center and in front of the divergence of the type lines.
Type Lines and Pattern Area

 Type lines - basic boundaries of most fingerprints formed by ridges which run parallel, starting from
the lower corner of the pattern and flowing inward and upward the edge of the pattern area, where
they diverge or separate, then surround or tend to surround the pattern area.
 Pattern area- The part of the fingerprint which lies within the area surrounded by the type lines.
Rules in Core Location

1. The core is placed upon or within the sufficient recurving ridge.
2. When the innermost sufficient recurve contains uneven number of rods rising as high as the
shoulders, the core is placed upon the end of the center rod whether it touches the looping ridge or
not.
3. When the innermost sufficient recurve contains no ending ridge or rod rising as high as the shoulders
of the loop, the core is placed on the shoulder of the farther from the delta.
4. When the innermost sufficient recurve contains an even number of rods rising as high as the
shoulders, the core is placed upon the end of the farther one of the two center rods being treated as
though they were connected by a recurving ridge. The shoulders of a loop are the points at which the
recurving ridge definitely turns inward or curves.
Rules in Delta Location

1. The delta may not be located at a bifurcation which does not open towards the core.
2. When there is a choice between a bifurcation and another type of delta equally close to the point of
divergence, the bifurcation is selected.
3. When there is a series of bifurcations opening towards the point of divergence of the type lines, the
bifurcation nearest to the core is chosen as the delta.
4. The delta may not be located in the middle of the ridge running between the type lines toward the
core but at the nearer end only. The delta depends entirely on the point of origin of the ridge.
5. If the ridge enters the pattern area from a point below the divergence of the type lines, the delta must
be located at the end nearer to the core.
What are ridge tracing, ridge counting and ridge count?

 Ridge Tracing is the process of tracing the ridge that originates from the left delta toward the right
delta to see where it flows in relation to the right delta.
 Ridge Counting is the process of counting the ridges that touch or cross an imaginary line drawn
between the core and delta of a loop.
 Ridge Count is the number of ridges intervening between the delta and the core.
Standard Fingerprint Patterns

1. Loops (60 % in appearance)
- ulnar
- radial
2. Arches (5 % in appearance)
- Tented
- plain
3. Whorl (35 % in appearance)
- Plain whorl
- Central pocket loop whorl
- Double loop whorl

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- Accidental whorl
1. LOOPS - A type of fingerprint pattern in which one or more of the ridges enters on either side of the
impression, recurve, touch or pass an imaginary line drawn from the delta to the core, and terminate
or tend to terminate on or toward the same side of the impression from which such ridge or ridges
entered.
a. Ulnar Loop - Loops which flow in the direction of the ulna bone or towards the little finger.
b. Radial Loop – loops which flow or recurve towards the radial side or thumb.
ESSENTIALS OF A LOOP
- It must have a core
- It must have a delta
- An imaginary line must pass between the core and the delta.
- It must have a ridge count of a minimum of at least one (1) across a looping ridge.
2. ARCHES – The ridges go from one side of the pattern to another, never turning back to make a loop.
(Solis, p 59)
a. Plain Arch - A pattern in which the ridges enter on one side of the pattern, then flow or tend to
flow towards the other side, with a rise or wave in the center, with no angular ridge formation and
no upthrust. (Tubid)
b. Tented Arch - A pattern similar to a loop, but lacking at least one of the essential elements of a
loop. This is a type of fingerprint pattern where majority of the ridges form an arch and one or
more of the ridges at the center form a tent in outline, giving an angle of 90 degrees or less; or
one with un upward thrust having an angle of 45 degrees or more; or a pattern similar to a loop,
but lacking at least one of the essential elements of a loop. (Tubid)
3. WHORLS – Patterns with two deltas and patterns too irregular in form to classify:
a. Plain whorl (simple whorls Solis, p59), defined: It is a fingerprint pattern which there are two (2)
deltas and in which at least one (1) ridge makes a turn through one complete circuit, an imaginary line
drawn between the two (2) deltas must touch or cross at least one (1) of the circuiting whorl ridges
within the pattern area.
b. Central Pocket Loop Whorl, defined – It is a fingerprint pattern which for the most part of a loop, but
which has a small whorl inside the loop ridges, sometimes called a composite pattern, which means
that is made up of two (2) pattern in one, a whorl inside a loop .
c. Double Loop Whorl, defined – A Double loop whorl is a pattern consisting of two (2) separate and
distinct loop formations. One of the loops surrounds or overlaps the other, also called COMPOSITE
PATTERN, like the central pocket loop whorl. It arises from the fact that these patterns are a
composite or combination of two (2) patterns in one, with two cores and two deltas.
d. Accidental Whorl, defined – It is a pattern that is a combination of two or more different types of
patterns except in the PLAIN ARCH. It can be a combination of a loop and a whorl, a loop or a central
pocket loop whorl, or any combination of two or more different loops and whorl type pattern. Like the
central pocket loop whorl and the double loop whorl, some authorities or authors call accidental whorl
COMPOSITE.
Kinds of Impressions
1. Real Impressions – Impression of the finger bulbs with the use of printing ink on the surface of the
paper. Other coloring materials may be used but they are less visible and indelible
a. Plain method – The bulbs of the last phalanges of the fingers and thumbs are pressed on the
surface of the paper after pressing them on an ink pad or ink plate with printing ink.
b. Rolled Method – The bulbs of the thumb and other fingers are rolled on the surface of the paper
after being rolled in an ink pad or ink plate with the printing ink.
2. Chance impression – Refers to fingerprints which are imprinted or impressed by mere chance or without
any intention to produce it.
a. Visible/Patent prints – impression made by chance and is visible without previous treatment.
Impression made by the fingers smeared with some colored substance, like black ink, vegetable juice,
may be visible immediately after impression.

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b. Semi-visible/plastic/molded prints – impressions made by chance by pressing the finger tips on
melted paraffin, putty, resin, cellophane, plastic tape, butter, soap, etc. These prints need not a
development, although photography is more applicable.
c. Invisible/Latent prints – prints which are not visible after impression but made visible by the addition
of some substances.
Latent prints – Any chance or accidental impression left by friction ridge skin on a surface, regardless of
whether it is visible or invisible at the time of deposition.
Patent prints –These are friction ridge impressions of unknown origin which are obvious to the human eye
and are caused by a transfer of foreign material on the finger, onto a surface. Because they are already
visible they need no enhancement, and are photographed instead of being lifted.
Plastic prints/Molded prints - A friction ridge impression from a finger or palm (or toe/foot) deposited in a
material that retains the shape of the ridge detail. Commonly encountered examples are melted candle wax;
putty removed from the perimeter of window panes and thick grease deposits on car parts. Such prints are
already visible and need no enhancement, but investigators must not overlook the potential that invisible
latent prints deposited by accomplices may also be on such surfaces.
How to Get Fingerprint Impressions on Dead Bodies?

1.In cases of fresh dead bodies, the fingers are unclenched and each one is inked individually with the
aid of a small rubber roller. The paper where the print will be impressed will be placed in a spoon-
shaped piece of wood and slowly and evenly rolled over the pattern.
2.If the fist is too tightly clenched, a small incision may be made at the base of the fingers. The
contraction may also be overcome by dipping the hands in hot water.
3.If the so-called washerwoman’s skin is not too marked on the fingerprints of dead bodies
recovered shortly from bodies of water (floaters), the fingers may be dried off with towel and
glycerin is injected with a syringe under the skin of the finger tips in order to smoothen the surface.
The fingerprints are then taken like that of a fresh dead body.
4.If the “floater” has been in a body of water for longer time and the friction ridges have
disappeared, the skin of the fingertips is cut away. This area of skin from each finger is placed in a
small labeled test tubes containing formaldehyde solution. If the papillary ridges are still preserved
on the outer surface, the person taking the prints places a portion of the skin on his right index finger
protected by a rubber glove and then takes the print after inking the finger tip. The same procedure as
described may be applied to putrefied or burned bodies according to circumstances.
Fingerprint Classification
 Classification - is the method of obtaining a formula for a set of fingerprints whereby it may be located in
the filling cabinet.
 Classification Formula - is the numerical description for a set of classified fingerprints which is
composed of figure and letters written above the horizontal line like a fraction.
 Blocking - is the process of writing below each finger-print pattern the corresponding symbols of its
name.
Six Divisions of Classifications in Order According to their Importance

(Edward Henry “Henry System”)
1. Primary Classification
2. Secondary Classification
3. Sub-secondary classification
4. Major Division
5. Key
6. Final
Formation in classification line

Key Maj. Prim. Sec. Sub.Sec. Final

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Div. Class. Class Class Class
1. Primary Classification – is the sum total of all numerical values of whose found in fingerprint set
expressed as the numerator and the denominator plus the pre- established fraction of one over 1 (1/1).
How to get the primary classification

a. By Pairing
b. By assigning numerical values to whorl patterns only
Types of Fingerprint Patterns (Symbol)

Without numerical value: A, T, R, U
With numerical value: W, C, D, X
c. Knowing the numerators and denominators in the pairs

Note: Even Number- Numerator
Odd Number- Denominator
d. Summing up the numerical values of whorls assigned to the fingers plus the pre-established fraction
of 1/1
N= 16+8+4+2+1 = 31+1 = 32
D= 16+8+4+2+1 = 31+1 = 32
Number of Possible Combination in Primary Classification

• There are 1,024 possible combination for primary classification from 1/1 to 32/32.
• 1/1 – lowest primary classification
• 32/32 – highest primary classification
Note: Whorl type of pattern is the only fingerprint patterns with numerical values and an arbitrary
count of one (1) is always added.
Purpose of Fixed Count of One:
The purpose is to avoid a classification of zero over zero (0/0) in a set of prints in which this might be
mistaken for a letter “O” which has another specific meaning in the classification.
CLASSIFICATION OF AMPUTATIONS AND FINGERS MISSING AT BIRTH

• If one finger is amputated, it is given a classification identical with that of the opposite finger, including
pattern and ridge count or tracing.
• If two or more finger are amputated they are given classification identical with the opposite fingers.
• If two amputated finger are opposite each other, both are given the classification of whorls with
meeting tracing.
• When fingerprint card bearing notation of fingers missing at birth is classified, the missing fingers
should be treated as amputations in that they are given the identical classification of the opposite
fingers.
2. Secondary Classification – is the exhibition of Capital Letter symbols of plain arch, tented arch,
radial loop, ulnar loop, plain whorl, central-pocket loop, double loop whorl, and accidental found in the
index finger of both hands.
- The pattern appearing on the right index should be placed on the numerator and the pattern
appearing on the left index should be placed on the denominator.
- There are twenty five (25) possible combinations which may appear in the index finger from A/A
to W/W without C, D, and X. (Collins) There are 64 combinations for filing from A/A to X/X.
Secondary Small Letter Classification - It is the exhibition of small letter symbols of arch, tented
arch and radial loop found before and after the index finger of both hands.

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3. Sub- Secondary Classification – is the exhibition of the resultant symbol for the ridge counting in
loops as expressed by symbol I and O and ridge tracing for whorl as expressed by symbol IMO from
the right index to the left ring finger excluding the thumbs and the little fingers of both hands.
- Fingers to be considered are: index finger, middle finger, and ring finger of both hands.
Loop Sub- Secondary by Ridge Counting – It is the exhibition of the resultant symbol for the ridge
counting in loops as expressed by symbol IO found from indexes, middles and ring fingers of both
hands, the ridges are counted and compound to the pre-established table to obtain the resultant
symbol IO. All loop sets of prints using the Index, Middle, and Ring fingers of both hands has sixty
four (64) combinations.
Whorl Sub- Secondary by Ridge Tracing - when the whorl is found on the index, middle and ring
fingers of both hands the ridges are traced to obtain the resultant symbol IMO. There are seven
hundred twenty nine (729) possible Subsecondary combinations for whorl type patterns in the Index,
Middle, and Ring fingers of both hands.
For whorl tracing:

 Meeting (M) – 0 to 2 ridges from left delta to the right delta
 Outer (O) – 3 or more ridges below the right delta
 Inner (I) – 3 or more ridges above the right delta.
For Tented Arch and Plain Arch

If a Plain Arch or Tented arch are present on the index, middle, and ring fingers of both hands, just
put a dash (-) for the sub-secondary classification.
4. Major Division – is the exhibition of the ridge counting in loops as expressed by symbol SML and the
ridge tracing for whorls as expressed by symbols IMO found on the thumbs of both hands.
Three (3) Kinds of Major Division
1) Loop Major Division – When the loop is found on the thumb of both hands, the ridges are counted
and compared to the pre- established table of Whorl Major Division.
Denominator Numerator
Left Hand Right Hand
1- 11= S 1-11= S
12- 16= M 12- 16= M
17 > = L
17 > = L 1 – 17 = S
18 – 22 = M
23 > = L
2) Whorl Major Division – When the whorl is found on the thumbs of both hands, the ridges are
traced to obtain the resultant symbol IMO.
3) Combination of Loop and Whorl Major Division – When one of the thumbs is loop, the resultant
symbol SML is used and when the other thumb is whorl, the resultant symbol IMO is used. For T
and A just put dash in the classification line.
5. Final Classification – It is the ridge count of the loops an whorls found on the little fingers of both
hands. Arches and tented arches are represented by dashes in classification formula.
- For T and A just put dash in the classification line.

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- Final Classification is located or placed on the extreme right of the classification line.
How to Ridge Count a Whorl:

- When a whorl is found on the right little finger, ridges are counted from left delta to the core.
- When the whorl is found on the left little finger, ridges are counted from right delta to the core.
6. Key Classification - It is the ridge count of the first loop from the right thumb to the left ring finger
excluding little fingers of both hands. In the absence of loop, the ridge count of the first whorl will be
utilized as the key treated as ulnar loop.
- For T and A just put dash in the classification line.
- The Key Classification is placed on the extreme left of the classification line and is always
represented as numerator, no matter where it is taken.
LEARNING ACTIVITY 1
Learning Activity 1: Forensic Photography and Personal Identification Techniques

After the online discussion, continue reading the lessons in Forensic Photography and Personal Identification
Techniques.
 Prior to the discussion there will be an assessment to gauge your knowledge on the subject matter.
 Prepare for a quiz on lesson 1.1 and 1.2.
LEARNING CONTENTS (title of the subsection)
1.3. Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology
Forensic chemistry is the application of chemistry and its subfield, forensic toxicology, in a legal
setting. A forensic chemist can assist in the identification of unknown materials found at a crime scene.
Specialists in this field have a wide array of methods and instruments to help identify unknown substances.
Forensic chemistry focuses on identifying unusual compounds, such as paint, or something not widespread.
Forensic toxicology is the study of the pharmacodynamics, or what a substance does to the body,
and pharmacokinetics, or what the body does to the substance. To accurately determine the effect a particular
drug has on the human body, forensic toxicologists must be aware of various levels of drug tolerance that an
individual can build up as well as the therapeutic index for various pharmaceuticals. Toxicologists are tasked
with determining whether any toxin found in a body was the cause of or contributed to an incident, or whether
it was at too low a level to have had an effect.
Forensic toxicology typically looks in human fluids, stomach, skin, etc. for arsenic or other poisonous items.
The techniques can also analyze for prescription drugs intended for depression sleep, etc. that can be
delivered in large enough dose to kill.
Concepts of Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology
Forensic chemistry and toxicology serve to uncover the use and misuse of illicit substances,
medication and anabolic steroids, as well as mechanisms of action and toxicity. This may be simple
explanations of the structure of new, illegal designer drugs, examinations of their, determination of purity in
effects, as well as in biological samples such as blood, saliva or hair.
Forensic Chemistry deals with the identification and analysis of chemical pieces of evidence found
at the scene of a crime. These shreds of evidence are identified and examined for proving the diversity of
crimes like homicides, sexual assaults, suicides, accidental poisoning, health and occupational hazards
associated with metallic poisons, pesticides, insecticides, and others.
Forensic toxicology deals with the investigation of toxic substances, poisonous products or with the

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environmental chemicals. This field of science helps to identify poison substance and hazardous chemicals.
Forensic toxicology deals with the way that substances are absorbed, distributed or eliminated in the body -
the metabolism of substances
History of Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology

Poisons were employed by early Egyptians and ancient Greeks and Romans. Democritus was
probably the first chemist to study poisons, and he communicated some of his findings to Hippocrates.
Poisons were used both for murder and as a means of execution; the philosopher Socrates was condemned
to death by drinking hemlock. Ancient Roman civilization had laws against poisoning in 82 B.C.E. Before the
development of systematic, scientific criminal investigation, guilt was determined largely by circumstantial
evidence and hearsay. Arsenic was a popular poison in Roman times. It was referred to as inheritance
powder in early France. The Blandy trial of 1752 was the first instance of an actual chemical test for poison,
and the Marsh test, developed in 1836, was the first reliable analysis that could show scientifically that arsenic
was present in the body of a victim.
Belgian chemist Jean Servais Stas (1813 1891) conducted studies on various methods employed to detect
certain types of vegetable poisons in the body. Stas is best known for his work in determining the atomic
weights of the elements, and served as the leading chemist in Belgium during his time. In 1851, Stas was
required to examine the organs of a dead body involved in a fibtorious murder case, concluding that the victim
had been poisoned try mente, at natural product considered to have been responsible for oved murders at
that time (Newton, 2007).
1813 MathieuOrfila, a Spaniard who became professor of medicinal/forensic chemistry at University of Paris,
published “Traite des Poisons Tires des Regnes Mineral, Vegetal et Animal, ouToxicologie General l”.
Orfila is considered the father of modern toxicology. He also made significant contributions to the
development of tests for the presence of blood in a forensic context and is credited as the first to attempt the
use of a microscope in the assessment of blood and semen stains.
1836 James Marsh, an Scottish chemist, was the first to use toxicology (arsenic detection) in a jury trial.1851
Jean Servais Stas, a chemistry professor from Brussels, Belgium, was the first to successfully identify
vegetable poisons in body tissue.
1910 Edmund Locard, professor of forensic medicine at the University of Lyons, France, established the first
police crime laboratory.
1960 Lucas, in Canada, described the application of gas chromatography to the identification of petroleum
products in the forensic laboratory and discussed potential limitations in the brand identity of gasoline.
1976 Zoro and Hadley in the United Kingdom first evaluated chromatograph-mass spectrometry for forensic
purposes.
Every chemist is schooled in general, organic, and analytical chemistry, but forensic chemists also
specialize in specific areas of expertise. For example, an inorganic chemist may examine traces of dust by
using microchemistry to identify the chemical composition of tiny particles. Another chemist might employ thin-
layer chromatography during the analysis ofblood or urine for traces of drugs, and still another might use
chemical reactions in test tubes to identify larger samples of compounds.
Paracelsus, pictured here, was a 16th century physician and is considered to be the “Father of
Toxicology.” Toxicology as a distinct scientific discipline is fairly modern; however, knowledge of poisons and
poisoning incidents date back to ancient times. Humankind’s desire to assure its health and safety has
always been present, but drawing conclusions about harmful chemicals required learning. Initially this was
done by trial and error, where substances were tested to see which were safe and which were best avoided.
Written documents dating back to around 450 BCE have been recovered that describe the toxicity of venom
released in a snakebite and how it can be treated. Cleopatra herself is reputed to have committed suicide by
a self-inflicted bite from an asp, although this widely told narrative may be more fiction than fact. The Greeks
and Romans also had a good knowledge of many naturally occurring poisons. In fact, death by poison was
not an uncommon form of capital punishment. Socrates, for example, was sentenced to drink poisonous
hemlock for supposedly corrupting the youth of Athens and failing to recognize official state deities.

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The science of toxicology advanced significantly throughout the middle-ages with an understanding of
occupational diseases connected with mining operations. Paracelsus, (pictured here and also at the
beginning of this article), was a Swiss/German physician and alchemist best known for articulating the
concept of “The dose makes the poison,” and who is considered today to be the bedrock of toxicology. Over
time, research toxicologists have studied the toxicity of a vast range of chemicals, both naturally occurring and
synthetic. More recently toxicologists have embraced “green chemistry” as an approach to identifying and
developing chemicals and products with properties that minimize negative impacts on humans and on the
environment. Modern toxicology has tried to move away from the traditional approach of animal testing and
towards a harm-free route of experimentation.
Principles of Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology

Forensic chemistry is a subdiscipline of forensic science, its principles guide the analyses performed
in modern forensic laboratories. Forensic chemistry’s roots lie in medico-legal investigation, toxicology and
microscopy and have since led the development of modern forensic analytic techniques and practices for use
in a variety of applications.
Forensic Toxicology applies analytical toxicology to postmortem forensic toxicology, human
performance forensic toxicology, forensic drug testing, and pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics.
Additionally, it covers commonly encountered analytes, including alcohol, benzodiazepines, GHB,
miscellaneous central nervous system depressants, opioids, cocaine, cannabis,
amphetamines/sympathomimetic amines, hallucinogens, anticonvulsants, antiarrhythmics, antidepressants,
antihistamines, neuroleptics, nonnarcotic analgesics, carbon monoxide/cyanide, inhalants, and metals.
A. Significance and value of forensic science in criminal investigation

1. Essence of forensic science in criminal investigation
What is Forensic Science?

An introduction to Forensic Science defines it as “The application of science to those criminal and civil laws
that are enforced by the police agencies in a criminal justice system”. Forensic Science deals with the
application of the knowledge and methodology of various disciplines of science to legal matters. It involves
the use of multiple disciplines such as physics, chemistry, biology, computer science and engineering for
evidence analysis. For instance, physics is used to understand the pattern of a blood spatter, biology to
establish the source of an unidentified suspect and chemistry to determine the composition of drugs. Thus,
the role of forensic science in criminal justice and the legal system is highly critical but is often underrated.
The forensic science explains the identity (who) of the suspect who committed the crime. The
evidence clearly indicates the type (what) of the crime committed. The circumstances speak out about
the time (when) of the incident. The forensic evidence proves the location of the offence
(where/crime scene).The forensic investigation finds out the modus operandi (how) of the offender. Lastly,
it establishes the motive behind the crime. The forensic investigators reconstruct identity of the
offender and the victim. There can be primary, secondary and tertiary crime scenes depending on the
incident.

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The scope of Forensic Science

 Forensic Biology/DNA: Apart from fingerprint analysis, DNA profiling is the other commonly used
forensic technique in criminal investigations. DNA being as unique to an individual as fingerprints,
help forensic professionals identify or confirm an unidentified person, or to eliminate suspects from a
list of accused. The biological evidence most commonly used for DNA profiling include blood, saliva,
semen, skin, urine, and hair. However, DNA fingerprints are usually never used as the single piece of
evidence in the court of law.
 Forensic Odontology: Forensic odontology helps in the identification of victims when the body is left
in an unrecognizable state. This is achieved through an examination of their teeth, the alignment, and
overall structure of the mouth. Forensic dentists or odontologists aid in the comparative identification
of a person by examining the development and anatomy of the teeth including any restorative dental
corrections such as filling. It is often applied to criminal investigations for bite mark analysis.
 Controlled Substances: Chemicals that are legally recognized as having the potential for abuse are
called controlled substances. This includes “street drugs” such as ecstasy or heroin and prescription
drugs such as oxycodone. The ability to detect and identify such controlled substances plays a crucial
role in aiding law enforcement agencies in their fight against drug abuse and drug-based violence.
 Forensic Toxicology: Forensic Toxicology involves analysis of biological samples to check for the
presence of toxins and drugs. This branch of forensic science is of prime importance in road
accidents, poisoning, sexual violence etc. The toxicology reports furnish key information about the
nature of substances present in an individual pertaining to an incidence. It also determines whether
the quantity of substances are normal as per a therapeutic dosage or exceed the permissible level.
Since newer variants of drugs are developed each day, this branch of forensic science is ever-
evolving and demands up-to-date approach.
 Forensic Anthropology: This deals with the examination of compromised human remains or
skeletons to help determine the age, height, gender, and ancestry. It also helps establish the time
since death by identifying and examining injuries, if any. These analyses give valuable leads to
investigators on identifying victims, especially in cases where the bodies are beyond recognition.
 Forensic Pathology and Medicolegal Death Investigation: Forensic pathology is a branch of
pathology that helps determine the cause of death by examining a corpse. Forensic medicine thus
involves the collection and analysis of medical samples to deduce facts admissible in the court of law.
For instance, identification of wound patterns can help determine the weapon used to inflict the
wound. Additionally, forensic pathologists can examine exit and entry wounds in deaths pertaining to
the use of firearms or other projectiles. A forensic pathologist can, therefore, draw crucial inferences
on whether the death is natural, criminal or accidental.
 Impression and Pattern Evidence: Impression evidence is the evidence created when two objects
come in contact with enough force to create an “impression”. This could involve a two-dimensional
impression such as a fingerprint or three-dimensional one such as the marks on a bullet. Pattern
evidence analysis involves identification and analysis of additional information within an impression.
Impression and pattern evidence when used in conjunction can help establish vital links between a
suspect/tool to a crime scene.
 Trace Evidence: Evidence such as fibers, soil, hair, gunshot residue, wood, and pollen are some of
the many examples of trace evidence. It derives its name from its tendency to be easily transferrable
between objects, people or the environment during a crime. Trace evidence often plays a pivotal role
in establishing a prime link between a suspect and the victim. For instance, a soil sample obtained
from the shoes of a victim can give critical clues on the location of the crime and thus help in tracing
the perpetrator.
 Cyber Forensics: Cyber Forensics involves the analysis of evidence found in computers and digital
storage media like pen drives, hard disks etc. Its major objective is identifying, preserving, recovering,
analyzing, and presenting facts and opinions about the digital information. Although it is mostly used
for the investigation of cyber crimes, it also widely used in civil proceedings. Cyber Forensics has
been used in criminal law since the mid-1980s, some notables ones being the Sharon Lopatka
homicide case, and the conviction of Dennis Rader, Dr. Conrad Murray – Micheal Jackson’s personal
physician, and Joseph E. Duncan III.
 Ballistics: Ballistics is a specialized forensic science that deals with the motion, behavior, dynamics,
angular movement and effects of projectiles, such as bullets, rockets, missiles, bombs etc. The use of
ballistics in forensics is mainly in criminal investigations. For instance, the examination of the bullet
found at a crime scene can reveal what type of gun was used to fire it and whether it is associated
with any other crime in the past. In fact, ballistic details are documented in a large database that is

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accessible by law enforcement agencies across the globe.
The Stalwarts in the History of Forensic Science

Mathieu Orfila (1787 – 1853): Considered as the Father of Toxicology.
Alphonse Bertillon (1853 – 1914): Established the first scientific system of personal identification by a
series of bodily measurements. It was later replaced by fingerprints in the early 1900s.
Francis Galton (1833 – 1911): First to study fingerprints and classify them for filing.
Leone Lattes (1887 – 1954): Discovered that blood can be categorized into four groups.
Calvin Goddard (1891 – 1955): Determined the comparison of bullets in guns – Ballistics.
Albert S. Osborn (1858 – 1946): Developed principles of document examination.
Walter C. McCrone (1916 – 2002): Developed advances in microscopic techniques to solve crimes and
analyze evidence.
Hans Gross (1847 – 1915): Studied and developed principles of criminal investigation.
Edmond Locard (1877 – 1966): Had a background in medicine and law, and was the first one to use
scientific methods for criminal investigation.
Role of Forensic Science in Criminal Investigations

Forensic science is that piece without which the puzzle of a criminal investigation is incomplete.
Without the application of forensic science, criminals can never be convicted unless an eyewitness is
present. While detectives and law enforcement agencies are involved in the collection of evidence, be it
physical or digital, it is forensic science that deals with the analysis of those evidence in order to establish
facts admissible in the court of law.
The duties and responsibilities of a forensic scientist in a criminal investigation is crucial as it involves
the careful examination of an evidence while ensuring that it is not tampered with. A diverse pool of
forensic scientists and forensic tools go into the investigation of a criminal act.
For instance, forensic pathologists are skilled at determining the cause of a death by performing
autopsies. An autopsy helps establish the cause and manner of death through the examination of body
fluids and tissues. Forensic Scientists analyze physical evidence (fingerprints, blood, hair etc.) collected
from the incident scene to identify suspects. Additionally, forensic professionals use image modification
tools to search for criminals absconding from the law for a long time. This tool enables them to digitally age
a photograph to understand how the individual would look at aging.
Criminal Profiling – Getting inside a criminal’s mind
This needs no introduction as we have often encountered its use in popular television series such as
Criminal Minds, Law & Order, Profiler and the film, Silence of the Lambs. Criminal profiling dates back to
1888 and is believed to have been originally used and adapted by the FBI.
Criminal profiling enables forensic scientists to zero down on suspects by determining a criminal’s patterns
and personality. It is based on a psychological evaluation of the belongings seized from an offender. This
helps in drawing a complete social and psychological assessment of the offender. Although it is often
questioned for its accuracy, effectiveness and scientific validity, its role in the criminal investigation cannot
be neglected.
The basic steps of criminal profiling include in-depth analysis of the crime scene, analyzing the incidence
and drawing comparisons with similar events in the past, evaluation of the victim’s background and
activities, considering all possible motives and preparing a detailed description of the suspects in order to
compare it with previous cases.
Importance of Forensic Science in Law
The word “forensic” has its roots in the Latin word “forenses” which means a forum. Back in early Rome, a
forum referred to a public place where judicial proceedings and debates were held. Thus, the origin and the
very definition of ‘forensic science’ points to its close association with the legal system. Forensic Science
involves the collection, preservation, and analysis of evidence suitable for prosecuting an offender in the
court of law. The application of forensic science in the criminal justice system is, therefore, an apparent
picture.
The legal system widely recognizes the role of forensic evidence in the trial of criminal offenders. This is
because when scientific techniques and methods are used, there is not much scope for bias or injustice.
That is why DNA profiling and a host of other forensic evidence are widely accepted in courts across the
world. Interestingly, the first forensic technique ever used involving finger and palm print identification dates
back to the Chinese (650 A.D.).
B. Crime scene protocol on Forensic Chemistry Related Evidence.

1. SOP in criminal investigation

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The manner in which a crime scene is searched is determined by the type of crime, the location of the
scene, details concerning events of the crime, the time of day, the number of people available for the search,
and available equipment. Inasmuch as hair and fiber evidence can play a role in most cases involving violent
crime, serious consideration should be given to collecting it properly. Once the crime has been committed,
little time remains before hair and fiber evidence will be lost or contaminated. The importance of securing the
crime scene cannot be overstated.
Tests on Biological evidence: Blood and Blood Stains, Semen, Hair and Fibers, Saliva, Urine, Feces
1. Importance of Biological Evidence in Forensic Investigation
Biological evidence can be any substance from a human source providing personal identification of
that source. The power behind biological evidence is its use in identifying victims or suspects, leading to
establishing the presence of victim or suspect being at a scene.
Types of biological evidence include body fluids, such as blood, semen, saliva, and urine, as well as
skin and other types of tissues and organs.
Biological evidence helps in proving or disproving an alibi, eliminating a suspect, identifying a suspect,
and identifying a victim. DNA evidence taken from a crime scene can be compared to DNA taken from a
suspect or victim.
New technologies and methods, including the collection of trace amounts of DNA (touch DNA) and
forensic genealogy, has revolutionized the use of biological evidence taken decades ago in the hopes of
solving cold cases and proving innocence (or guilt).
When collecting biological evidence, collection methods and conditions must be taken into
consideration. It is best practice to use sterile and disposable when collecting samples, and the prevention
of personal exposure to biohazards such as HIV, hepatitis, herpes, and other transmittable diseases and/or
bloodborne pathogens, must be avoided at all costs. This is not only for the prevention of cross
contamination of the evidence but for the forensic personnel collecting the evidence.
Evidence should be packaged separately, and depending upon the type of evidence, proper collection
containers, such as paper bags, are used. For example, small pieces of evidence, such as hairs or fibers,
should be collected in small coin-type envelopes. Hairs collected form other items of evidence should be
packaged with original piece of evidence.
2. Tests used in Biological Evidence
Biological evidence, which contains DNA, is a type of physical evidence.

However, biological evidence is not always visible to the naked eye. DNA testing has expanded the types of
useful biological evidence. All biological evidence found at crime scenes can be subjected to DNA testing.
The use of well-defined procedures for packaging, storing, and tracking can
maintain biological evidence integrity for testing. Personnel involved in managing biological evidence often
face challenges because of the size and location of the storage facility, supplies available for packaging,
adequacy of tracking systems.
There two tests used for biological evidences that would help in clarifying collected evidences. These
are the presumptive test and confirmatory test. Presumptive tests are less precise and indicate that an illegal
substance may be present. Confirmatory tests provide a positive identification of the substance in
question.
PROS and CONS
Presumptive
 Narrows possibilities and helps decide which test to do next

 Can use on larger areas
 Can locate evidence not visible to naked eye
 Sensitive
 Risk of false positives

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Confirmatory
 Conclusively identify asubstance

 Smaller risk of falsepositives
 Cost more
 Require additionalequipment
 Take longer
Blood
Presumptive
 Phenolphthalein Test  AKA Kastle Meyer Test -Phenolphthalein is a presumptive test that reacts with
the heme molecule present in blood. A positive reaction gives a pink color. While bloodstains normally
appear red-brown in color, the color of the substrate or the age of a stain may affect the appearance or
visibility of the stain.
 Luminol Test  AKA Albrecht Reaction - Albrecht found that the addition of hydrogen peroxide to luminol
produces a bluish-green glow, an example of the phenomenon known as chemiluminescence. Albrecht
found that the reaction between hydrogen peroxide and luminol required a catalyst, a small amount of a metal
such as copper or iron. Luminol solution reacts with blood to produce light. The luminol solution contains
both luminol (C8H7N3O2) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). The hydrogen peroxide reacts with the iron in
blood to produce oxygen. This oxygen then reacts with the luminol, changing the structure of the molecule
and temporarily adding energy.

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 Alternate Light Sources - Alternative light sources are typically used in crime scene investigation and post
mortem examinations to identify many forms of evidence. Utilizing ultraviolet light, investigators can identify
physiological fluids like semen, urine, and saliva through the fluids' natural fluorescent properties.
This type of examination utilizes the inherent luminescent properties of materials (biological fluids, fibers,
latent prints) exposed to monochromatic light to help locate these items. Devices providing monochromatic
light at specific wavelengths are referred to as Alternate Light Source (ALS)
Confirmatory
 Takayama Test - Takayama test is a confirmation test used to detect blood spots. Based on the
research results this test can still be used to identify dried blood spots on clothing aged 20 years, and able to
detect positively the presence of blood with the formation of pink crystals.For confirmatory tests, the
Takayama Crystal Assay or an immunochromatographic test are typically used. The Takayama Crystal Assay,
which forms a ferro protoporphyrin ring by a reaction between pyridine and the iron atom of the heme
group.

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 RSID Test for Human Blood - Rapid Stain Identification Series (RSID) is designed for fast, easy and
reliable detection of human fluids from a variety of samples encountered by forensic laboratories.This group of
tests relies on antibody conjugation reactions to form colored complexes in the presence of specific biological
fluids. Most tests are also designed so that only specific human fluids will end in a positive result. To perform
a test, the sample in question is mixed with a buffer specific to the RSID test. The sample is then deposited
onto the sample window where it is pulled through the test and control regions by a paper wick via passive
diffusion. The RSID unit is impregnated with fluid-specific antibodies conjugated to colored complexes that will
re-dissolve and diffuse at this time. If the fluid in question is present in the questioned sample, antibodies at
the test line will react to the colored antibody complexes and form a colored line. If no fluid is present, or if the
sample is not human, this line will not appear. A line will form at the control region regardless of if the sample
contains body fluid or not, as it acts as an internal control.
 ABA Card Hematrace- The ABAcard® HemaTrace® is a testing device used to aid in the possible
identification of human blood by detecting the presence of human hemoglobin. If human hemoglobin is
present in the sample, its antigens will react with the mobile monoclonal antihuman Hb antibodies in the area
marked “S”
 Can cross react with some animal blood
 “Consistent for presence of human blood”)

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Saliva
Presumptive
Phadebas Test - Phadebas is a presumptive test used in forensic science examinations for the detection of
areas of possible saliva staining. The test is designed to react with amylase, a digestive enzyme present in
saliva.
Confirmatory
Phadebas Test +  RSID Test for Human Saliva

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Semen
Presumptive
 Acid Phosphatase Test  AKA Walker Test - The acid phosphatase (AP) test is a routine assay used to
screen casework items for the possible presence of semen. This colour test is carried out on filter paper
which is retained after testing. Two-year-old AP test papers were found to contain sufficient DNA for short
tandem repeat (STR) profiling.If acid phosphatase is present, a purple color will appear within a short period
of time (30 seconds). Weak stains may take between 1 to 3 minutes. 2. A positive reaction indicates the
presumptive presence of seminal fluid.
 Alternative Light Sources
 Prostate Specific Antigen - Prostate specific antigen (PSA, also known as p30), a glycopro- tein produced
by the prostatic gland and secreted into seminal plasma, is a valid marker for detecting semen in evidence
from criminal cases including samples deposited by vasectomized or azoospermic individuals
Confirmatory
 Christmas Tree Stain  Sperm Identification - A staining technique used to visualize sperm cells, so named
because the different parts of the sperm cell take up different colours, simplifying microscopic identification.
The tail shows as a yellow-green and the head shades of red and pink.

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 RSID test for Semen - RSID™-Semen is a lateral flow immunochromatographic strip test that uses two
anti-human semenogelin monoclonal antibodies in a lateral flow format, to detect the presence of
semenogelin. Semenogelin is a protein produced by the seminal vesicles and is responsible for the coagulum
associated with ejaculate.
Drug Chemistry
Drug Analysis - A drug analysis is a technical analysis of a biological specimen, for example urine, hair,
blood, breath air, sweat, or oral fluid / saliva – to determine the presence or absence of specified parent drugs
or their metabolites.
Toxicology - Toxicology is the study of adverse effects of drugs and chemicals on biological systems.
Forensic toxicology involves the application of toxicology for the purposes of the law, or in a medicolegal
context.
Drug Analysis
Presumptive
 Color tests/spot tests - With color spot tests, a portion of an unknown powder/residue/crushed tablet
is combined with a chemical reagent which may produce a color change. The color change is a
presumptive indication of what the unknown could be.

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 Microcrystalline tests are chemical tests resulting in the formation of unique microcrystals for a given
substance when combined with a specific reagent. Microcrystals are observed under a microscope and
micrographs or microvideos constitute the results of the test.
 Ultraviolet spectroscopy - UV-Vis Spectroscopy (or Spectrophotometry) is a quantitative technique used

to measure how much a chemical substance absorbs light. This is done by measuring the intensity of
light that passes through a sample with respect to the intensity of light through a reference sample or blank.
 Infrared spectroscopy - is an examination technique that involves the absorption of infrared light by
sample materials with the goal of discovering what they are. IR spectroscopic analysis is used to determine
the various chemical functional groups present in the sample. Different functional groups absorb
characteristic frequencies of IR radiation. IR spectroscopy is simply absorption measurement of different IR
frequencies of a sample positioned in the path of an IR beam.

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 Microscopic examinations - identifies and counts the type of cells, casts, crystals, and other
components such as bacteria and mucus that can be present in urine.
 Thin layer chromatography (TLC) - Thin-layer chromatography is a chromatography technique used to

separate non-volatile mixtures. Thin-layer chromatography is performed on a sheet of an inert substrate such
as glass, plastic, or aluminium foil, which is coated with a thin layer of adsorbent material, usually silica gel,
aluminium oxide, or cellulose.

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Confirmatory
 Gas Chromatograph/Mass Spectrometer - The most sophisticated drug-testing approach is gas

chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC/MS), which is regarded as a "gold standard"; it is used
in confirmatory testing. Typically, GC/MS is preceded by a rapid immunoassay method to eliminate the
majority of the "negative" samples.
 Infrared Spectrophotometer - (IR spectroscopy or vibrational spectroscopy) is the measurement of the

interaction of infrared radiation with matter by absorption, emission, or reflection. It is used to study and
identify chemical substances or functional groups in solid, liquid, or gaseous forms. The method or technique
of infrared spectroscopy is conducted with an instrument called an infrared spectrometer (or
spectrophotometer) which produces an infrared spectrum.

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Toxicology
Presumptive
 Alco-sensor - The Alco-Sensor IV is an evidential grade handheld breath alcohol tester, providing a simple,
accurate and economical method of determining a subject’s breath alcohol concentration with evidential grade
accuracy. It is the most widely used breath testing instrument today.

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 EMIT Analyzer - The enzyme-multiplied immunoassay technique (EMIT®) is a simple, rapid

homogeneous method now commonly employed to measure a wide range of substances (particularly drugs).
The technique works on the basis that the drug present is proportional to the inhibition of an enzyme substrate
reaction.
 ELISA Immunoassay - Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) screening techniques are widely
utilized by toxicologists to screen forensic specimens for drugs of abuse. These immunoassays are extremely
flexible and have adequate sensitivity to go down to the drug levels found in most forensic matrices.
Confirmatory
 Headspace Gas Chromatography - (HS–GC) is the analytical instrumentation utilized for the analysis
of blood alcohol components (BAC) in biological fluids.Headspace GC is a sample preparation method for
determining volatile compounds in solid and liquid samples. The technique has existed since the late
1950s [12] and is still actively used. With this technique, only the gas phase above the sample is introduced
into the GC column.

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Role of physical evidence in Forensic Investigation
Physical evidence is evidence of a tangible nature relating directly to the crime. Physical evidence
includes such items as fingerprints, blood, fibers, and crime tools (knife, gun, crowbar, etc.). Physical
evidence is sometimes referred to as forensic or scientific evidence, implying that the evidence must be
scientifically analyzed and the results interpreted in order to be useful.
Physical evidence can serve at least two important functions in the investigative or judicial process
(Peterson et al.). First, physical evidence can help establish the elements of a crime. For example, pry marks
left on a window (physical evidence) may help establish the occurrence of a burglary. Second, physical
evidence can associate or link victims to crime scenes, offenders to crime scenes, victims to victims,
instruments to crime scenes, offenders to instruments, and so on. For example, in a homicide case, a body of
a young female was found along a rural road. Knotted around her neck was a black electrical cord (physical
evidence). The cause of death was determined to be ligature strangulation via the electrical cord. Upon
searching the area for evidence, an abandoned farmhouse was located and searched, and a piece of a similar
electrical cord was found. This evidence led the investigators to believe that the farmhouse may have been
where the murder actually occurred. Further examination of the scene revealed tire impressions from an
automobile (more physical evidence). These tire impressions were subsequently linked to the suspect's
vehicle.
Most forensic or physical evidence submitted for analysis is intended to establish associations. It is
important to note that physical evidence is generally not very effective at identifying a culprit when one is not
already known. Typically the identity of the culprit is developed in some other way and then physical evidence
is used to help establish proof of guilt. Possible exceptions to this pattern are fingerprints (when analyzed
through AFIS or Automated Fingerprint Identification System technology) and DNA banks.
Test used for Physical Evidences
Physical evidence usually involves objects found at the scene of a crime. Physical evidence may include all
sorts of prints such as fingerprints, footprints, handprints, tidemarks, cut marks, tool marks, etc. Analysis of
some physical evidence is conducted by making impressions in plaster, taking images of marks, or lifting the
fingerprints from objects encountered. These serve later as a comparison to identify, for example, a vehicle
that was parked at the scene, a person that was present, a type of manufacturing method used to create a
tool, or a method used to break in a building or harm a victim.
The examination of physical evidence by a forensic scientist is usually undertaken for identification or
comparison purposes. Identification has, as its purpose, the determination of the physical or chemical identity
of a substance with as near absolute certainty as existing analytical techniques will permit.
Gunpowder Residue
Detection of GSR has two primary objectives: (1) determining if an individual fired or handled a recently
discharged firearm or if a surface was in close proximity to a weapon during discharge; and (2) analyzing the
pattern of GSR for the purpose of determining the muzzle-to-target distance.
A SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE (SEM) can be used during GSR tests in order to scan the

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sample and identify suspect GSR particles. In order to verify whether gunshot residue elements such as
barium (Ba), Antimony (Sb), and lead (Pb) are present in the sample, the Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy
(EDS) technique is used.
The Modified Griess Test is a test to detect the presence of nitrite residues. Nitrite residues are a
by-product of the combustion of smokeless gunpowder. When a firearm is discharged nitrite particles are
expelled from the muzzle of a firearm and can be imbedded in or deposited on the surface of a target. The
Modified Griess Test is the primary test used by firearms examiners to determine a muzzle-to-garment
distance.
The Modified Griess Test is performed by first treating a piece of desensitized photographic paper with a
chemical mixture of sulfanilic acid in distilled water and alpha-naphthol in methanol. Desensitized
photographic paper is obtained by exposing the paper to a hypo solution. The photographic paper will no
longer be light-sensitive but will be reactive to the presence of nitrite residues.The exhibit being processed is
placed face down against a piece of treated photo paper, with the bullet hole centered on the paper.
The back of the exhibit being examined is then steam ironed* with a dilute acetic acid solution in the iron
instead of water.The acetic acid vapors will penetrate the exhibit and a reaction takes place between any
nitrite residues on the exhibit and the chemicals contained in the photographic paper. The resulting reaction
will appear as orange specks on the piece photographic paper.

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Sodium Rhodizonate Test. This chemical test is designed to determine if lead residues are present on the
exhibit.
The Sodium Rhodizonate Test is performed by spraying the exhibit with a weak solution of a mixture of
Sodium Rhodizonate and distilled water. This solution has a dark yellowish/orange color.The exhibit is then
sprayed with a buffer solution which causes the background color to disappear.The Sodium Rhodizionate
reacts with any lead that may be present and turns the lead a very bright pink. The pink color is only an
indication of the presence of lead residue and to confirm the presence of lead residue the area can be treated
with a diluted Hydrochloric Acid solution.If the pink turns to a blue then the presence of lead is confirmed.
Explosives- any substance or device that can be made to produce a volume of rapidly expanding gas in an

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extremely brief period. There are three fundamental types: mechanical, nuclear, and chemical.
A mechanical explosive is one that depends on a physical reaction, such as overloading a container
with compressed air. Such a device has some application in mining, where the release of gas from chemical
explosives may be undesirable, but otherwise is very little used. A nuclear explosive is one in which a
sustained nuclear reaction can be made to take place with almost instant rapidity, releasing large amounts of
energy. Experimentation has been carried on with nuclear explosives for possible petroleum extraction
purposes.A chemical explosive is a compound or mixture which, upon the application of heat or shock,
decomposes or rearranges with extreme rapidity, yielding much gas and heat.
Gas chromatography (GC) is frequently used for the identification of organic explosive compounds since the
technique has high selectivity and sensitivity towards organic constituent analysis. However, the GC
instruments prohibit non-volatile, mixture water samples and sparked samples to prevent the column from
bearing the damage. Because of that, extra precaution on sample preparation is needed for every process.
High performance liquid chromatography is commonly used to detect the organic explosive compounds
that are non-volatile. HPLC is often used as the instrument for analysis of explosives as it is amenable for the
analysis compounds that have low volatility, high sensitive to heat and high molecular weight. This will
overcome the problem of detection of explosives that are thermally unstable and resulting in decomposition
products in the vapors.

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Ion chromatography (IC) method was used to separate inorganic anions and cations found in post blast
residues from homemade inorganic explosives as one of the types that was frequently used in terrorism
attacks.
In the explosive analysis, Capillary Electrophoresis (CE) serves as a complimentary technique to ion
chromatography (IC) in the analysis of inorganic low explosives residues. CE components require narrow-
bore capillary, a controllable high voltage power supply, two electrode, two buffer reservoirs and a detector. In
CE, the targeted analytes elute from one end of the capillary under the influence of electric field and the
analytes are separated according to ionic mobility.
Tool Marksanalyses - help forensic scientists identify the tool or tools used at the scene of the crime
and link the tool(s) to the criminal. Investigators compare marks by examining detailed photos or silicone casts
of the marks and collect trace evidence (such as residue) left behind by the tool.Silicone-based casting
materials are useful for capturing marks on items that are too large to transport to the BCA or to fit under a
microscope. The examiner will also cast the test toolmark for comparison.
Mikrosil Casting Putty is used when highly detailed castings of tool and jimmy marks are required or
for lifting dusted latent prints off a rough or round surface.

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Dust, Dirt and Debris analysis - Dust, dirt, or sand evidence reveal where a person has traveled and may
picked up at a crime scene or Investigators examine the samples for chemic composition, pollen, plants,
and other organ matter to find links to a specific crime scene.
Dust is an accumulation of debris in the form of powder. The types of dust are inorganic dusts, which include
all the dusts of inorganic chemical substances and elements; organic dusts, which are composed of vegetable
particles and animal debris; and professional dusts, which are related to the bearer's profession or
occupation. The places where dust may be collected are clothes, pockets, footwear, linen, skin, hair, nails,
eyebrows, ears, nostrils, weapons, and vehicles. The types of dust likely to be found in each of these places
and ways to collect the dust for analysis are described.
Electrostatic dust print lifting devices operate by charging a plastic film, placed over the dust print, which
creates electrostatic adhesions and draws the film onto the surface bearing the print. The dust particles are
attracted to the film because of this charge and adhere to it. The film retains a charge after the unit is turned
off, thus retaining the particles of dust. The print must be composed of loose residue, and the residue must
be dry for this process to work. Also, a proper ground must be achieved when applying the electrical charge.
On some surfaces it is difficult or impossible to achieve a ground and the procedure will not work,
necessitating alternative lifting methods.

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Soil Analysis - Forensic Soil Analysis is the use of soil sciences and other disciplines to aid in criminal
investigation. Soils are like fingerprints because every type of soil that exists has unique properties that act
as identification markers. This means that the origin of the soil sample can be identified.Forensic soil science
uses soil morphology, mapping, mineralogy, chemistry, geophysics, biology, and molecular biology to address
legal questions, problems, or hypotheses.
Heat tests can also be used to test the soils reaction and electron microscopes can be used to examine the
structure of the minerals in the soil. During examination, an examiner might find that some soil samples may
contain biological evidence such as saliva, semen or blood.
Munsell soil color charts are routinely used in the field by soil scientists to determine soil color. In fact,
Munsell soil color charts are used routinely by forensic soil scientists and geologists in the field and laboratory
in most forensic investigations involving soil as evidence.
Standard or routine soil tests vary from laboratory to laboratory, but generally include soil texture; electrical
conductivity (EC, a measure of soil salinity); soil pH; available phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium
(Ca), and magnesium (Mg); sodium (Na); cation exchange capacity (CEC); and often an analysis of organic
matter.
Metallurgy - Forensic metallurgy is part of the field of forensic engineering which applies engineering science
to issues that relate the investigation of unforeseen failures, crashes, disasters, or other incidents.
Metallurgical investigations are conducted for the purpose of determining the mechanism responsible for
failure of a metal component by examining its physical properties. It also involves collection and
assessment of data for finding the cause of failure.
Metallurgical Testing and Failure Analysis is the process by which a material engineer determines the
mechanism that has caused a component to fail. Typical failure modes involve various types of cracking
modes and corrosion attack. Metal components fail as a result of conditions to which they are exposed to as
well as the stress that they experience. Often a combination of both environmental conditions and stress will
cause failure.
Metal components are designed to withstand the environment and stress that they will be subjected to. A

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metallurgist takes into account as much of this information as possible during analysis. The end goal of failure
analysis is to provide a determination of the root cause and a solution to any underlying problems to prevent
future failures. Failure and damage analysis services include for example material assessment,
metals investigation, fracture study, electronics evaluation, fire damage investigation, design review and many
more.
Analysis of a failed part can be done using destructive metallurgical testing. Destructive testing involves
removing a metal component from service and sectioning the component for analysis. Destructive testing
gives our failure analyst the ability to conduct the analysis in the lab and perform tests on the material that will
ultimately destroy the component. Non-destructive testing is a test method that allows certain physical
properties of metal to be examined without taking the samples completely out of service. NDT is generally
used to detect failures in components before failing catastrophically.
Types of Destructive Testing Method

Aggressive Environment Testing
This includes fracture and fatigue testing in sour (H2S), sweet (CO2) and other corrosive environments; at a
range of temperatures and pressures. These test allow industry to assess the impact of these conditions on
materials and performance.
Corrosion Testing
This covers non-toxic, small-scale, aqueous corrosion testing in a variety of different environments including
fresh and sea water.
Fracture and Mechanical Testing
This includes different types of destructive testing methods such as tension tests, bend tests, Charpy impact
tests, Pellini drop weight testing, peel tests, crush testing, pressure and fracture testing. As well as the testing
of metals, fracture and mechanical tests can be carried out on different materials, such as welded polymers
including plastic pipes.
Fatigue Testing
Performed in air or seawater environments, these tests are used to test parent materials and the endurance of
welded joints under constant or variable amplitude loading. This destructive testing method can also be used
for fatigue crack growth testing of welds, base metals, and heat affected zones.
Hydrogen Testing
This type of testing covers materials that have a risk of corrosion from exposure to hydrogen. These tests can
be carried out at a variety of different temperatures and strain rates.
Residual Stress Measurement
Residual stresses are those that remain in a solid material after the original causes of any stresses have been
removed. These can be intentional, such as with the scratch-resistant glass on smartphones, or unintentional
which can lead to premature failure of a structure. Measurement of residual stresses allows for designers and
engineers to determine factors like near-surface and through-thickness residual stress distribution, which can
be used in engineering critical assessments.
Types of Nondestructive Testing Method

Sounding
This is used to determine surface delaminations in concrete and certain types of stone. The surface of the
concrete or stone is struck lightly with a hammer and the resulting sound is interpreted by the engineer. High
pitched sounds typically indicate sound/stable conditions, while lower pitched sounds can indicate
delaminations.
Impact Echo Testing
This is used to determine flaws in masonry and concrete using a spherical impactor and measuring the stress
propagation through speed of the sound wave. The test can also determine slab thickness accurately.
Impulse Radar Testing
It is used to detect delaminations in masonry or concrete structures or debonding between masonry wythes in
multi-wythe walls. As the wave travels through each wall material, the different components have different
dielctric constant, including air. The energy reflected is measured and the depth to detect can be determined.
This is also used to determine reinforcing depth in concrete structures.
Rebound Hammer Testing
it is used to determine strength of concrete using surface hardness. The hammer is dropped on the surface on
which the test is being performed and the rebound is measured; a correlation can be interpreted from rebound
to the material’s compressive strength.
Infrared Testing
It is used to determine areas of spalls and voids. A thermographic image is used to show areas with
inconsistent materials that affect the thermal properties, resulting in a different temperature from the

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surrounding area.
Restoration of Tampered Serial Numbers - A serial number restoration involves the scientific techniques
used for the retrieval, recovery, and/or revisualization of the manufacturer’s identifier, in cases where the
serial number has been obliterated. Due to the way that the numbers are stamped or etched on the firearm,
the metal in the area of the application of the serial number exhibits different properties than the surrounding
metal. Various techniques can be applied to the surface of the metal that highlight the differences in the metal
structure and allow recovery of the number.
MAGNAFLUX: This is only useful if the weapon is composed of iron-containing metals. The gun is placed in a
strong electromagnetic fi eld or beneath a strong magnet, which magnetizes the weapon. The lines of
magnetic force in a magnetized object usually run parallel to each other, but the disordered metal beneath the
stamped numbers disrupt this order. The gun is then sprayed with a special oil in which iron-like particles are
suspended. The particles tend to collect in the areas of disordered metal, thus revealing the hidden number.
The major advantage of this process is it is nondestructive and doesn’t alter the weapon.
CHEMICAL AND ELECTROCHEMICAL ETCHING: These are destructive processes, which limits their use.
They involve the painting of an etching solution over the area in question. The chemical eats the disordered
metal faster than the surrounding metal, and thus brings the numbers into view. Adding an electric current
(electrochemical etching) hastens the process. Either of these must be done carefully, since over-etching will
destroy the evidence forever.
ULTRASONIC CAVITATION: This technique is similar to chemical etching and is also a destructive process.
The gun is placed in a special ultrasonic bath and exposed to very high-frequency vibrations. This causes
cavitation, a process in which tiny bubbles form along the surface of the metal. With continued exposure, the

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cavitation begins to eat away the metal. The process is fastest in the areas of disorder and, as with chemical
etching, the serial number might be revealed.
Magnetic Particle Technique. The use of this method is predicated on the detection of
metal deformation present under stamped serial numbers after the visible stamp has been removed.
Crystal Pattern Mapping. This technique employs a Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) and reads the
electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD), which reveals the obliterated numbers.
Casting, Glass and Inks

Various methods of collecting impression evidence have evolved —now properly preserved impression
evidence can provide a positive match to the shoes worn by the perpetrator, the tires on the vehicle driven by
the perpetrator and the tools used to break into the premises.
Casting is of paramount importance in forensic sciences as it allows a crime scene investigator to
collect an identical copy of a mark or print from a scene, which can then be compared to a seized tool, shoe,
or tire in order to establish a link between a suspect and a crime scene
Glass fractures or fragments are often of value as evidence or leads in an investigation. Fractured glass
found at a scene may show the direction from which a bullet entered a pane of glass. And it may show the
angle from which the bullet was fired. Fractured glass may show the direction from which a blow was struck.
Windowpanes broken outward, away from the inside of a room, may reveal the direction, force, and limits of
an explosion. Windowpanes broken inward, toward the inside of a room, may suggest the means of an
intruder’s entry. And sometimes glass fragments bear chemical traces of inflammable agents.
The information from the forensic examination of inks and paper can be critical to investigations
involving financial crimes, counterfeiting, terrorism and anonymous letters used for threatening
correspondences, ransom notes and kidnappings.
A. Casting and Moulage.

Casting is the process used to replicate three-dimensional prints or marks. It is widely used to obtain the
exact replicate of toolmarks, tire tracks,shoeprints, and sometimes teeth.
Casting can only be accomplished on three-dimensional marks or traces. In the case of tool-marks, for
example, casting can be used to obtain the perfect copy of the mark of a screwdriver used to force open a
door during a burglary. With a shoeprint, it allows for the shoeprint of a thief that was left in the soil outside the
window of the apartment he or she exited to be preserved as evidence. A vehicle used to flee the scene of a
murder could leave tire tracks in the snow, which can be recorded and saved for later comparison with a
suspicious vehicle. Casting is also used to record dental characteristics of a body and compare these
characteristics with known dental records in order to make a proper identification.
The choice of casting material depends on the mark to be copied and the surface on which it is found. For
most toolmarks, a dental cast polymer is used. It consists of two pastes mixed together right before the cast is
taken. Once mixed together, the paste is applied onto the mark and allowed to dry before being removed.
With tire tracks or shoeprints, usually a plaster, such as plaster of Paris, is used. This kind of casting material
does not provide as many details as the dental polymer, but can cover a bigger surface and will dry very well
over surfaces such as soil. On snow, the use of plaster is not ideal, and molten sulfur offers a much better
cast. Sulfur is heated until it liquefied and then poured onto the trace. As soon as the sulfur touches the cold
snow, it immediately hardens and takes the shape of the print.
1. Process in making casting and moulage
One of the more common methods of recovering three-dimensional impressions is to create a cast of
the impression, usually using plaster of Paris, dental stone, or a similar casting material. The plaster is mixed
with an appropriate amount of water and gently poured into the impression.
B. Glass Fracture Analysis, Fragments

1.role of glass and fragments in forensic science
Broken or shattered glass found at a crime scene is an important piece of forensic evidence. The
different types of glass that are often found, such as glass from a window, lamp, headlights, or bottles, each
have unique properties that can be measured and compared. When glass is shattered by a forceful impact, it
scatters for distances up to nine feet or so, and can easily become lodged in a suspect's shoes, clothing, or
hair. If a window or glass object is broken or shattered by a projectile, such as a bullet, the breakage pattern
can be analyzed to possibly determine the angle of trajectory of the projectile, shedding more light on the
crime, such as where the suspect was when the gun was fired.

Module No. 1
Inks and Paper

1. importance of inks and paper in forensic science
The chemical analysis of writing and printing inks, as well as paper, can be invaluable when trying to
prove whether a document is fraudulent. Ink dating is a highly specialized forensic examination and
considered to be one of the most accurate and reliable methods to help determine the age of a document.
Forensic Toxicology - deals with the medical and legal aspects of the harmful effects of chemicals on human
beings. is a sub-branch of forensic chemistry which applies the knowledge, principles, and methodologies
associated with a specialized field of toxicology for the criminal justice system. Forensic toxicology deals with
the harmful aspects of chemicals, poisons, and other toxic substances on humans and animals.
It includes the study of symptoms, mechanism, treatment, and detection of chemical substances in
biological evidence such as bodily fluids and tissues.
Forensic - comes from the Latin word "forensis" meaning forum.
Toxicology
- from the Greek word toxicos - "poisonous" and "logos".
- it is the study of the symptoms, mechanisms and treatments and detection of poisoning.
Poison - a substance that when introduced into or absorbed by a living organism causes death or injury.
Toxin - an antigenic poison or venom of plant or animal origin especially one produced by or derived from
micro organisms and causing disease when present at low concentration in the body.
- poisonous substance produced during the metabolism and growth of certain micro organism and some
higher plant and animal species.
Venom - poisonous fluid secreted by animals and typically injected into prey by biting or stinging or other
sharp body feature.
Acute Poisoning - is exposure to poison on one occasion or during a short period of time.
Chronic Poisoning - is long term repeated or continuous exposure to a poison where symptoms do not occur
immediately or after each exposure.
Antidote - a medicine taken or given to counter act a particular poison.- a substance which can counteract
poisoning.
Mathieu Orfila - is considered to be the modern father of toxicology, having given the subject its first formal
treatment in 1813 in his "traite des poisons" also called toxicologie generali.
Dioscorides - a Greek physician in the court of Roman emperor Nero, made the first attempt to classify
plants according to their toxic and therapeutic effect.
Jean Stas - a belgian analytical chemist who in 1850 gave the evidence that the Belgian count Hypolite Visart
de Bocarme killed his brother in law by poisoning with nicotine.
Celsus - a roman physician from the first century, considered the father of toxicology. He is credited with the
toxicology maxim "all things are poison and nothing is without poison. This is often condensed to "the dose
makes the poison" or in latin "sola dosis facit venenum".
Paracelsus - "Theophrastus Phillipus Aureleus Bombastus von Hohenheim (1493-1541) - believe that his
studies were above and beyond the work of celsus.
LD50 - is the dose required to kill half the members of a tested population after a specified test duration.
Dose - a quantity of medicine or drug taken or recommended to be taken at a particular time.

Module No. 1
Overdose - the ingestion or application of a drug or other substance in quantities greater than are
recommended.
Carcinogen - any substance capable of causing cancer in living tissue.
Corrosive substance - is one that will destroy or irreversibly damage another surface or substance with
which it comes into contact.
A. Drug Analysis
1. classification of drugs
Drug Analysis Forensic drug analysis is the process of identifying unknown powders, liquids and pills
that may be illicit drugs or controlled substances. There are basically two categories of forensic tests used
to analyze suspected controlled substances.
A drug may be classified by the chemical type of the active ingredient or by the way it is used to treat
a particular condition. Each drug can be classified into one or more drug classes.
B. Nature of Toxicology
1. nature of Toxicology
The primary concern for forensic toxicology is not the legal outcome of the toxicological investigation
or the technology utilized, but rather the obtainment and interpretation of results. A toxicological analysis
can be done to various kinds of samples.
C. Poisons and its Kinds, Types or Classification.

1. Natural and Artificial Poisons
Poisons are substances that cause harm to organisms when sufficient quantities are absorbed,
inhaled or ingested. Some poisons make an organism sick, others may cause it to die and yet others may
lead to subtle changes in health that may not be noticed for years. Toxicology is the science of poisons.
D. Antidotes and its Types and Process.

1. Poison Remedies and How It Works
Most antidotes are administered through an intravenous (IV) drip or an oral solution. A cobra, a type of
venomous snake. One of the most widely used antidotes for poisoning is syrup of ipecac. An alternate name
for this syrup is Brazil root. This antidote may be used for various types of non-caustic poisoning
LEARNING ACTIVITY 2
Learning Activity 2: Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology After the online discussion, do the assigned
reading and prepare for the assessment activity as scheduled
 Prepare for a quiz on lesson 1.3 and 1.4.
SUMMARY
 Photography = Derived from the Greek word “Phos” or “Photos” which means “light” and “Grapho” means
“Writing” or “Graphia” meaning “to Draw”. Literally, photography means "to draw with light". In photography,
the light ‘writes’ when it strikes tiny crystals of light-sensitive chemical compounds (i.e. silver halide) in the
film emulsion thereby causing very subtle change in the crystals. Thus, photography is the production of
visible images by using the action of light upon a sensitive surface. Police Photography – is an art or
science that deals with the study of the principles of photography, the preparation of the photographic
evidence, and its application to police work. Forensic on the other hand is derived from the Latin word
“Forum” which means “a market place” where people gathered for public discussion. When used in
conjunction with other science it connotes a relationship to the administration of justice. It is sometimes
used interchangeably with the word legal. Forensic Photograph then is an art or science of taking
photographs of crime in progress, crime scene and evidences for laboratory examination and analysis for

Module No. 1
purposes of court trial. It also refers (forensic imaging)(crime scene photography) as the art of producing
an accurate reproduction of a crime scene or an accident scene using photography for the benefit of a
court or to aid in an investigation.
 Fingerprint – An impression of the friction ridges of all or any part of the finger. A friction ridge is a raised
portion of the epidermis on the palmar (palm and fingers) or plantar (sole and toes) skin, consisting of one
or more connected ridge units of friction ridge skin. These ridges are sometimes known as "dermal ridges"
or "dermal papillae". While dactyloscopy is the practical application of fingerprints or the process of
identification by fingerprint comparison and the classification of fingerprints.
 Forensic chemistry is the application of chemistry and its subfield, forensic toxicology, in a legal setting. A
forensic chemist can assist in the identification of unknown materials found at a crime scene. Specialists in
this field have a wide array of methods and instruments to help identify unknown substances. Forensic
chemistry focuses on identifying unusual compounds, such as paint, or something not widespread.
Forensic toxicology is the study of the pharmacodynamics, or what a substance does to the body,
and pharmacokinetics, or what the body does to the substance. To accurately determine the effect a
particular drug has on the human body, forensic toxicologists must be aware of various levels of drug
tolerance that an individual can build up as well as the therapeutic index for various pharmaceuticals.
Toxicologists are tasked with determining whether any toxin found in a body was the cause of or
contributed to an incident, or whether it was at too low a level to have had an effect.Forensic toxicology
typically looks in human fluids, stomach, skin, etc. for arsenic or other poisonous items. The techniques
can also analyze for prescription drugs intended for depression sleep, etc. that can be delivered in large
enough dose to kill.
REFERENCES
Workbook on Police Photography [2017] by PMAJ Ma. Elizabeth C. Bulan, DPA Professor and Ma. Elena P.
Magadia. Chapterhouse Publishing Inc.
Vibar. 2016. An Infallible Science of Identification. Wiseman’s Books Trading, Inc
Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology 2nd Ed. [2018] by PLTCOL Lourdeliza Gural Cejes, MBA PMAJ and
Margarita Libres - ETIS, MBA. Chapterhouse Publishing Inc.

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FM-AA-CIA-15 Rev.

STUDY GUIDE FOR MODULE NO. ___

MODULE LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of this module, the student should be able to:

1. Identify and recall the theories and principles in Forensic Photography.

1.1. Forensic Photography

 THE MARCH OF PHOTOGRAPHY

1519 – Leonardo Da Vinci draw the camera obscura

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 1

1890 – full corrected lenses were introduced.

1935 – color process came out together with electronic flash.

1947 – Edwin H. Land, introduced “Polaroid” the one step photography.

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 2

1895 - Roentgen, discovered the X-ray photography.

1666 – Isaac Newton, (English physicist and mathematician) discovered wavelength.

1934 – Holland, The first wire-filled bulb was introduced by Phillips.

Fuji DS-1P of 1988

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 3

LEGAL FOUNDATION OF PHOTOGRAPHIC EVIDENCE:

1874 – In a criminal case introducing photograph as identification evidence

 For Color Photographs

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 4

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 5

3. FOR RECORD PURPOSES

DIFFERENT VIEWS IN PHOTOGRAPHING

5. FOR DISCOVERING AND PROVING

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 6

PHOTOMACROGAPHY = Taking a magnified (enlarged) photograph of small object by

MICROPHOTOGRAPHY = is the process of reducing into a small strips of film a

MACROPHOTOGRAPHY= used synonymously with photomacrogaphy.

B. USED OF ARTIFICIAL LIGHT SUCH AS X-RAY, ULTRA-VIOLET AND INFRA-RED RAYS TO

6. FOR COURT EXHIBITS

9. REPRODUCING AND COPYING

9. SENSITIZED MATERIAL= composed of a highly sensitized chemical compound which is

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 7

1. The WAVE Theory (Huygens)

2. Corpuscular theory (Newton)

3. Modified Wave theory (Maxwell and hertz)

E. LIGHT: ITS NATURE, CHARACTERISTICS, SOURCES AND CLASSIFICATION

b. Ultra-violet ray (Before the violet)

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 8

d. Infra-red (Beyond the Red)

2. Short Duration type

Electronic Flash = produces light by an instantaneous electrical in charges between two

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 9

Parts of the Sensitized Material

FILM SPEED (Emulsion Speed)

Din 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, 27, 30, 33 etc.

II. Photographic Paper

Types of Photographic Papers

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 10

Essential Parts of a Camera

OTHER PARTS OF A CAMERA

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f 2.8 f-4 f-5.6 f-8 f-11 f-16

Types of focusing device:

TYPES OF THE CAMERA

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2. According to Degree of Corrections

INHERRRENT LENS DEFECTS

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Acetic Acid and Boric acid = serves as neutralizer

1.2. Personal Identification Techniques