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Difference Between Permutation and Combination

Permutation refers to the different possibles arrangement of things and is used when the things are of a different kind.
The Permutation is a selection process in which the order matters. And Combination refers to the number of smaller
groups or sets which can be formed from the elements of a larger set.

Permutation Combination

Permutations are used when order/sequence of Combinations are used to find the number of
arrangement is needed. possible groups which can be formed.

Permutations are used for things of different Combinations are used for things of similar
kind. kind.

Permutation of two things from three given Combination of two things from three given
things a, b, c is ab, ba, bc, cb, ac, ca things a, b, c is ab, bc, ca

For the different possible arrangement of 'r' For different possible selection of 'r' things
things taken from 'n' things is taken from 'n' things is
nPr = n! / (n−r)! nCr = n! / r!(n−r)!
For the given values of n and r, the value of permutation is always greater than the value of the combination. In
permutations, the different possible arrangements are counted, but in combinations, only the different subgroups are
counted.
A combination is all about grouping. The number of different groups which can be formed from the available things can
be calculated using combinations. Let us try to understand this with a simple example. A man has four kids, Sam, John,
Santa, and Mary. If he can take only three children at a time to the park, the possible ways he can take the three children
would be:
 Sam, John, Santa
 Sam, Santa, Mary
 Sam, John, Mary
 John, Santa, Mary
These are the 4 different combinations or groups of 3 children who can be taken to the park. Thus the combination of 'r'
things from the available 'n' things would be factorial of n, divided by the product of the factorial of r and factorial of (n -
r).
nCr=n! / r!.(n−r)!

Coordinate geometry to study properties of the simplest geometric figure - Straight Line

I. Distance between the points P (x1, y1 ) and Q (x2 , y2 ) is

II.The coordinates of a point dividing the line segment joining the points (x1, y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) internally, in the ratio m:
n are
III. In particular, if m = n, the coordinates of the mid-point of the line segment joining the points (x1, y1 ) and (x2 , y2 )
are

IV. Area of the triangle whose vertices are (x1, y1 ), (x2 , y2 ) and (x3 , y3 ) is

Remark: If the area of the triangle ABC is zero, then three points A, B and C lie on a line, i.e., they are collinear.

Case 1 When angle θ is acute: angle MPQ = θ. ... (1) Therefore, slope of line l = m = tan θ. But in ∆MPQ, we have

Case II When angleθ is obtuse: In Fig 10.3 (ii), we have ∠MPQ = 180° – θ.
Therefore, θ = 180° – ∠MPQ. Now, slope of the line l,
First case - If the line l1 is parallel to l2
Two non vertical lines l1 and l2 are parallel if and only if their slopes are equal. If the line l1 is parallel to l2, then their
inclinations are equal, i.e., α = β, and hence, tan α = tan β
Therefore m1 = m2 , i.e., their slopes are equal.

Second case – If the lines l1 and l2 are perpendicular

If the lines l1 and l2 are perpendicular, then β = α + 90°.
Therefore, tan β = tan (α + 90°) = – cot α = -1/tanα i.e.,
m2 = -1/m1 or m1 m2 = –1

Third case: When the two lines l1 and l2 are intersecting each other forming two adjacent angles φ and θ.
Using this row and our observations (i), (ii) and (iii), we get
(2x + 3y)5 = (2x)5 + 5(2x)4 (3y) + 10(2x)3 (3y)2 +10 (2x)2 (3y)3 + 5(2x)(3y)4 +(3y)5
= 32x5 + 240x4 y + 720x3y2 + 1080x2y3 + 810xy4 + 243y5 .

Polynomials
If p(x) is a polynomial in x, the highest power of x in p(x) is called the degree of the polynomial p(x). For example,
4x + 2 is a polynomial in the variable x of degree 1,
2y2 – 3y + 4 is a polynomial in the variable y of degree 2,
5x3 – 4x2 + x – 2 is a polynomial in the variable x of degree 3 and
7u6 – 3u4 + 4u2 + u – 8 is a polynomial in the variable u of degree 6.
Expressions like 1/ x − 1 , √x + 2 etc., are not polynomials.
A polynomial of degree 1 is called a linear polynomial. For example, 2x – 3, x + y + 2, etc., are all linear
polynomials.
Polynomials such as 2x + 5 – x2, x3 + 1, etc., are not linear polynomials. A polynomial of degree 2 is
called a quadratic polynomial.
More generally, any quadratic polynomial in x is of the form ax 2 + bx + c, where a, b, c are real numbers
and a ≠ 0. A polynomial of degree 3 is called a cubic polynomial.
The most general form of a cubic polynomial is ax 3 + bx2 + cx + d, where, a, b, c, d are real numbers and
a ≠ 0.
What is the value of p(x) = x2 –3x – 4 at x = –1?
We have : p(–1) =(–1)2 –{3 × (–1)} – 4 = 0 Also, note that p(4) = 42 – (3 × 4)–4 = 0.
As p(–1) = 0 and p(4) = 0, –1 and 4 are called the zeroes of the quadratic polynomial x2 – 3x – 4. More
generally, a real number k is said to be a zero of a polynomial p(x), if p(k) = 0.
The zero of the linear polynomial ax + b is –b/a= -(Constant term) / Coefficient of x.
Thus, the zero of a linear polynomial is related to its coefficients. Does this happen in the case of other
polynomials too? For example, are the zeroes of a quadratic polynomial also related to its coefficients ?
General form of a cubic polynomial is
ax3 + bx2 + cx + d, where, a, b, c, d are real numbers and a ≠ 0
In general, for a linear polynomial ax + b, a ≠ 0, the graph of y = ax + b is a straight line which
intersects x-axis at exactly one point, namely, (-b/a , 0). Therefore, the linear polynomial ax + b,
a ≠ 0, has exactly one zero, namely, the x-coordinate of the point where the graph of y = ax + b
intersects the x-axis.
For any quadratic polynomial ax2 + bx + c, a ≠ 0, the graph of the corresponding equation y = ax2 + bx + c has one
of the two shapes either open upwards like or open downwards like depending on whether a > 0 or a < 0.
(These curves are called parabolas). The zeroes of a quadratic polynomial ax 2 + bx + c, a ≠ 0, are precisely the x-
coordinates of the points where the parabola representing y = ax2 + bx + c intersects the x-axis.

Case (i) : Here, the graph cuts x-axis at two distinct points A and A′. The x-coordinates of A
and A′ are the two zeroes of the quadratic polynomial ax2 + bx + c in this case

Case (ii) : Here, the graph cuts the x-axis at exactly one point, i.e., at two coincident points. So,
the two points A and A′ of Case (i) coincide here to become one point A. The x-coordinate of A
is the only zero for the quadratic polynomial ax2 + bx + c in this case.

Case (iii) : Here, the graph is either completely above the x-axis or completely below the x-axis.
So, it does not cut the x-axis at any point. So, the quadratic polynomial ax2 + bx + c has no zero
in this case.

So, you can see geometrically that a quadratic polynomial can have either two distinct zeroes or
two equal zeroes (i.e., one zero), or no zero. This also means that a polynomial of degree 2 has
atmost two zeroes.
We see, – 2, 0 and 2 are zeroes of the cubic polynomial x 3 – 4x as seen in the first graph below. Consider the
cubic polynomials x3 and x3–x2 .We draw the graphs of y = x3 and y = x3 – x2. Note that 0 is the only zero of the
polynomial x3 . Also, from figure below, you can see that 0 is the x-coordinate of the only point where the
graph of y = x3 intersects the x-axis. Similarly, since x3 – x2 = x2 (x – 1), 0 and 1 are the only zeroes of the
polynomial x3 – x2.

From the examples above, we see that there are at most 3 zeroes for any cubic polynomial. In
other words, any polynomial of degree 3 can have at most three zeroes.

Remark : In general, given a polynomial p(x) of degree n, the graph of y = p(x) intersects the x-
axis at at most n points. Therefore, a polynomial p(x) of degree n has at most n zeroes.

In general, if α and β are the zeroes of the quadratic polynomial p(x) = ax2 + bx + c,
a≠0

Let us now look at cubic polynomials. Do you think a similar relation holds between the zeroes of a cubic
polynomial and its coefficients ?
In general, it can be proved that if α, β, γ are the zeroes of the cubic polynomial ax 3 + bx2 + cx +
d, then

If p(x) and g(x) are any two polynomials with g(x) ≠ 0, then we can find polynomials q(x) and
r(x) such that p(x) = g(x) × q(x) + r(x), where r(x) = 0 or degree of r(x) < degree of g(x).
This result is known as the Division Algorithm for polynomials.
https://madasmaths.com/archive/maths_booklets/basic_topics/various/
polynomials_exam_questions_intro.pdf

Cartesian Product Definition

If C and D are two non-empty sets, then the cartesian product, C × D is the set of all ordered
pairs (a, b) with the first element from C and the second element from D. Similar to the other
product operations, we use the same multiplication sign × to represent the cartesian product
between two sets. Here, we use the notation C × D for the Cartesian product of C and D.
By using the set-builder notation, we can write the cartesian product as:
C × D = {(a,b): a ∈ C, b ∈ D}. Here a belongs to set C and b belongs to set D.
If both the sets are the same i.e, if C = D then C × D is called the cartesian square of the set C
and it is denoted by C2
C2 = C × C = {(a,b): a ∈ C, b ∈ C}
Cartesian Product of Sets
The cartesian products of sets can be considered as the product of two non-empty sets in an
ordered way. The final product of the sets will be a collection of all ordered pairs obtained by
the product of the two non-empty sets. In an ordered pair, two elements are taken from each of
the two sets.
Finding Cartesian Product
Consider two non-empty sets C = {x, y, z} and D = {1, 2, 3} as shown below:

Cartesian Product of Several Sets

We can extend or define the cartesian product to more than two sets. The cartesian product of
several input sets is a larger set that contains every ordered combinations of all the input set
elements. The cartesian product of three sets P, Q, and R can be written as:
P × Q × R = { (a,b,c): a ∈ P, b ∈ Q, c ∈ R }
Let us consider the example of three sets A, B and C, where A = {2,3} , B = {x,y}, and C = {5,6}.
In order to find the cartesian product of A × B × C, let us find the cartesian product of A × B
first.
A × B = {(2,x), (2,y),(3,x),(3,y)}.
A × B × C = {(2,x,5), (2,x,6), (2,y,5), (2,y,6), (3,x,5), (3,x,6), (3,y,5), (3,y,6)}

Cartesian product finds its uses in many real-life objects such as a deck of cards, chess boards,
computer images, etc. The digital images that we see on our computers and mobile phones are
represented as pixels which are graphical representations of cartesian products. In
mathematics, the cartesian product is most commonly implemented in set theory.
Relations
https://youtu.be/RE5-IBhwjgw
https://youtu.be/WauEBdi1HHg
(792) Relations and Functions Class 12 in 1 Shot By Neha Agrawal | Sample paper and Past year
Questions - YouTube

Modulus Function(Absolute Value function)

https://physicscatalyst.com/maths/modulus-function.php

One to One Function

The term one to one relationships actually refers to relationships between any two items in which one can only
belong with only one other item. In a mathematical sense, these relationships can be referred to as one to one
functions, in which there are equal numbers of items, or one item can only be paired with only one other item. The
name of a person and the reserved seat number of that person in a train is a simple daily life example of one to one
function (i.e.) injective function. A function f is injective if no two elements in the domain will give the same image.

What is a One to One Function?

A normal function can actually have two different input values that can produce the same answer, whereas a one to
one function does not. Let’s go ahead and start with the definition and properties of one to one functions.

One to One Function Definition

One to one function is a special function that maps every element of the range to exactly one element of
its domain i.e, the outputs never repeat. As an example, the function g(x) = x - 4 is a one to one function since it
produces a different answer for every input. Also, the function g(x) = x2 is not a one to one function since it
produces 4 as the answer when the inputs are 2 and -2. A function that is not one-to-one is called a many-to-one
function.

Onto function is a function f that maps an element x to every element y. That means, for every y, there is an x such
that f(x) = y. Onto Function is also called surjective function. f is called surjective if for any element in the
codomain, there is a preimage in the domain i.e., for any y in the codomain, there exists x in the domain such that
f(x) = y. An onto function is a function whose image is equal to its codomain. Also, the range and codomain of an
onto function are equal. We can also say that function is onto when every y ∈ codomain has at least one pre-image
x ∈ domain. Let's go ahead and learn the onto function definition.
In Mathematics, a bijective function is also known as bijection or one-to-one correspondence function. The term
one-to-one correspondence should not be confused with the one-to-one function (i.e.) injective function. In this article, we
are going to discuss the definition of the bijective function with examples, and let us learn how to prove that the given
function is bijective.
What is Bijective Function? A function is said to be bijective or bijection, if a function f: A → B satisfies both the
injective (one-to-one function) and surjective function (onto function) properties. It means that every element “b” in the
codomain B, there is exactly one element “a” in the domain A. such that f(a) = b. If the function satisfies this condition,
then it is known as one-to-one correspondence. If two sets A and B do not have the same size, then there exists no
bijection between them (i.e.), the function is not bijective. It is therefore often convenient to think of a
bijection as a “pairing up” of the elements of domain A with elements of codomain B. In fact, if |A| = |B| = n,
then there exists n! bijections between A and B.
Bijective Function Properties
A function f: A → B is a bijective function if every element b ∈ B and every element a ∈ A, such that f(a) = b. It is noted
that the element “b” is the image of the element “a”, and the element “a” is the preimage of the element “b”. The basic
properties of the bijective function are as follows:
While mapping the two functions, i.e., the mapping between A and B (where B need not be different from A) to be a
bijection,
 each element of A must be paired with at least one element of B,
 no element of A may be paired with more than one element of B,
 each element of B must be paired with at least one element of A, and
 no element of B may be paired with more than one element of A.
Difference between Injective, Surjective, and Bijective Function
The difference between injective, surjective and bijective functions are given below:
S.No Injective Function Surjective Function Bijective Function
 1 A function that always maps A function that maps one or A function that is both
the distinct element of its more elements of A to the same injective and surjective.
domain to the distinct element element of B.
of its codomain.

2 It is also known as one-to-one It is also known as onto It is also known as one-to-one

function function correspondence

Injective Functions : The definition of a function guarantees a unique image of every member of the domain. A given
member of the range may have more that one preimage, however. If this is the case then the function is not injective.
Definition : A function f : A → B is injective, or one-to-one, if no member of B is the image under f of two distinct
elements of A.

Definition : A function f : A → B is an surjective, or onto, function if the range of f equals the codomain of f. Let f :
A → B be an arbitrary function with domain A and codomain B. Part of the definition of a function is that every member
of A has an image under f and that all the images are members of B; the set R of all such images is called the range of the
function f. Thus R = f(A) and clearly R ⊆ B. If it should happen that R = B, that is, that the range coincides with the
codomain, then the function is called a surjective function.
In every function with range R and codomain B, R ⊆ B. To prove that a given function is surjective, we must show that B
⊆ R; then it will be true that R = B. We must therefore show that an arbitrary member of the codomain is a member of the
range, that is, that it is the image of some member of the domain. On the other hand, if we can produce one member of the
codomain that is not the image of any member of the domain, then we have proved that the function is not surjective. To
show that a function is surjective pick an arbitrary element in the codomain and show that it has a preimage in the domain.
Bijective function connects elements of two sets such that, it is both one-one and onto function. The elements of the two
sets are mapped in such a manner that every element of the range is in co-domain, and is related to a distinct domain
element. In simple words, we can say that a function f: A→B is said to be a bijective function or bijection if f is both one-
one (injective) and onto (surjective).
Bertrand Russell's paradox is based on examples like this: Consider a group of barbers who shave only those men who
do not shave themselves. Suppose there is a barber in this collection who does not shave himself; then by the definition of
the collection, he must shave himself. But no barber in the collection can shave himself. (If so, he would be a man who
does shave men who shave themselves.)
At about the same time in the 1870s, Georg Cantor (1845-1918) developed set theory and Gottlob Frege (1848-1925)
developed mathematical logic. These two strains of theory soon became closely intertwined. Cantor recognized from the
beginning that set theory was replete with paradoxes. He, along with other mathematicians and logicians or philosophers
of mathematics such as Bertrand Russell (1872-1970), Alfred North Whitehead (1861-1947), and Edmund Husserl (1859-
1938), tried to resolve these difficulties.

The power set is a set which includes all the subsets including the empty set or the null set and the original set
itself. It is usually denoted by P. Power set is a type of sets, whose cardinality depends on the number of
subsets formed for a given set. The power set is denoted by the notation P(S) and the number of elements of
the power set is given by 2n. A power set can be imagined as a place holder of all the subsets of a given set,
or, in other words, the subsets of a set are the members or elements of a power set. If set A = {x, y, z} is a set,
then all its subsets {x}, {y}, {z}, {x, y}, {y, z}, {x, z}, {x, y, z} and {} are the elements of power set, such
as:
Power set of A, P(A) = { {x}, {y}, {z}, {x, y}, {y, z}, {x, z}, {x, y, z}, {} } where P(A) denotes the power set.
If the given set has n elements, then its Power Set will contain 2 ^ n elements. It also represents the cardinality
of the power set.
Set A = {1,2}
Subsets of set A = {}, {1}, {2}, {1,2} }
Power set P(A) = { {}, {1}, {2}, {1,2} }

Power Set Properties

A power set is a set that has a list of all the subsets of a given set. The power set which is denoted by P(A) with 'n'
elements has the following properties:
 The total number of elements of a set is 2n.
 An empty set is a definite element of a power set.
 The power set of an empty set has only one element.
 The power set of a set with a finite number of elements is finite. For example, if set X = {b,c,d}, the power sets are
countable.
 The power set of an infinite set has infinite number of subsets. For example, if Set X has all the multiples of 5 starting
from 5, then we can say that Set X has an infinite number of elements. Though there is an infinite number of
elements, a power set still exists for set X, in this case, it has infinite number of subsets.
 These the power set exists for both finite and infinite sets.

Properties of Relations
Definitions
1. A relation R is called reflexive on a set S if for all x ∈ S, (x, x) ∈ R.

2. A relation R is called irreflexive on a set S if for all x ∈ S, (x, x) ∉ R.

3. A relation R is symmetric on a set S if for all x ∈ S and for all y ∈ S, if (x, y) ∈ R then (y, x) ∈ R.

4. A relation R is antisymmetric on a set S if for all x ∈ S and for all y ∈ S, if (x, y) ∈ R and (y, x) ∈ R, then
x=y

5. A relation R is transitive on a set S if for all x, y, z ∈ S, if (x, y) ∈ R and (y, z) ∈ R, then (x, z) ∈ R.

6. A relation that is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive on a set S is called an equivalence relation on S.

Let’s take an example.

Let us define Relation R on Set A = {1, 2, 3}
We will check reflexive, symmetric and transitive
R = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (1, 2), (2, 3), (1, 3)}
Check reflexive
To check whether reflexive or not:
If the relation is reflexive, then (a, a) ∈ R for every a ∈ {1,2,3}
Since (1, 1) ∈ R, (2, 2) ∈ R & (3, 3) ∈ R, ∴ R is reflexive.
Check symmetric
To check whether symmetric or not,
If (a, b) ∈ R, then (b, a) ∈ R
Here (1, 2) ∈ R , but (2, 1) ∉ R, ∴ R is not symmetric.
Check transitive
To check whether transitive or not,
If (a, b) ∈ R & (b, c) ∈ R , then (a, c) ∈ R
Here, (1, 2) ∈ R and (2, 3) ∈ R and (1, 3) ∈ R, ∴ R is transitive.
Hence, R is reflexive and transitive but not symmetric.

Another example
Let us define Relation R on Set A = {1, 2, 3}
R = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (1, 2)}
To check whether reflexive or not:
If the relation is reflexive, then (a, a) ∈ R for every a ∈ {1,2,3}
Since (1, 1) ∈ R ,(2, 2) ∈ R & (3, 3) ∈ R, ∴ R is reflexive.
To check whether symmetric or not:
If (a, b) ∈ R, then (b, a) ∈ R
Here (1, 2) ∈ R , but (2, 1) ∉ R, ∴ R is not symmetric.
To check whether transitive or not,
If (a, b) ∈ R & (b, c) ∈ R , then (a, c) ∈ R
Here, (1, 2) ∈ R and (2, 2) ∈ R and (1, 2) ∈ R, ∴ R is transitive.
Hence, R is reflexive and transitive but not symmetric

Another example
Let us define Relation R on Set A = {1, 2, 3}
R = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2,1)}
To check whether reflexive or not:
If the relation is reflexive, then (a, a) ∈ R for every a ∈ {1,2,3}
Since (1, 1) ∈ R but (2, 2) ∉ R & (3, 3) ∉ R, ∴ R is not reflexive.
To check whether symmetric or not:
If (a, b) ∈ R, then (b, a) ∈ R
Here (1, 2) ∈ R , and (2, 1) ∈ R, ∴ R is symmetric.
To check whether transitive or not,
If (a, b) ∈ R & (b, c) ∈ R , then (a, c) ∈ R
Here, (1, 2) ∈ R and (2, 1) ∈ R and (1, 1) ∈ R, ∴ R is transitive.

Symmetric, Asymmetric, and Antisymmetric Relations

Many students often get confused with symmetric, asymmetric, and antisymmetric relations. We are here to learn
about the last type when you understand the first two types as well. It can indeed help you quickly solve any
antisymmetric relation example.
 Symmetric: Relation R of a set X becomes symmetric if (b, a) ∈ R and (a, b) ∈ R. Keep in mind that the
relation R ‘is equal to’ is a symmetric relation like, 5 = 3 + 2 and 3 + 2 = 5. The relation is like a two-way
street.
  Asymmetric: Relation R of a set X becomes asymmetric if (a, b) ∈ R, but (b, a) ∉ R. You should know
that the relation R ‘is less than’ is an asymmetric relation such as 5 < 11 but 11 is not less than 5.
 Antisymmetric: Relation R of a set X becomes antisymmetric if (a, b) ∈ R and (b, a) ∈ R, which means a
= b. But, if a ≠ b, then (b, a) ∉ R, it’s like a one-way street.
In set theory, the relation R is said to be antisymmetric on a set A, if xRy and yRx hold when x = y. Or it
can be defined as, relation R is antisymmetric if either (x,y )∉R or (y,x)∉R whenever x ≠ y. A relation
R is not antisymmetric if there exist x,y∈A such that (x,y) ∈ R and (y,x) ∈ R but x ≠ y.
 Note: If a relation is not symmetric that does not mean it is antisymmetric.
Reflexive relations can be symmetric; therefore a relation can be both symmetric and antisymmetric.
Question 1: Which of the following are antisymmetric?
1. R = { (1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 4), (4, 1), (4, 4) }
2. R = { (1, 1), (1, 3), (3, 1) }
3. R = { (1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 4), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3),(4, 1), (4, 4) }
Solution: Rule of antisymmetric relation says that, if (a, b) ∈ R and (b, a) ∈ R, then it means a = b.
In case a ≠ b, then even if (a, b) ∈ R and (b, a) ∈ R holds, the relation cannot be antisymmetric.
Keeping that in mind, below are the final answers.
1. Here, R is not antisymmetric as (1, 2) ∈ R and (2, 1) ∈ R, but 1 ≠ 2.
2. R is not antisymmetric because of (1, 3) ∈ R and (3, 1) ∈ R, however, 1 ≠ 3.
3. Here, R is not antisymmetric because of (1, 2) ∈ R and (2, 1) ∈ R, but 1 ≠ 2. Also, (1, 4) ∈ R, and (4, 1)
∈ R, but 1 ≠ 4.
Question 2: R is the relation on set A and A = {1, 2, 3, 4}. Find the antisymmetric relation on set A.
Solution: The antisymmetric relation on set A = {1, 2, 3, 4} is;
R = { (1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4) }.