IHM KOLKATA

Unit 1(Part 2)

INTRODUCTION TO COOKERY

FOOD PRODUCTION
 Industry, Traditional Cookery and origin of
Modern Cookery

 Indian Culinary History, Ayurveda and

Vegetarianism

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A HISTORY OF MODERN FOOD SERVICE

The value of history is that it helps us understand the present and the future. In food
service, knowledge of our professional heritage helps us see why we do things as
we do, how our cooking techniques have been developed and refined, and how we
can continue to develop and innovate in the years ahead. An important lesson of
history is that the way we cook now is the result of the work done by countless chefs
over hundreds of years. Cooking is as much science as it is art. Cooking techniques
are not based on arbitrary rules that some chefs made up long ago. Rather, they are
based on an understanding of how different foods react when heated in various
ways, when combined in various proportions, and so on. The chefs who have come
before us have already done much of this work so we don’t have to. This doesn’t
mean there is no room for innovation and experimentation or that we should never
challenge old ideas. But it does mean a lot of knowledge has been collected over the
years, and we would be smart to take advantage of what has already been learned.
Furthermore, how can we challenge old ideas unless we know what those old ideas
are? Knowledge is the best starting point for innovation.

THE ORIGINS OF CLASSICAL AND MODERN CUISINE

Quantity cookery has existed for thousands of years, as long as there have been
large groups of people to feed, such as armies. But modern food service is said to
have begun shortly after the middle of the eighteenth century. At this time, food
production in France was controlled by guilds. Caterers, pastry makers, roasters,
and pork butchers held licenses to prepare specific items. An innkeeper, in order to
serve a meal to guests, had to buy the various menu items from those operations
that were licensed to provide them. Guests had little or no choice and simply ate
what was available for that meal.

In 1765, a Parisian named Boulanger began advertising on his shop sign that he
served soups, which he called restaurants or restoratives. (Literally, the word means
“fortifying.”) According to the story, one of the dishes he served was sheep’s feet in a
cream sauce. The guild of stew makers challenged him in court, but Boulanger won
by claiming he didn’t stew the feet in the sauce but served them with the sauce. In
challenging the rules of the guilds, Boulanger unwittingly changed the course of food
service history.

The new developments in food service received a great stimulus as a result of the
French Revolution, beginning in 1789.Before this time; the great chefs were
employed in the houses of the French nobility. With the revolution and the end of the
monarchy, many chefs, suddenly out of work, opened restaurants in and around
Paris to support them. Furthermore, the revolutionary government abolished the
guilds. Restaurants and inns could serve dinners reflecting the talent and creativity of
their own chefs, rather than being forced to rely on licensed caterers to supply their
food. At the start of the French Revolution, there were about 50 restaurants in Paris.

Another important invention that changed the organization of kitchens in the

eighteenth century was the stove, or potager, who gave cooks a more practical and
controllable heat source than an open fire. Soon commercial kitchens became
divided into three departments: the rotisserie, under the control of the meat chef or

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rôtisseur, the oven, under the control of the pastry chef or pâtissier, and the stove,
run by the cook or cuisinier. The meat chef and pastry chef reported to the cuisinier,
who was also known as chef de cuisine, which means “head of the kitchen.”

CARÊME

All the changes that took place in the world of cooking during the 1700s led to, for
the first time, a difference between home cooking and professional cooking. One
way we can try to understand this difference is to look at the work of the greatest
chef of the period following the French Revolution, Marie-Antoine Carême (1784–
1833). As a young man, Carême learned all the branches of cooking quickly, and he
dedicated his career to refining and organizing culinary techniques. His many books
contain the first systematic account of cooking principles, recipes, and menu making.

At a time when the interesting advances in cooking were happening in restaurants,

Carême worked as a chef to wealthy patrons, kings and heads of state. He was
perhaps the first real celebrity chef, and he became famous as the creator of
elaborate, elegant display pieces and pastries, the ancestors of our modern wedding
cakes, sugar sculptures,
and ice and tallow carvings. But it was Carême’s practical and theoretical work as an
author and an inventor of recipes that was responsible, to a large extent, for bringing
cooking out of the middle Ages and into the modern period.

Carême emphasized procedure and order. His goal was to create more lightness
and simplicity. The complex cuisine of the aristocracy—called Grande Cuisine—was
still not much different from that of the Middle Ages and was anything but simple and
light. Carême’s efforts were a great step toward modern simplicity. The methods
explained in his books were complex, but his aim was pure results. He added
seasonings and other ingredients not so much to add new flavours but to highlight
the flavours of the main ingredients. His sauces were designed to enhance, not
cover up, the food being served. Carême was a thoughtful chef, and, whenever he
changed a classic recipe, he was careful to explain his reasons for doing so.

Beginning with Carême, a style of cooking developed that can truly be called
international, because the same principles are still used by professional cooks
around the world. Older styles of cooking, as well as much of today’s home cooking,
are based on tradition. In other words, a cook makes a dish a certain way because
that is how it always has been done. On the other hand, in Carême’s Grande
Cuisine, and in professional cooking ever since, a cook makes a dish a certain way
because the principles and methods of cooking show it is the best way to get the
desired results. For example, for hundreds of years, cooks boiled meats before
roasting them on a rotisserie in front of the fire. But when chefs began thinking and
experimenting rather than just accepting the tradition of boiling meat before roasting,

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they realized that either braising the meat or roasting it from the raw state were
better options.

ESCOFFIER

Georges-Auguste Escoffier (1847–1935), the greatest chef of his time, is still today
revered by chefs and gourmets as the father of twentieth-century cookery. His two
main contributions were
(1) the simplification of classical cuisine and the classical menu, and
(2) the reorganization of the kitchen.

Escoffier rejected what he called the “general confusion” of the old menus, in which
sheer quantity seemed to be the most important factor. Instead, he called for order
and diversity and emphasized the careful selection of one or two dishes per course,
dishes that followed one another harmoniously and delighted the taste with their
delicacy and simplicity. Escoffier’s books and recipes are still important reference
works for professional chefs. The basic cooking methods and preparations we study
today are based on Escoffier’s work. His book Le Guide Culinaire, which is still
widely used, arranges recipes in a simple system based on main ingredient and
cooking method, greatly simplifying the more complex system handed down from
Carême. Learning classical cooking, according to Escoffier, begins with learning a
relatively few basic procedures and understanding basic ingredients.

Escoffier’s second major achievement, the reorganization of the kitchen, resulted in

a streamlined workplace that was better suited to turning out the simplified dishes
and menus he instituted. The system of organization he established is still in use
today, especially in large hotels and full-service restaurants.

MODERN TECHNOLOGY

Today’s kitchens look much different from those of Escoffier’s day, even though our
basic cooking principles are the same. Also, the dishes we eat have gradually
changed due to the innovations and creativity of modern chefs. The process of
simplification and refinement, to which Carême and Escoffier made monumental
contributions, is still ongoing, adapting classical cooking to modern conditions and
tastes.

Before we discuss the changes in cooking styles that took place in the twentieth
century, let’s look at some of the developments in technology that affected cooking.

Development of New Equipment

We take for granted such basic equipment as gas and electric ranges and ovens and
electric refrigerators. But even these essential tools did not exist until fairly recently.
The easily controlled heat of modern cooking equipment, as well as motorized food
cutters, mixers, and other processing equipment, has greatly simplified food
production. Research and technology continue to produce sophisticated tools for the
kitchen. Some of these products, such as tilting skillets and steam-jacketed kettles,
can do many jobs and are popular in many kitchens. Others can perform specialized
tasks rapidly and efficiently, but their usefulness depends on volume because they

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are designed to do only a few jobs. Modern equipment has enabled many food
service operations to change their production methods. With sophisticated cooling,
freezing, and heating equipment, it is possible to prepare some foods further in
advance and in larger quantities. Some large multiunit operations prepare food for all
their units in a central commissary. The food is prepared in quantity, packaged,
chilled or frozen, then heated or cooked to order in the individual units.

COOKING IN THE TWENTIETH AND TWENTY-FIRST CENTURIES

All these developments have helped change cooking styles, menus, and eating
habits. The evolution of cuisine that has been going on for hundreds of years
continues. Changes occur not only because of technological developments, such as
those just described, but also because of our reactions to culinary traditions. Two
opposing forces can be seen at work throughout the history of cooking. One is the
urge to simplify, to eliminate complexity and ornamentation, and instead to
emphasize the plain, natural tastes of basic, fresh ingredients. The other is the urge
to invent, to highlight the creativity of the chef, with an accent on fancier, more
complicated presentations and procedures. Both these forces are valid and healthy;
they continually refresh and renew the art of cooking.

A generation after Escoffier, the most influential chef in the middle of the twentieth
century was Fernando Point (1897–1955). Working quietly and steadily in his
restaurant, La Pyramide in Vienne, France, Point simplified and lightened classical
cuisine. He was a perfectionist who sometimes worked on a dish for years before he
felt it was good enough to put on his menu. Many of his apprentices, such as Paul
Bocuse, Jean and Pierre Troisgros, and Alain Chapel, went on to become some
of the greatest stars of modern cooking.

They, along with other chefs in their generation, became best known in the 1960s
and early 1970s for a style of cooking called nouvelle cuisine. Reacting to what
they saw as a heavy, stodgy, overly complicated classical cuisine, these chefs took
Point’s lighter approach even further. They rejected many traditional principles, such
as a dependence on flour to thicken sauces, and instead urged simpler, more natural
flavours and preparations, with lighter sauces and seasonings and shorter cooking
times. In traditional classical cuisine, many dishes were plated in the dining room by
waiters. Nouvelle cuisine, however, placed a great deal of emphasis on artful plating
presentations done by the chef in the kitchen.

Very quickly, however, this “simpler” style became extravagant and complicated,
famous for strange combinations of foods and fussy, ornate arrangements and
designs. By the 1980s, nouvelle cuisine was the subject of jokes. Still, the best
achievements of nouvelle cuisine have taken a permanent place in the classical
tradition. Meanwhile, many of its excesses have been forgotten. It is probably fair to
say that most of the best new ideas and the lasting accomplishments were those of
classically trained chefs with a solid grounding in the basics.

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NOUVELLE CUISINE

Nouvelle cuisine began in the early 70‘s in France when 2 gastronomic

critics/reviewers named H. Gault and C. Millau decided they were fed up to eat the
same classical food every day. They spoke of changes to a handful or leading
French chefs and those decided to use their imagination to produce something new.
The chefs were named P and J. Troisgros (2 brothers) M. Guerard, A. Chapel, R.
Verge and of course Paul Bocuse.

Their first action on food was:

 Smaller portions but more dishes on the menu.
 Served on plate so that service staff did not destroy presentation effect when
handling with service spoon-fork.
 Sauces without flour.
 Shorter cooking times.
 Follow seasonal changes in foodstuffs and buy from the best suppliers.
 Presenting unusual combinations.

This style of cooking was developed by Paul Bocuse who researched the subject
thoroughly both in theory and practice before introducing it to the catering world.
Through his work Bocuse has reminded us of the fundamental principles of cookery
and the full potential of the commodities and foods used. The aim is to serve food
with its natural taste undisguised by either the cooking process of accompanying
sauces or garnishes. Food should always be fresh, the daily menu being composed
of dishes made of commodities purchased on the same day rather than the menu
dictating what should be bought. One result of this approach is that many
establishments now offer customers a menu surpris composed of food in season and
at the height of their perfection.

General principles of Nouvelle Cuisine:

The underlying principles associated with nouvelle cuisine may be identified as

follows. It must, however, be remembered that there many interpretations of this
style and that the repertoire is continually developing. With the exception of basic
stocks most other foods are cooked to the customer‘s order. The basic sauces
béchamel, veloute, and demi-glace play no part in any dish. Dishes based on or
featuring these or indeed any roux based thickened sauces, gravies, soups, stews,
or braised items, are completely avoided.

Convenience foods are also avoided. All fish, meats, poultry, game, vegetables and
as on should be purchased fresh each day. The foods, their texture, and
accompanying sauces should be extremely light and free from any trace of grease,
with a natural blend of colours, textures, and flavours. Vegetables are only lightly
cooked they should be crisp, nutty, and full of natural flavour. Presentations are more
important than display when serving. The chef himself should arrange the food on
the plate just as he wishes the customers to view it rather than a waiter serve it from
the silver dish. The plate itself is considered part of the dish so care should be taken
to select those of goods quality with suitable shapes and patterns that will
complement the food being served.

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The actual arrangement of the food should give full regard to the shapes of the plate
and the contrasting shapes, colours, and textures of the items of food to be placed
on it to achieved maximum visual appeal. The sizes of the individual portions are
smaller than is usual with more traditional style of cooking. Since every morsel of
food should be cooked to perfection‘s it is hoped there should be no waste.
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New Emphasis on Ingredients

Advances in agriculture and food preservation have had disadvantages as well as

advantages. Everyone is familiar with hard, tasteless fruits and vegetables that were
developed to ship well and last long, without regard for eating quality. Many people,
including chefs, began to question not only the flavor but also the health value and
the environmental effects of genetically engineered foods, of produce raised with
chemical pesticides and fertilizers, and of animals raised with antibiotics and other
drugs and hormones.

The public has benefited greatly from these efforts. Today, in supermarkets as well
as in restaurants, a much greater variety of high-quality foods is available than there
was 40 or 50 years ago. Many chefs have modified their cooking styles to highlight
the natural flavors and textures of their ingredients, and their menus are often
simpler now for this reason.

International Influences

After the middle of the twentieth century, as travel became easier and as immigrants
arrived in Europe and North America from around the world, awareness of and taste
for regional dishes grew. Chefs became more knowledgeable not only about the
traditional cuisines of other parts of Europe but about those of Asia, Latin America,
and elsewhere.

Many of the most creative chefs have been inspired by these cuisines and use some
of their techniques and ingredients. For example, many North American and French
chefs, looking for ways to make their cooking lighter and more elegant, have found
ideas in the cuisine of Japan. In the south-western United States, a number of chefs
have transformed Mexican influences into an elegant and original cooking style.
Throughout North America, traditional dishes and regional specialties combine the
cooking traditions of immigrant settlers and the indigenous ingredients of a bountiful
land. For many years, critics often argued that menus in most North American
restaurants offered the same monotonous, mediocre food. In recent decades,
however, American and Canadian cooks have rediscovered traditional North
American dishes. The use of ingredients and techniques from more than one
regional, or international, cuisine in a single dish is known as fusion cuisine. Early
attempts to prepare fusion

Cuisine often produced poor results because the dishes were not true to any one
culture and was too mixed up. This was especially true in the 1980s, when the idea
of fusion cuisine was new. Cooks often combined ingredients and techniques without

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a good feeling for how they would work together. The result was sometimes a
jumbled Mess. But chefs who have taken the time to study in depth the cuisines and
cultures they borrow from have brought new excitement to cooking and to restaurant
menus. Today chefs make good use of all the ingredients and techniques available
to them. It is almost second nature to give extra depth to the braising liquid for a beef
pot roast by adding Mexican ancho peppers, for example, or to include Thai basil
and lemon grass in a seafood salad. In the recipe sections of this book, classic
dishes from many regions of the world are included among more familiar recipes
from home.

To help one understand these recipes and the cuisines they come from, background
information accompanies many of them. Cooking and cooking styles continue to
change. Technology continues to make rapid advances in our industry, and men and
women are needed who can adapt to these changes and respond to new
challenges. Although automation and convenience foods will no doubt grow in
importance, imaginative chefs who can create new dishes and develop new
techniques and styles will always be needed, as will skilled cooks who can apply
both old and new techniques to produce high-quality foods in all kinds of facilities,
from restaurants and hotels to schools and hospitals.
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EVOLUTION OF INDIAN GASTRONOMY

INDIAN CULINARY HISTORY

The Indian culinary culture is a product of historical and cultural developments

spanning over thousands of years. Indian cuisine can be best described as a
“palimpsest”, which denotes something which contains multiple layers or aspects
beneath the surface, with each layer exerting an unalterable impact upon the whole.

Prehistoric antecedents: The Beginnings of Agriculture

• Some of the earliest evidence for the beginning of agriculture in the Indian
subcontinent comes from its north-western part. Archaeological evidence found in
northern Rajasthan suggests that forests were cleared and crops were grown in this
region as early as 8000 BCE.

• By around the 3rd millennium BCE, settlements also came up in river valleys of the
Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri, in the southern part of the subcontinent. The evidence
of large open bowls and pots suggest that forms of porridge and gruel-like food might
have been eaten during this period.

Indus Valley: Cities and Surplus

• The Indus Valley Civilisation (3000-2000 BCE) or Harappan Civilisation, emerged

along the fertile river valleys of the Punjab and Sindh. It is one of the earliest
known urban civilisations of the world.
• Archaeological evidence suggests that wheat, barley, lentils, peas and sesame
were some of the principal crops grown.

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• Although bread was the staple, rice was also eaten. Archaeologists have
discovered an agricultural field in Kalibangan (Rajasthan), a major planned city of
the Indus Valley Civilization.
• Mesopotamia, culinary influences especially in terms of cooking bread and meat
might have travelled to the Harappan cities.
Vedic Period: The Primacy of Gau and Yajnas

We sing your praises, O Food. O you, convivial feasts of God and men.

-Hymn 187, Rig Veda

• During the Vedic period, important developments in society influenced the growth
of specific culinary habits.
• The religion of the Vedas was centred on the performance of yajna or sacrifices.
The sacrifices involved offering cooked food to gods by a householder on the
domestic hearth, elaborate public sacrifices and the drinking of soma (an intoxicating
liquid).
• The cow was central to the society, economy and polity of the Vedic age. A
preparation of milk with grains and parched barley was called odana. Barley was the
principal grain of the period.
• Oilseeds such as sesame and mustard were also used. Among fruits and
vegetables, one finds mention of bilva (bael), amalaka (myrobalan fruit) and
mangoes in the Vedic literature.

Intellectual Moorings: Food as a Cosmic Principle

• The period between the 6th and the 3rd century BCE in India is known as the
second urbanisation and saw the growth in the Gangetic valley of India.
• Food was considered as the life-giving source of living beings and hence was
equated with the being itself. In the complex cycle of life in the universe, a being
becomes the food of another, which again is food for the third and the chain goes on.
• A popular legend in Buddhism recounts the tale of a devout lady Sujata offering a
bowl of boiled rice and milk to an emaciated Buddha during his phase of severe
penance. It is believed that Buddha was able to obtain enlightenment only after
being revived by this food.
• Both Buddhism and Jainism stressed on the ideal of ahimsa or non-injury to living
beings. Hinduism was also influenced by such ideals.

Classical Age: The Growth of Trade, State and Orthodoxy

• An important feature of the period between the 1st and the 5th century CE is India’s
brisk trade with other South-Asian countries.
• This period also saw the rise of strong empires such as that of the Guptas which
provided a further fillip to trade.

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• Some of the major commodities of this trade were spices such as long pepper,
white pepper and cardamom.
• Another important feature of this period was the development of a class of Sanskrit
texts called Dharma sastras which mention the code of conduct and moral principles
(dharma) for Brahmanical religion.

Puranic Hinduism and the Concept of Food as Naivedya and Prasada

Invoking daily god Visnu by chanting the aforesaid mantra, one should offer, with
concentrated mind, articles of worship such as water for washing his hands and feet,
and rinse his mouth and water for taking bath, silken garments, the sacred thread,
ornaments, sandal-paste, flowers, incense, light, food and other articles.

-Bhagavata Purana, VI.19.8

• 5th century CE, an important class of religious texts called the Puranas were
composed. This period is marked by the growth of personal gods in Hinduism. These
deities could be appeased by offering puja (worship) which included offering specific
food items as bhoga or naivedya.
• After food is offered to the deity, the leftover called prasada is distributed among
the devotees. During this period was the growth of Tantricism. In sharp contrast to
mainstream Brahmanical religion, Tantricism considered mamsa (meat) and madya
(wine) to be worthy offerings to God.

Impact of Islamic culture: Food Fit for Royalty

Whosoever when hungry and with food before him, hears the supplication of a poor
man and bestows it all upon him, will be rich and liberal.

- Ain-i-Akbari

• Influences from the middle east have over time made Indian cuisine rich in
flavours and variety.
• It is fascinating that samosa, a popular snack in north India, probably had origins
in the Arab world. The Arab cookbooks of the 10th and the 11th century CE
mention meat-filled patties called sambusas.
• Some of the important contributions of the Middle East to the Indian cuisine are
the introduction of rich gravies with nuts, saffron and aromatic herbs, and various
kinds of bread.
• The Ain-i-Akbari of Abul Fazal mentions dishes such as yakhni (a meat stock),
musamman and stuffed roasted chicken, and also cooking techniques such as
dampukht (a slow cooking technique) and biryani (frying or roasting).
• Breads such as sheermal, roomali and tandoori roti are also a gift of the Mughals
to the Indian cuisine. kulfi, an Indian dessert, also originated in Mughal India.

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The European Impact

• 16th century -The Europeans who started coming to the Indian subcontinent and
brought many novel items of food to the Indian subcontinent.
• The Portuguese introduced potatoes, chillies, papayas, pineapples, peanuts,
guavas and tobacco to the Indian culinary basket.
• The potatoes in India came to be known as alu, a generic Sanskrit term for tuber.
• Portuguese influence enriched the cuisine of Goa, which was their capital.
• The British ruled India for 200 years, introduced the cultivation of tea to the Indian
soil.
• Many vegetables which were initially grown in India by the British for their use
such as, cauliflower, cabbage, spinach and carrots.
Modern Trends: The Vibrant World of Cafes, Dhabas and Online Apps

• The Indian cuisine continues to evolve over time. However, taverns and inns that
served a variety of food items existed since ancient times.
• The intermingling of culinary cultures of India and China has resulted in a new
genre of Chinese food, popular in India, called the Indo-Chinese.
• A category of restaurants called Dhaba’s have become quite popular during the
present times.
• Another important development is that street food in India has moved beyond the
streets and been taken over by large food chains.
• With the recent introduction of mobile-based applications associated with food,
the access to a variety of cuisine from the comfort of one’s home has become
possible.
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IDEOLOGY AND AYURVEDIC PRINCIPLES OF INDIAN CUISINE

It is a challenge to understand a cuisine well without studying its underlying

philosophy. India is a sub continent equal to the size of Western Europe, but without
a single common language as there is an intermingling of various cultures.

The strongest impact on the Indian cuisine, or at least among 80% of the Indians-the
Hindus-is Ayurveda, an ancient body of knowledge on health. Ayur is derived from
the word Ayus meaning span of life in Sanskrit and Veda means Knowledge. The
Ayurveda is the ‘Knowledge’ concerning the maintenance of long life. Its origins are
in the Atharva Veda which dates back to 1000 BC.

In 200 BC a medical treatise called the Charaka Samhita was written in Sanskrit by
a sage called Charaka, who re-edited the Agnivesa, a text written earlier by the sage
of the same name, along with five others in which they wrote about prolonging life
without illness. Samhita means compilation. It deals with the origin of medical
science, a detailed classification of diseases, all food and drink substances and

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details of lines of treatment, the use of drugs, diet and practices for achieving good
health.

Life is a combination of the mind, body and soul, and this is infact the central
subject of the Ayurveda.

According to the Ayurveda the human body is composed of seven different elements
or tissue layers. Good health means proper flow of these channels that supply the
various tissue constituents. Also there are three primary forces in the body, or the
three biological humours.

 Ayurvedic medicine is based on the idea that the world is made up of five
elements — aakash (space), jala (water), prithvi (earth), teja (fire), and vayu
(air)
 A combination of each element results in three humors, or doshas, known as
vata, kapha, and pitta. These doshas are believed to be responsible for a
person’s physiological, mental, and emotional health.

Ayurveda believes that when humours are out of balance and aggravated they
manifest symptoms and give rise to various disease. Diseases should be treated first
with food and medication only later if required. The treatments using foods are
based on the six tastes, called as the Rasa in sanskrit. These are Sour, sweet,
bitter, asrtringent, salty, pungent. Each taste has its therapeutic actions. Everyone
needs a certain amount of each of the six tastes and in the relative proportions.

 The sweet taste gives strength to the tissue elements, is good for
nourishment, and harmonizes the mind. Sweet tasting products are not only
those which contains sugar, but also include rice, ghee, fruits. Sweet food is
heavy on digestion.
 The sour taste stimulates the digestive system, e.g lime and tamarind, are
easy on digestion and good for the heart. The sour tasting foods are
supposed to be good for the heart as they contain Vitamin C which the
modern dieticians have discovered is good for the heart.
 The salty taste stimulates digestion, clears obstruction of the channels in the
body, causes sweating and increase the power of digestion, but tends to
deplete reproductive secretions. An excess of salt causes greying and
wrinkling.
 Pungent tastes, as in onions, pepper and garlic, help in the digestion,
improve metabolism and dilate channels in the body.
 Foods with bitter taste eliminate bacterial elements, purify the blood and are
light on digestion. Examples include bitter gourd, fenugreek seeds and lemon
rind.
 Substances which have a predominance of astringent taste and foods
containing tannin like tea, possess the properties to heal ulcers and wounds.
They dry up moisture and fat in the body and act as water absorbents.

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A lack of any of six tastes in the food will also aggravate the relevant humours. So
once you can appreciate the reason of the complexity of the Indian meal, which
includes a spicy sour taste mix. The traditional Indian Thali meal has been devised to
contain these complex requirements in a way that can be replicated every day.

Ayurveda characterises food and drugs and three ways:

1. Firstly by its tastes.

2. Secondly by the potency of the action on the body. All food items can be
classified as either cold or hot items on the body.
3. The third category is by way of special action on the body.

Different types of food can contribute a Sattva, Rajas or Tamas influence.

 Food which is easily digestible, fresh and ripe can be cooked by a simple and
quick process, the total quantity taken being of moderate quantity, contributes
to the strengthening of Satvic forces. The person consuming such food is
alert, quick thinking and in harmony with nature.
 Highly spicy food, that is food produced by suppressive means or the meat of
slaughtered animals is Rajas dominant. The person who consumes food
loses the capacity to distinguish the more subtle stimuli and as time goes on
requires stronger ones to reach a good level of deep understanding.
 Food that has a major influence of oily and spicy ingredients, and the food
that is overcooked, stale and unclean, is liked by people in the state of Tamas
or ignorance. All junk food must be included in this category, basically
becasue it has been prepared long before being eaten

The Ayurvedic text also describe the methods of food preparation and consumption.
Food should be prepared with love and good feeling. Food should be consumed in
relative quietude.

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VEGETARIANISM IN INDIAN FOOD

 Vegetarianism is an integral part of Indian culture, and it has had a profound

influence on the country's food choices.
 It is interesting to find out how important vegetarianism is in Indian culture and
how it affects the country's food choices.
 The history of vegetarianism in India can be traced back to ancient times. The
Vedic texts, which are some of the oldest Hindu texts, encourage
vegetarianism as part of the practice of ahimsa and outline the importance of
a balanced diet, which includes grains, fruits, vegetables, nuts, and seeds.
 The practice of vegetarianism has been further strengthened by religious
figures such as the Buddha, who advocated for ahimsa and a plant-based
diet. Jainism also encourages vegetarianism, and it is thought that the Jains
were the first to promote the practice of vegetarianism in India.

Benefits of Vegetarianism

1. The practice of vegetarianism is seen as a way to stay healthy and live longer,
as it is thought to reduce the risk of certain chronic diseases, such as heart disease
and cancer.

2. Vegetarianism is also a more sustainable way of eating, as it reduces the

environmental impact of food production.

3. Vegetarianism is also thought to be beneficial for the economy in India, as it can

reduce the demand for animal products, which can be expensive to produce.

4. Vegetarianism can also be beneficial for the animals in India, as it reduces the
demand for animal products, which can lead to cruel and inhumane practices when
unregulated.

Impact of Vegetarianism on Indian Cuisine

 The practice of vegetarianism has had a huge impact on Indian cuisine. Many
of the dishes in Indian cuisine are vegetarian, and many of the ingredients
used in these dishes are plant-based, such as lentils, beans, rice, and
vegetables.
 Indian cuisine also includes a variety of spices and herbs, which are used to
add flavor to dishes. These spices and herbs are often thought to have
medicinal properties, and they are used to add flavor and health benefits to
dishes.
 Indian cuisine is also known for its use of dairy products, such as yoghurt and
ghee, which are often used to add creaminess to dishes and are also thought
to be beneficial for health.

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FACTORS AFFECTING INDIAN CUISINE

It is a wonderful diverse range of food, with very clear regional differences, which
thus makes Indian cuisine a multidimensional colourful cuisine, full of richness and
depth, and with a repertoire of recipes that is virtually unmatched anywhere else in
the world. Indian cuisine is a reflection of the heritage of the people of its land, and
the influences of historical and cultural developments and religious beliefs. Our
ancestors cultivated their crops according to local, natural resources, which greatly
affected their eating habits. We tend to carry on the traditions that were passed
down through generations, and that tradition, along with growing awareness of the
fragility and importance of our natural environment, continues to influence food
habits around the world……..

Complex and always intriguing, Indian food is not really one cuisine but a collage of
many regional ones, from the rich, saucy, saffron-scented meat dishes of Kashmir
and the tandoor-baked specialties of Punjab, both in the north, to southern India's
searingly hot curries, exotic coconut flavors and hundreds of imaginative vegetarian
dishes.

But they and all the other regional styles share three essential, defining
characteristics: their elaborate and exuberant use of spices; their emphasis on
grains, beans, peas and lentils, and the unexpected prominence of dairy products,
valued as a protein source in a country where many people are vegetarians.

The following factors affect Indian cuisine in a profound way:-

1. India’s geography

India has long been known as the spice bowl of the world, and other countries in
south- east Asia (Malaysia and Thailand) also occupy an important place in the
history of the spice trade. The use of premium quality spices like black peppercorns,
cinnamon, cardamoms, nutmeg, and saffron was a normal long established way of
life, in these sun drenched and monsoon fed lands.

• Climate: Climate affects local food habits by determining how long a growing
season is and how many growing seasons there are per year. Temperate climates
provide the longest and largest amount of growing seasons per year. Up to three to
four crop cycles per year can be found in temperate regions, and the climate also
promotes the cultivation of crops that take longer to mature. The growing season is
shortened in cold or hot climates, and crop cultivation is typically limited to one cycle
per year for most produce. Climate also indicates what type of crops can be grown in
a particular region. Some crops are more suited to extremes in hot or cold
environments, while others can only withstand moderate amounts of heat or cold.

• Precipitation: The average amount of precipitation a region can expect is a

major factor in determining local food production and habits. Rice crops love wet
environments, making East Asia a perfect climate for growing two to three rice crops

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per year. Maize, a type of corn that is drought-resistant, and some gourds and
squashes are especially suited for extremely dry climates like India. Hot peppers are
well-suited to dry, hot areas , while produce like lettuce, grains, sweet corn and leafy
greens do well in areas with moderate, consistent precipitation. The amount of
precipitation an area receives can also determine the types of livestock that can be
raised, affecting the area's primary meat and dairy products.

• Soil Quality: The quality and mineral contents of the soil in a given region can
affect local food habits by making certain crops more or less successful, depending
on the crop's needs. Crops also need to be rotated regularly to ensure continued
successful cultivation. For example, corn requires a high concentration of nitrates in
the soil, while beans replace the nitrates that corn leaches from the earth. In areas
where corn is a main crop, beans will also likely be very common. Rich, moist soil
provides more opportunity for a wide variety of crops, while dry, sparse soil limits the
type of crops that can be grown in it.

• Topography: The topography of an area affects both the types of crops that
can be grown and the types of livestock that can be raised there. Rocky, sloping
areas while chicken is a popular food source because they can adapt well to rocky
regions and can be raised easily. Island, coastal and lake-riddled regions typically
produce a large amount of fruit, fish and other seafood for local consumption, while
prairie areas tend to produce large amounts of grain on the vast reaches of open
space.

2. Foreign Influences

The influences of many foreign settlers, traders, pilgrims and invaders over the years
have given rise to new cooking styles, methods and ingredients in Indian cuisine,
which are still in practise and used today.

 The most important is probably the Mughals who invaded India in 1526. They
brought their favourite dishes and cooking methods to the north Indian states,
and the fusion of these with Indian staples and local foods led to the evolution
of Mughlai cuisine. Meat was introduced and transformed into delicate kormas
and fragrant biriyanis. They also introduced the tandoor, a clay oven,
originally from Egypt to India. This helped produce a variety of meat dishes
and breads like spicy kebabs, tandoori chicken, chicken tikka, and tandoori
rotis. The Moguls also introduced a selection of exotic fruit and nuts to the
established cooking traditions of Kashmir and Punjab.
 The first Europeans to arrive in Indian were the Portuguese in 1498, they
colonised three western costal areas, Goa being the most famous. They
introduced ingredients such as chillies, peppers, tomatoes and cashew nuts.
They have certainly left their mark on the cuisine of Goa, with a variety of fish
and pork dishes. Vindaloo is Goa’s most famous export, but its origins are in
fact Portuguese. In the 16th century, when the Portuguese traders embarked

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on their long voyage to India, they carried pork, preserved in vinegar, garlic
and black pepper. The word vin comes from vinegar and aloo is derived from
alho, the Portuguese word for garlic.
 The British colonialists of the Raj arrived in India in 1599, initially for a share
of the wealth from the trade in spice. By 1850 they established the East India
Company in Calcutta (Kolkata), which became an important trading post for
the British. Their culinary features became integral in the host cuisine.
 The Parsis arrived in India in the seventh century after fleeing religious
persecution in Iran, and settled on the west coast in Gujarat and Bombay
(Mumbai). They are a small community but have nonetheless contributed
significantly to Indian culture. Parsee food tends to be hot, sweet and sour,
and the lamb dhansak is a famous Parsee dish traditionally served on special
occasions.
 The French came to India in 1769, and by 1851 they set up a trading post in
Pondicherry a coastal town south of Madras (Chennai). They introduced a
fusion of eastern and western ingredients and spices into the local style of
cooking.
 The Syrian Jews were the first traders to arrive in India almost 2500 years ago
in 562BC. They settled in Cochin the capital of Kerala, and became known as
the Cochin Jews. They brought with them their Middle Eastern style of
cooking.

3. Religion, faith and diverse culture

India has a population of nearly 1.2 billion. Within this population there are major
faiths such as, Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs, Christians, Buddhists, Jain and other. India is
a country of many climates, religions and social customs and it does not have one
national cuisine. Indian diets are strongly impacted by religion and most Indians
follow some sort of Hinduism while others are Muslims, Christians or Jews. All of
these groups have different food habits and different food restrictions that impact
their cuisine.

Hindus, for example, are prohibited from eating beef; Muslims and Jews do not eat
pork. A vast number of Indians are vegetarians and vegetarianism is prevalent
throughout India. Fresh meat, poultry, eggs and fish are often excluded from the
diet. In some regions, foods that have the colour of blood, such as tomatoes and
watermelon, vegetables grown underground, or vegetables resembling a head, such
as the mushroom, are also avoided.

Half of the Hindu population of India are vegetarians, whilst the other religions are a
mixture of meat eaters and vegetarians. The festival food of different religions
occupy a special place in the Indian cuisine.

4. Ayurvedic principles:

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For centuries Indians have believed that food should be eaten not only for the taste
but also to help cure emotional, physical and mental ailments. Ayurveda is the
science of diet, health and healing, it is a complete system, with a variety of different
components, ayurvedic medicine is one and many Indian cooks have an instinct for
what ingredients to add to a dish to help alleviate certain problems.

As food plays an important part in all our lives, this way of diet and healing has now
become popular all over the world, because the chemical balance provided by what
we eat aids healing and promotes good health and well being.

Ayurvedic healers believe there are six basic tastes – sweet, sour, salty, pungent,
bitter, and astringent, and each of these tastes helps in healing specific problems.
Other components of ayurveda include astronomy, meditation, yoga, colour therapy,
massage, aromatherapy, breathing exercises, and a lot more.

Shaped by differences in history, geography, climate, wealth and especially religion,

Indian cuisine is as vast and varied as the subcontinent itself. So complex are its
flavours and influences, in fact, it sometimes seems one eat for a lifetime and never
have the same dish made the same way twice.

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