Review article Institute of Brewing & Distilling

Received: 29 February 2016 Revised: 8 July 2016 Accepted: 17 July 2016 Published online in Wiley Online Library: 28 October 2016

(wileyonlinelibrary.com) DOI 10.1002/jib.363

Brewers’ spent grain: a review with an emphasis

on food and health
Kieran M. Lynch, Eric J. Steffen and Elke K. Arendt*
Brewers’ spent grain (BSG) is the most abundant by-product generated in the beer-brewing process. This material consists of the
barley grain husks obtained as solid residue after the production of wort. BSG is rich in fibre and protein and, to date, the main
use for the elimination of this by-product has been as an animal feed. However, because of its nutritional content, BSG is of in-
terest for application and fortification of human food products, particularly in view of its low cost and availability in large
amounts. In addition, the importance of BSG as an ingredient and potential source of health-promoting bioactive components
is beginning to be recognised. The investigation of alternative uses of BSG is pertinent, not only from the perspective of the
brewer who can benefit from valorisation of this by-product, but also from an environmental perspective as the recycling and
re-use of industrial wastes and by-products has become increasingly important. This review presents the current knowledge
on BSG, covering its production, composition and methods for the release of valuable components, and focuses on the potential
health benefits attributed to its constituents and the use of this brewer by-product in food applications. Copyright © 2016 The
Institute of Brewing & Distilling

Keywords: brewers’ spent grain (BSG); barley grain husks; by-product utilisation; health benefit

Introduction (embryo), endosperm (aleurone and starchy endosperm) and grain

Brewers’ spent grain (BSG) is the most abundant by-product
generated from the beer-brewing process, representing ~85% of
the total by-products obtained (1,2). After the mashing process
the insoluble part of the barley grain, the BSG, is in solution with
the soluble (liquid) wort. The wort, which will be fermented into
beer, is filtered through the BSG, which is a by-product and must
be disposed of. Average annual global production is estimated to
be ~39 million tonnes, with ~3.4 million tonnes produced in the
European Union, 2 million tonnes of which are produced in
Germany alone (1,3). Around 20 kg of wet BSG are produced per
100 L of brewed beer (4,5). Currently the majority of produced
spent grain is used as a low-value animal feed with a market value
of ~€35 per tonne (6). The main constituents of BSG include fibre
(30–50% w/w) and protein (19–30% w/w), which are staple
nutritional components in the human diet and thus make this
material very attractive for improving the nutritional value of foods
(1). In addition, several components that are constituents of BSG,
such as arabinoxylans, proteins in the form of hydrolysates and
phenolic compounds, have gained increasing attention for their
potential health benefits (3).
Owing to the significant amount produced annually, current low
market value, increasing environmental awareness, and the
recognition that BSG may represent a nutritionally valuable
co-product, efforts should be increasingly focused on valorisation
of this agro-industrial by-product. To this end, exploitation in the
area of functional food and health appears particularly promising,
and it is within this context that this review aims to examine our
current knowledge of BSG.
coverings. The grain coverings can further be divided into (from
inside to outside) the seed coat, the pericarp layers and the husk
(Fig. 1 a) (4). During the brewing process the starchy endosperm
of malted barley is subjected to enzymatic degradation, resulting
in the liberation of fermentable (maltose and maltotriose) and
non-fermentable (dextrins) carbohydrates, soluble proteins,
polypeptides and amino acids. The resulting medium (which will
be fermented into beer by the action of yeast) is known as wort.
The insoluble grain components (comprising mainly the grain
coverings) are the BSG (Fig. 1b). In traditional brewing, which
employs a lauter tun, the BSG plays an important role as it forms
the bed through which the mash is filtered to separate the wort.
Therefore, the initial milling of the malt must be such that the grain
coverings remain intact so as to form an adequate filter (5). Today,
while many small or craft breweries still use this method of mash
filtration, many larger breweries employ a mash filter, which relies
less on the filtration function of the BSG and thus malt can be
milled more extensively.
BSG composition
BSG consists of the seed coat–pericarp–husk layers that covered
the original barley grain. Depending on the efficiency of mashing,
more or less starchy endosperm and walls of empty aleurone cells
may remain. The starch content will be low, and some residues of
hops introduced during mashing may be present depending on
the brewing regime used (4). BSG is a heterogeneous substance,

* Correspondence to: Elke K. Arendt, School of Food and Nutritional Sciences,

Generation of BSG University College Cork, College Road, Cork, Ireland. E-mail: e.arendt@ucc.ie

Barley is the main raw material used for the production of beer. School of Food and Nutritional Sciences, University College Cork, College
The barley grain can be divided into three main parts: the germ Road, Cork, Ireland
553

J. Inst. Brew. 2016; 122: 553–568 Copyright © 2016 The Institute of Brewing & Distilling

Institute of Brewing & Distilling
Figure 1. (a) Cross-section of a barley kernel showing the grain coverings (underlined) that constitute brewers’ spent grains (BSG; adapted from Arendt et al. (101)), and (b) an
overview of the brewing process.
particularly with respect to inter-brewery variation. This is due to a
number of factors, such as the cereal variety, time of harvesting,
type of hops added, the malting and mashing regime, and
whether adjuncts were employed during brewing (3); however,
within-brewery sampling has shown BSG to be quite homogenous
(7). Table 1 clearly shows variations in the chemical composition of
this raw material as a consequence of the above-mentioned
factors. It is evident that the brewing conditions affect the
composition of BSG, particularly when considering that both
Mussatto and Roberto (8) and Waters et al. (9) brewed with 100%
barley malt without adjunct addition; however, Brazilian malt and
Irish malt were used, respectively (1).
BSG is basically a lignocellulosic material, the major constituents
of which are fibre (hemicellulose and cellulose), protein and lignin
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wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/jib Copyright © 2016 The Institute of Brewing & Distilling
K. M. Lynch et al.
(Fig. 2) (2,4,10). Figure 3 shows the typical structure of lignocellu-
losic material. Fibre constitutes about half of the BSG composition
on a dry weight basis, while proteins can constitute up to 30%.
This high fibre and protein content make BSG an interesting raw
material for both food and non-food applications (11,12).
Hemicellulose, primarily consisting of arabinoxylan (AX), is the
main BSG constituent and can be present at a level of up to 40%
on a dry weight basis. AX is the main non-cellulose polysaccharide
in cereals and grasses. AX is proposed to be attached to the
cellulose fibrils via hydrogen bonding (13). The backbone of AX is
composed of β-(1,4)-linked xylose residues, which can be
substituted with arabinose residues while ferulic acid can be ester-
ified on the arabinose residue (Fig. 4) (12). Diferulic acid bridges
can cross-link AX chains (13). Recently, however, Coelho et al. (14)
J. Inst. Brew. 2016; 122: 553–568
Brewers’ spent grain: a review with an emphasis on food and health
Institute of Brewing & Distilling

Table 1. Chemical composition of brewer’s spent grain (BSG)

Component Kanauchi Santos Carvalheiro Silva et al. Mussatto and Celus et al. Xiros et al. Jay et al. Robertson Waters Meneses
et al. et al. et al. 2004 (88) Roberto 2006 (16) 2008 (27) 2008 (89) et al. et al. et al.
2001 (86) 2003 (7) 2004 (87) 2006 (8) 2010 (19) 2012 (9) 2013 (18)

Hemicellulose 21.8 n.d. 29.6 41.9 28.4 22.5 40 n.d. 22–29 22.2 19.2
(arabinoxylan)
Cellulose 25.4 n.d. 21.9 25.3 16.8 0.3 12 31–33 n.d. 26.0 21.7
Starch n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. 1 2.7 10–12 2–8
Protein 24 31 24.6 n.d. 15.2 26.7 14.2 15–17 20–24 22.1 24.7
Lignin 11.9 16 21.7 16.9 27.8 n.d. 11.5 20–22 13–17 n.d. 19.4
Lipids 10.6 3.0–6.0 n.d. n.d. n.d. 13 6–8 n.d.
Ash 2.4 4.0 1.2 4.6 4.6 3.3 3.3 n.d. n.d. 1.1 4.2
Phenolics n.d. 1.7–2.0 n.d. n.d. n.d. 2.0 1.0–1.5 0.7–0.9
All values expressed in g per 100 g dry material (% w/w); n.d., not determined.

found that BSG AX primarily contains terminally linked arabinose

Figure 2. Typical barley BSG composition. Adapted from Xiros and Christakopoulos
(2) and Steiner et al. (3).
residues and that additional substituted groups may be present
such as hexose, uronic acid, methylated uronic acid, and acetyl
groups.
As would be expected, cellulose [β-(1,4)-linked glucose residues]
is another abundant polysaccharide in BSG. Low levels of (1–3,1–
4)-β-D-glucan and starch may also be present. The most abundant
monosaccharides in BSG are xylose, glucose and arabinose, while
traces of rhamnose and galactose have also been found (11,13).
Another significant constituent of BSG is lignin, representing
about 10–28% of total dry weight. Lignin is a poly-phenolic macro-
molecule of complex structure, important in maintaining the struc-
tural rigidity and integrity of plant cell walls (1,10). The complex
lignin is formed from three monomers – p-coumaryl alcohol,
coniferyl alcohol and sinapyl alcohol – which are linked together
in a branched network structure by radical-induced condensation
reactions (Fig. 5) (15).
The protein content of BSG also varies quite considerably but
typically is present at levels of ~20% per dry weight basis
(Table 1). The most abundant are hordeins, glutelins, globulins
and albumins (16). Essential amino acids represent ~30% of the to-
tal protein content, with lysine being the most abundant (14.3%)
(9). This is significant because lysine is often deficient in cereal

Figure 3. Schematic representation of the lignified plant cell wall. Reprinted with permission from Boudet, A. M., Kajita, S., Grima-Pettenati, J., and Goffner, D. (2003) Lignins and
555

lignocellulosics: A better control of synthesis for new and improved uses. Trends Plant Sci. 8, 576–581 (102).

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 K. M. Lynch et al.
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Figure 4. Structure of arabinoxylan illustrating the three components: main-chain xylose backbone (a); arabinose residues (b); and ferulic acid (c). Sites of attack by xylanolytic
enzymes involved in its degradation are indicated.

foods (17). In addition, BSG also contains a variety of minerals,

among which silicon, phosphorus, calcium and magnesium are
the most abundant (8,9,18). The amino acid and mineral content
of BSG derived from 100% barley malt is outlined in Table 2 (9).

Spoilage of BSG and methods of preservation

Figure 5. Lignin monomers: (a) p-coumaryl alcohol; (b) coniferyl alcohol; (c) sinapyl
alcohol; (d) β-O-4 linked dilignol structure. Reprinted with permission from Niemi, P.,
Aura, A. M., Maukonen, J., Smeds, A. I., Mattila, I., Niemela, K., Tamminen, T., Faulds,
C.B., Buchert, J. and Poutanen, K. (2013) Interactions of a lignin-rich fraction from
brewer’s spent grain with gut microbiota in vitro. J Agric. Food. Chem. 61, 6754–62.
Copyright 2013 American Chemical Society (15).
About 100–130 kg of BSG containing 70–80% water are obtained
from 100 kg of malt, equating to 21–22 kg BSG per hectolitre
brewed beer (5). This high moisture level presents two issues.
Firstly, transport of wet BSG can be costly, this being a particular
reason why supply to local farmers as cattle feed has primarily
been the main outlet; however, supply can often outweigh
demand (1). Secondly, the rich polysaccharide and protein content
and the high moisture content of BSG make it susceptible to
microbial growth and spoilage, this being identified as a potential
problem area which might restrict its successful exploitation. After
30 days of storage at room temperature, isolates from eight differ-
ent fungal genera were identified, including Aspergillus, Fusarium,

Table 2. Amino acida and mineral content of BSG derived from 100% barley malt

Non-essential amino acids BSG Malt Barley Essential amino acids BSG Malt Barley
Histidine 26.27 1.90 1.59 Lysine 14.31 3.69 2.52
Glutamic acid 16.59 0.75 0.85 Leucine 6.12 0.29 0.30
Aspartic acid 4.81 0.17 0.19 Phenylalanine 4.64 0.21 0.20
Valine 4.61 0.24 0.23 Isoleucine 3.31 0.17 0.17
Arginine 4.51 0.23 0.21 Threonine 0.71 0.02 0.01
Alanine 4.12 0.23 0.22 Tryptophan 0.14 n.d. 0.01
Serine 3.77 0.07 0.12 Methionine n.d. n.d. 0.03
Tyrosine 2.57 0.14 0.14
Glycine 1.74 0.06 0.08
Asparagine 1.47 0.33 0.23
Glutamine 0.07 n.d. n.d.
Mineral content (% w/w)
Phosphorous 0.46 0.27 0.24 Calcium 0.22 0.05 0.06
Magnesium 0.24 0.09 0.08 Silicon 0.14 0.06 0.05
a
Expressed as a percentage of total protein.
Source: Waters et al. (9).
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Brewers’ spent grain: a review with an emphasis on food and health
Mucor, Penicillium and Rhizopus (4). Robertson et al. (19) showed
that, while at the point of production BSG can be considered
microbiologically stable and within acceptable limits for food
use, proliferation of microaerophilic bacteria and anaerobes
indicates that the microflora is prone to a rapid change following
production of BSG. Therefore, this material must be stabilised
and stored under appropriate conditions post-production if it is
to be utilised at a later stage. It is suggested that the moisture
content be lowered to ~10% to prolong storage time (20).
A number of methods have been examined for their suitability
to preserve BSG. Acid solutions such as lactic, acetic, formic and
benzoic acids have been used for BSG preservation, with benzoic
and formic acid being particularly effective; however, use of such
chemicals can be at odds with the consumers’ desire for more
natural food ingredients (4). While there is currently no regulatory
guidelines dealing with the preservation of BSG for application in
human food, guidelines exist in some countries regarding best
practice for preservation and use as animal feed. For example, in
Germany, the Bavarian State Research Centre for Agriculture
suggests that the use of a mixture of benzoate, propionate and
sorbate at a concentration of 0.2–0.3% (w/w) can be used to
extend the aerobic stability of BSG by 4–5 days (21).
A number of physical methods of preservation have been
examined, including oven-drying, freeze-drying, freezing and use
of superheated steam. While freezing has been determined to be
inappropriate as large volumes have to be stored, both oven-
and freeze-drying methods reduce the volume of material (7).
Bartolomé et al. (22) evaluated a number of methods for the
preservation of BSG including freezing, oven-drying and
freeze-drying. While neither oven-drying nor freeze-drying lead
to compositional alterations, freezing was found to alter the
arabinose content. Freeze-drying was not seen as economically
viable. Oven-drying is seen as the most suitable method for
preservation of spent grains; however, it must be conducted at
temperatures <60 °C because higher temperatures can generate
unpleasant flavours. A drawback of oven drying is the risk that
the grain temperature near the dryer exit may rise, leading to
toasting or burning of the dried grains (4). Oven-drying is also en-
ergy intensive. An alternative drying method is to use superheated
steam. This method was shown to be advantageous in that it was
less energy intensive than oven drying, improved drying efficiency
and enhanced the recovery of valuable organic compounds
(23,24). Steam velocity through the sample, as well as temperature
were seen as important factors in drying of the BSG, while only
very high temperatures (180 °C) were shown to affect starch
gelatinisation. The equipment used in these studies, however,
was a bespoke steam generator built specifically for this purpose.
Thus, the bespoke nature of such equipment would potentially
limit the adoption of this technology.
Robertson et al. (19) compared different methods of BSG stor-
age, i.e. fresh material at 20 °C, refrigerated at 4 °C, autoclaved at
120 °C for 1 h, and frozen storage, with respect to microbial prolif-
eration and modification to polysaccharides and phenolic acid
components. Similar to previous findings, fresh BSG had low levels
of aerobic mesophilic and thermophilic bacteria (102–103 CFU g 1).
Under storage at 4 °C over 16 days, the numbers of aerobic bacte-
ria remained below 105 CFU g 1, while in the frozen or autoclaved
samples there was no evidence of microbial activity. At 20 °C the
microbial population increased 1000-fold, to ∼106 CFU g 1, by
day 5. When stored frozen, BSG showed no changes in composi-
tion but autoclaving resulted in a solubilisation of polysaccharides
and associated phenolics. In addition, loss of sugars was noted in
J. Inst. Brew. 2016; 122: 553–568 Copyright © 2016 The Institute of Brewing & Distilling
Institute of Brewing & Distilling
samples stored at 4 and 20 °C, postulated to be due to microbial
hydrolytic and surviving endogenous enzyme activities, which
would be particularly active during the cooling of the BSG post-
production. Overall, autoclaving was seen as being effective for
long-term BSG stability; however this can result in compositional
changes (25).
Treatments for the release of polysaccharides
and other constituent components from BSG
The breakdown of BSG into its constituent components may be
necessary for exploitation of this biomass to (a) yield a number
of value-added components such as carbohydrates, proteins and
phenolic compounds, and (b) solubilise BSG components to
obtain a medium which can be fermented for the production of
specific compounds or products of fermentation. While both
chemical and enzymatic extraction methods have been employed,
the use of the latter enables more precise control of the process
and nature of the yielded components (2). In addition, such
enzymatically produced fractions are likely to retain bioactivity,
and their application in food products would be seen more
favourably compared with compounds extracted by chemical
means. An additional advantage is that they do not generate
potentially toxic side streams, therefore being considered more
environmentally friendly (1). Owing to the complexity of the
constituent polymers of BSG (e.g. the hemicellulose fraction), a
broad range of enzyme activities is required for complete
hydrolysis, owing to the presence of many different substituted
groups and types of bond linkages on the polymer. For example,
xylanases, β-xylosidases, feruloyl esterases, acetyl esterases, glucu-
ronidases, glucuronoyl esterases and α-L-arabinofuranosidases are
the major types of enzymes required for complete degradation of
hemicellulose (Fig. 4). Enzymes of various specificities can be
selected depending on which components or products are de-
sired, and the extent of hydrolysis required. The studies which
employed enzymatic methods to degrade various fractions of
BSG are outlined in Table 3.
Mixtures of polysaccharide hydrolases contained in crude
extracts of fungal species from the genera Trichoderma, Fusarium,
Penicillum and Neospora have been shown to be able to degrade
BSG, resulting in high monosaccharide yields. Saccharification by
F. oxysporum enzymes reached 47% (40% of total pentose
content and 70% of total glucose content) based on total sugar
content of the initial material, while the sugars released ( glucose,
xylose, arabinose) from pre-treated BSG using an enzyme extract
from N. crassa yielded about 50% of total pentose content and
60% of total glucose in the material (26–28).
Lignocellulosic materials such as those present in BSG have a
rigid structure that can inhibit the action of an enzyme and thus
many studies have employed a pre-treatment step (e.g. physical
or chemical) in order to make the polysaccharide structure more
accessible to enzymatic hydrolysis (Table 3). It has also been found
that the lower the hemicellulose and lignin content in the sample,
the higher the efficiency of cellulose hydrolysis. Mussatto et al. (29)
pre-treated BSG with dilute acid and alkali solutions to degrade the
hemicellulose fraction to various extents, demonstrating this fact
and obtaining higher glucose yields compared with untreated
BSG. The arabinose content of the AX hemicellulose has been
shown to affect the breakdown of this fraction, and, as
demonstrated by Mussatto et al. (30), owing to the structure of
BSG (Fig. 3), the hemicellulose content itself can affect the
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Table 3. Studies using enzymatic methods to degrade the carbohydrate component of BSG

Product Enzymes used (manufacturer, if known) Hydrolysis conditions Yields Pre-treatment method Reference
Glucose Celluclast 1.5 L 45 °C, 96 h From 30 to 90%, depending Untreated, dilute sulphuric (29)
(Novozymes A/S, Denmark) on pre-treatment acid (1.25% w/v), dilute acid +
Institute of Brewing & Distilling

dilute sodium hydroxide (2% w/v)

Glucose Celluclast 1.5 L, 50 °C, 20 h 100% Thermo-mechanical (90)
Novozyme-188 (Novozymes) (high-pressure treatment)

wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/jib
Glucose, cellobiose
Monosaccharides
Monosaccharides
Monosaccharides
Monosaccharides and oligosaccharides Depol 740, Depol 686, Promod
Cellulose- and hemicellulose-derived Econase CE (AB Enzymes GmbH,
mono- and oligosaccharides,
peptide-rich fraction
Monosaccharides, arabinoxylo-
oligosaccharides, hydroxycinnamic
acids
Monosaccharides, hydroxycinnamic
acids
Celluclast 1.5 L 45 °C, 96 h 99% dilute acid + dilute alkali (91)
(as for (30) above)
Neurospora crassa crude 30 °C, 24 h 50 and 60% of total pentose Alkali (sodium hydroxide (27)
preparation and glucose content 10%, liquid–solid 8:1)
Fusarium oxysporum crude 30 °C, 24 h 40 and 70% of total pentose Alkali (sodium hydroxide (26)
preparation and glucose content 10%, liquid–solid 8:1)
F. oxysporum crude preparation, 40 °C, 24 h 65, 28 and 70% of total Alkali (sodium hydroxide (28)
pure arabionofuranosidase from arabinose, xylose and glucose 10%, liquid–solid 8:1)
Bifidobacterium sp. content
50 °C, 4 h 36% of BSG None (31)
24 L, Promod 439 (Biocatalysts
Ltd, UK), Alcalase (Novozymes)
60 °C, 4 h 14 and 36% of original dry None (92)
Germany), Alcalase 2.4 LFG PMN matter by carbohydrases and
proteases, respectively; 50%
solubilisation achieved with
enzyme combination
Econase CE, Spezyme CP 50 °C, 5 h Monosaccharides: 26–28% of None (11)
(DuPont Genencor, USA), Depol total content; ferulic acid 75%
740, Depol 686 of total content
Penicillium brasilianum crude 37 °C, 10 h 40% of contained pepsin and None (93)
preparation hydroxycinnamic acid

Copyright © 2016 The Institute of Brewing & Distilling

Xylooligosaccharides, hydroxycinnamic Trichoderma (T. reesei, T. harzianum) n/a 8% of total content None (94)
acids crude preparations
Cellulose- and hemicellulose-derived Econase, Alcalase, Depol 740 L, Depol Sequential enzyme 25–30% of BSG Untreated, (95)
oligosaccharides, monosaccharides, 686, Econase + FAE (Talaromyces addition at optimal mechanical(lyophilised
phenolic acids etc. (i.e. solubilisation of stipitatus, Biocatalysts) temp. and pH for each and milled)
BSG components)
Solubilised BSG, hydroxycinnamic acids Ultraflo (Novozymes), Alcalase, 40 °C, 24 h 50 and 8.6% of the protein None (32)
Promod 24 L, Promod 184P, and ferulic acid content
Promod 278P, Promod 439 L
Ferulic acid F. oxysporum crude preparation, 50 °C, 10 h 49% of alkali-extractable FA None (96)
M3 xylanase (Megazyme, Ireland),
Alcalase, Papain (Carica papaya,
Sigma-Aldrich, USA)

(Continues)

J. Inst. Brew. 2016; 122: 553–568

K. M. Lynch et al.
Brewers’ spent grain: a review with an emphasis on food and health
Institute of Brewing & Distilling

breakdown of the cellulose component. Xiros et al. (28) demon-

Reference

strated that the addition of an enzyme with specific

(74)

(97)

(98)

(34)

(85)
L-arabinosidase activity increased not only the arabinose release
from AX but also the xylose release, showing that arabinose substi-
tution of hemicellulose effects the hydrolysis of this polymer, i.e.
the more substituted the xylan main-chain is with arabinose, the
Pre-treatment method

more resistant this polymer is to the action of xylanases.

Cellulases consist of a number of different enzymes that are
necessary for the complete conversion of the cellulose fraction
18–48% of content depending Potassium hydroxide

Extraction of alcohol

to glucose: namely, endoglucanases (EG), cellobiohydrolases

insoluble residue,

(CBH) and β-glucosidases (BG). Two stages have been identified

alkali treatment

in the hydrolysis of cellulose: primary hydrolysis, involving the

(0.5 to 4 M)

Dry milling
release of soluble intermediates from the surface of reacting
cellulose molecules (EG, CBH) and secondary hydrolysis, involving
2–6% of total alkali extractable None

None

hydrolysis of these intermediates to lower molecular weight

forms (EG, CBH), and ultimately to glucose (EG, CBH, BG) (2). An
example of an efficient cellulase system is that of the fungal
23.7% of water unextractable

82% of total residual extract

species, Trichoderma reesei, marketed by Novozymes A/S as

160 mg g 1 of total alkali

Celluclast®. Mussatto et al. (29, 30) used this cellulase to achieve

extractable ferulic acid

a cellulose to glucose conversion of between 91 and 99%; how-

Yields

ever, these results were obtained with BSG pretreated with dilute
on pre-treatment

acid and base; only ~23% conversion was achieved with

untreated BSG, owing to the hemicellulose fraction preventing
cellulase access.
content

It has also been suggested that protease enzymes are important

AX

for the complete deconstruction of BSG, because insoluble pro-

teins present in BSG may entrap otherwise soluble carbohydrate
Enzymes used (manufacturer, if known) Hydrolysis conditions

components. Faulds et al. (31) treated BSG with a number of differ-

ent proteases, demonstrating that these enzymes had the ability
Optimum temp.,
50 °C, up to 4 h

to solubilise BSG carbohydrate components in addition to pro-

teins. However, an earlier study by this group demonstrated that
12 h total
37 °C, 3 h

37 °C, 3 h

37 °C, 3 h

inhibition of proteolytic activity in an enzyme preparation that

had both carbohydrase and protease activities (Depol 740) only
resulted in a 5% decrease in BSG solubilisation, suggesting that
proteolytic activity is not essential (32). More recently, Severini
et al. (33) found that the addition of a proline-specific peptidase
(AB Enzymes); Clarex proline-specific

enhanced the extraction of AX by xylanases, demonstrating a syn-

peptidase (DSM Food Specialities,

Sequential addition of enzymes,

ergistic effect. Alcalase (protease from Bacillus licheniformis,

Pure FAE from Aspergillus niger,

Termamyl SC, SAN Super 240L

Novozymes A/S) has been shown to be a very effective protease

and Veron Special xylanases
Rohalase WL, Rohament GE
Lactobacillus acidophilus K1
Ferulic acid esterase from

pure GH10 xylanase from

pure GH11 xylanase from

for solubilisation of BSG proteins. It was shown that 77% of the

Thermoascus aurantiacus,

Ultraflo L, pure xylanase

proteinaceous material in BSG could be solubilised with Alcalase,

using a simple enzymatic hydrolysis step (34). The breakdown of
Trichoderma viride

proteins may not only serve to expose residual starch, but also
Celluclast 1.5 L

supplies peptides and amino acids for microbial growth during

Netherlands).
from T. viride

fermentation.
Other methods which have been employed to aid component
extraction and degradation of BSG include microwave
temperature treatment and extrusion cooking. Macheiner et al.
(35) evaluated various physical and thermal pre-treatments,
namely milling, extrusion cooking and microwave radiation, with
respect to the subsequent enzymatic breakdown of BSG. Physical
pre-treatments led only to a small increase in monosaccharide
yield, the most effective pre-treatment being the application of
Modified from Xiros and
Solubilised arabinoxylan

microwave radiation in the presence of acid and alkali solutions.

Hydroxycinnamic acids

Hydroxycinnamic acids

Hydroxycinnamic acids

Some 49% of the polysaccharide components were liberated by

Christakopoulos (2).

microwave treatment at 160 °C for 10 min in the presence of

Monosaccharides

0.5 M sodium hydroxide. More rapid methods, such as ultrasound

assisted extraction have also been tested and used for the isolation
of an AX-rich fraction, and enabled a significant reduction in time
Product

and energy when compared with alkaline extraction alone (36).

Recently, Reis et al. (37) demonstrated that the physical methods
of milling and sieving aided the extraction of AX from BSG. In
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addition, the different BSG particle sizes released AX saccharides of
varying degrees of polymerisation and branching.
As stated previously however, pre-treatments involving the use
of chemicals may not be suitable for products that could be
destined for use in food. Thus, physical or thermal pre-treatments,
prior to enzymatic hydrolysis would be most appropriate in such
cases. In addition, enzymatic processing of BSG polysaccharides
can be targeted towards specific products (oligosaccharides,
monosaccharides) through consideration of the enzyme mixtures
used. For example, complete hydrolysis of the hemicellulose
fraction requires cleavage of the arabinose side groups [by
arabinofuranosidase and possibly ferulic acid esterase (FAE)
enzyme activities] and the xylan backbone (xylosidase and
xylanase activities); however, if xylooligosaccharide recovery is
desired, then the enzymes that cleave the xylan backbone (e.g.
endo-1,4-xylanse) must be absent from the enzyme preparation
(2) (see Fig. 4).
Health benefits of BSG and its constituents
The main BSG constituents that are of interest with respect to
potential health benefits are the fibre (e.g. AX, β-glucans) and
phenolic (e.g. hydroxycinnamic acid) components. The protein
fraction of BSG is also of interest given its relatively high content
of the essential amino acid, lysine, in comparison to other cereal
products.
As outlined in the section ‘BSG composition’, AX is the primary
constituent of the hemicellulose fraction of BSG, which can
account for up to 25% on a dry weight basis. In comparison, the
content in barley and wheat is 4–8 and 4–10%, respectively (3).
The structure of AX is comprised of a xylan backbone substituted
to varying degrees with arabinose residues. In addition, phenolic
acids such as ferulic acid can be ester-linked to these arabinose res-
idues (Fig. 4). The ratio of arabinose to xylose, the substitution pat-
tern and degree of substitution of the main xylan chain, and the
susceptibility of ferulic acids to form oxidative cross-linking can af-
fect the solubility of AX (3). It is this solubility that plays a role in the
health promoting effects of AX. In wheat, AX can be thus divided
into two groups: water-extractable (accounting for 25–30% AX)
and water-unextractable, accounting for the remainder of AX (12).
AX is increasingly considered as dietary fibre. A significant
proportion of water-extractable AX entering the large intestine
can act as a prebiotic, being fermented by the colonic microflora,
important members of which are bifidobacteria and lactobacilli.
A healthy population of these bacteria is seen as important for
the maintenance of gut health. As an example, bifidobacteria
produce short chain fatty acids (SCFA) through fermentation of di-
etary fibres. Production of SCFA is generally considered as benefi-
cial because they protect the host against pathogens, induce
immune responses, reduce cholesterol synthesis, stimulate colonic
blood flow, enhance muscular contractions and may protect the
colon against cancer development (38). The breakdown of AX
yields xylooligosaccharides (XOS) with varying degrees of
polymerisation, which are known prebiotics (39) and are possibly
the reason for the prebiotic activity of AX. The formation of these
XOS from AX and their subsequent prebiotic potential necessitates
the expression of the appropriate hydrolytic enzymes by the mi-
crobiota. Bacteria possessing the enzymes for AX degradation
have been identified in the human intestine. While many species
have been shown to have the potential to degrade XOS,
expression of the necessary enzymes required for initial AX
breakdown (e.g. α-L-arabinofuranosidase activity) was more
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K. M. Lynch et al.
species dependent. However, in the complex ecosystem of the
gut it is highly likely that cross-feeding occurs, where the initial
AX breakdown is performed by species with greater saccharolytic
capability, and the partially hydrolysed products are then utilised
by other less saccharolytic species (40). XOS obtained by
enzymatic treatment of wheat AX has also been reported to have
prebiotic potential. Hughes et al. (41) investigated the prebiotic
potential of different molecular weight fractions of AX, finding that
a low molecular weight fraction (66 kDa) was most selective for
‘health promoting’ bacterial groups and an elevated production
of SCFA, particularly butyrate. Recently, Gomez et al. (42) demon-
strated that the in vitro prebiotic potential of arabinoxylo-
oligosaccharides from BSG was higher than that of fructooligosac-
charides. Similar results were observed by Reis et al. (43) with AX
fractions isolated using ultrasound assisted extraction. A significant
increase in bifidobacterial populations was observed with a high
level of the SCFA propionate. In an in-vitro human colonic model,
Grootaert et al. (38) determined that, while XOS fermentation did
not significantly affect microbial community composition, the
primary site of colonic XOS fermentation was towards the distal
colon. This is of significance because it is often the goal to extend
sugar fermentation toward the distal parts of the colon, where
colon cancer is more likely to occur, and thus increase production
of beneficial and protective SCFA at this site.
It has also been shown that ingestion of AX may help modulate
post-prandial glycaemic responses. AX may increase bulk viscosity,
delaying gastric emptying, reducing intestinal motility and thus
inducing a delayed blood glucose and insulin response (44). In
order to obtain such an affect it is recommended to consume
8 g of AX-rich fibre per each 100 g of available carbohydrates
(3,45).
Lignin is also considered as dietary fibre. According to the
European Union Commission (46), lignin is included as a compo-
nent of dietary fibre when it remains closely associated with the
original plant polysaccharides. This complex polymer has gener-
ally been considered an inert compound in the human gastroin-
testinal tract and resistant to the metabolic activities of gut
microbiota; however, recent studies suggest that the gut micro-
biota is able to partially degrade lignin and metabolise the re-
leased compounds. Niemi et al. (15) demonstrated in an in-vitro
colonic model that the lignin-rich fraction enabled the longer
survival of bifidobacteria when compared with glucose as a
substrate. In addition, the formation of several low molecular
weight, lignin-like phenolic metabolites during the fermentation
was suggestive of partial degradation of lignin by the
microbiota.
Another important, although compositionally minor fibre (~1%
w/w), present in BSG is β-glucan. Among cereals, oats and barley
contain the highest levels of β-glucan, with dry weight contents
of 3–7 and 3–20%, respectively (3). Consumption of whole-grain
foods has been associated with a reduced risk of coronary heart
disease and it is believed that β-glucan is an important nutritional
component (47). The physiological effect of β-glucan is thought
to be due to its soluble nature and ability to form a gel-like net-
work, increasing gastrointestinal viscosity. This viscosity is
believed to reduce the reabsorption of bile acids and to increase
the synthesis of bile acids from cholesterol, which has a net
cholesterol-lowering effect (3). An intake of at least 3 g per day
of barley β-glucan is recommended to have such a cholesterol-
lowering effect (48).
Modulation of the immune system is also considered to be a
mechanism through which dietary fibre elicits beneficial effects
J. Inst. Brew. 2016; 122: 553–568
Brewers’ spent grain: a review with an emphasis on food and health
on the host. An inflammatory response is associated with an in-
creased risk of developing colorectal cancer. Increased intake of
dietary fibres has been demonstrated to reduce the levels of pro-
inflammatory effectors (e.g. C-reactive protein, pro-inflammatory
cytokines IL-6 and TNF-α) (49). While the exact mechanism through
which fibre promotes immune modulation is not fully understood,
dietary fibres can be up-taken by M-cells in the Peyer’s patches and
transported to underlying immune cells which results in pro- or
anti-inflammatory cytokine production (50).
The exploitation of the protein content of BSG (~15–25% w/w) is
also of interest, particularly as a source of protein concentrate or
protein hydrolysates with techno-functional applications or health
benefits. Indeed, as mentioned previously, essential amino acids
represent ~30% of the total protein content, with lysine being
abundant (9). This is significant because lysine is often deficient
in cereal foods (17). Milk-based products have been the source of
the greatest number of bioactive peptides isolated to date; how-
ever, increasingly, plant-based materials are being examined as a
source of such hydrolysates. Protein hydrolysates isolated from a
number of agricultural crops, including soy, rapeseed, wheat,
sunflower and barley, have been found to elicit antioxidant and
antihypertensive effects (51). McCarthy et al. (51) examined the
in-vitro antioxidant and anti-inflammatory potential of a BSG
protein-rich isolate and associated enzymatically produced hydro-
lysates. U937 cells, a human monocytic blood cell line, and Jurkat T
cells, a human leukaemic T cell line, were employed in the study.
Despite the protein hydrolysates possessing little antioxidant
potential, they did demonstrate selective inhibition of the produc-
tion of the pro-inflammatory cytokine INF-γ, as did the protein-rich
isolate from which the hydrolysates were produced. The authors
also noted that, while the protein-rich isolate contained ~50%
protein, there was a possibility that components of the remaining
50% (primarily carbohydrate) may have accounted for the
bioactivity of the BSG protein-rich isolate and associated hydroly-
sates (51). More recently, Crowley et al. (52) showed that BSG
protein hydrolysates, added to low-fat milk which was subjected
to in-vitro digestion, elicited a cell-specific immunomodulatory
response in immune-stimulated cell models. While IL-6 cytokine
(pro-inflammatory) production was significantly decreased in
stimulated Jurkat T cells in the presence of BSG protein
hydrolysate-supplemented milk digestates, none of the digested
milk samples had immunomodulatory effects on RAW 264.7
macrophage cells.
The potential of BSG protein hydrolysates to act as functional
ingredients for the management of diabetes and hypertension
was investigated by Connolly et al. (53). The protein hydrolysates
were found to significantly increase α-glucosidase, dipeptidyl
peptidase IV and angiotensin converting enzyme inhibition in a
dose dependent manner.
Since most of the phenolic compounds of the barley grain are
contained in the husk and hydroxycinnamic acids accumulate in
the cell walls, BSG is a potentially valuable source of phenolic acids
(1). Ferulic acid and p-coumaric are the most abundant phenolic
acids in BSG, being present at concentrations ranging from 1860
to 1948 mg/g and from 565 to 794 mg g 1, respectively, with
the next most abundant being sinapic, caffeic and syringic acids
(54). It has been shown that a number of hydroxycinnamic acids
act as antioxidants, scavenging DPPH in the order caffeic acid >
sinapic acid = ferulic acid > ferulic acid esters > p-coumaric acid
(55). In addition to their antioxidant potential, there is evidence
to suggest that phenolic acids can have an anti-carcinogenic ef-
fect, anti-apoptotic effects on immune cells and possess
J. Inst. Brew. 2016; 122: 553–568 Copyright © 2016 The Institute of Brewing & Distilling
Institute of Brewing & Distilling
immunomodulatory effects. For example, caffeic acid and
vanillic acid have been shown to inhibit the expression of
cyclooxygenase-isoform 2 (56). In addition, in concert with other
phenolic compounds, it has been shown that phenolic acid
extracted from cereal grains can significantly modulate NF-κB
activity (57). The ability of the phenolic extracts to protect against
oxidant-induced DNA damage, induced by a range of oxidants,
was examined by McCarthy et al. (58). While BSG extracts did not
protect against DNA damage induced by every oxidant
compound, it significantly reduced the damage induced by
hydrogen peroxide, some extracts providing better protection
than the ferulic acid control. Moreira et al. (59) examined the
antioxidant activity and phenolic composition of BSG extracts
obtained by microwave-assisted extraction from two malt types
(light and dark malts). The total phenolic content of the BSG
extracts from the light malts (e.g. pilsen, melano) were significantly
different compared with dark malt extracts (e.g. chocolate and
black). BSG from the light malts were found to contain higher
amounts of phenolic compounds when compared with the dark
malt BSG and it was found that the antioxidant activity decreased
as a result of increasing kilning temperatures. These results
suggest that the source malt from which the BSG is prepared is
important when considering this material as a source of phenolic
compounds.
In conclusion, given these positive attributes and the presence
of such potentially bioactive compounds in BSG, its consumption
and incorporation into food products, or indeed, the use of
this brewing by-product as an inexpensive source of health-
promoting compounds (e.g. XOS, phenolic acids) is of great
interest.
Food applications of BSG
Owing to the relatively high fibre and protein content, and the
health benefits associated with ingestion of BSG and/or its
components, investigations have been performed into the possi-
bility of using BSG in the manufacture of different food products,
for incorporation into the human diet. BSG has mainly been
utilised in the manufacture of bakery products such as bread, bis-
cuits, cookies, muffins, cakes, waffles, pancakes, tortillas, snacks,
doughnuts and brownies (1). Table 4 outlines examples of studies
which have incorporated BSG into such products (including some
non bakery applications).
Typically BSG is dried following removal from the brewery and
in many cases is milled to convert it to a more suitable form for
application in food products. This serves to reduce the particle
size, which is not only important from a consumer acceptance
point-of-view (in its original form it is too granular), but also
facilitates ease of analysis (1). Some studies also employed siev-
ing after milling to separate certain BSG components or to ana-
lyse the effect of various fractions on a particular product. Kissell
et al. (60) employed sieves to remove the low protein coarse
fraction from milled BSG before application in cookie flour.
Similarly, using sieves, Özvural et al. (61) separated milled BSG
into fine (<212 μm), medium (212–425 μm) and coarse
(425–850 μm) fractions for application in the production of
frankfurters.
Extrusion cooking is another method which has been applied to
BSG as an aid for incorporation of this material into various
(typically) baked products or snacks (62–64). Extrusion can also
be used as a means of reducing the moisture content of BSG prior
to use as shown by Ainsworth et al. (62). While extruded snacks are
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Table 4. Application of BSG or constituent components in food products
Food product
Cookies
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Extruded snack (chickpea based)
Bread (wheat), baker’s yeast,
kefir, Lactobacillus casei
immobilised on BSG
Ready-to-eat snacks of various
bases (e.g. wheat flour, yogurt
powder, tomato powder)
Bread (wheat)
Copyright © 2016 The Institute of Brewing & Distilling
Ready-to-eat (extruded) snacks
Frankfurters
Breadsticks
J. Inst. Brew. 2016; 122: 553–568
Processing/form of incorporated BSG
(or component)
Oven dried at various temperatures,
milled and fractionated into specific
flour components
Extruded
Untreated, (autoclaving followed by
microorganism immobilisation)
Flour
Four untreated – BSG flour only
added to dough
Treated – enzymes also added to
each dough: Maxlife 85, Lipopan Extra,
Pentopan, Pentopan + Celluclast
Dried and milled
Milled and sieved to various fractions
Flour
Proportion BSG incorporated Main finding(s) Reference
(% w/w)
10, 20, 30, 40 Cookies prepared with 20% sieved BSG (61)
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(dried, 45 °C) had protein, lysine and
fibre contents increased by 55, 90 and
220%, respectively, compared with
control dough
10, 20, 25, 30 Increased fibre and protein content. (63)
Phytic acid increased with BSG inclusion.
6, 8 and 10 Lower specific volume than yeast (99)
BSG-yeast/BSG-kefir, leavened control bread
25, 35, 50 BSG-kefir Sourdough breads had 4-day
(sourdough), 50 increased shelf-life
BSG-Lb. casei (sourdough) Higher number and concentration of
volatile compounds in sourdough
compared with yeast-dough breads
Sourdough had higher moisture retention
during baking, lower rates of staling,
maintained freshness for longer
10, 20, 30 Increased protein and fibre content with (64)
increased BSG
10, 20, 30 BSG addition significantly improved the (67)
fibre level of breads but increased crumb
hardness and decreased loaf volume
Enzyme addition (except Maxlife 85)
improved the texture, loaf volume and
shelf life
BSG could be added up to 30% to a bread
formulation with appropriate enzymes to
improve the loaf volume, texture and shelf life
10 Increased total dietary fibre (65)
No decrease in phytic acid during extrusion
1, 3, 5 (fat substituted) Dietary fibre and water holding capacity (62)
increased with increasing additions of BSG
The textural parameters except springiness
reduced because of the amount of BSG and
the low level of fat
Sensory scores decreased as the content of
BSG increased
15, 25, 35 (68)
(Continues)
K. M. Lynch et al.
 Food product Processing/form of incorporated BSG
(or component)
Bread Flour produced by: extrusion and milling –
untreated (Celluclast BG and Pentopan
Proportion BSG incorporated Main finding(s) Reference
(% w/w)
15% BSG doubled the content of dietary fibre
Decreased volume with increased BSG content
Lack of typical cellular structure and altered
textural properties
Longer shelf-life compared with control
12 Enzymatic treated BSG in extruder – no effect (66)
on the characteristics of bread

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Mono BG added to dough) Untreated BSG with enzymes added to the
Extrusion and dough – better texture and volume compared
milling – treated with Celluclast BG and with control (e.g. reduced hardness)
Pentopan Mono BG during extrusion
Bread (wheat) Untreated flour (BSG) 5, 10, 15, 20 Low levels of BSG-SD resulted in softer bread (9)
Flour fermented with than the wheat bread control
Lactobacillus plantarum (BSG SD) Reduced specific volume in breads with
increasing BSG/BSG SD
Lightening of crust colour on BSG SD
incorporation
Staling retarded in BSG SD-substituted breads
Sensory acceptability, up 10% BSG/BSG SD
Perceived sweetness of bread decreased upon
Brewers’ spent grain: a review with an emphasis on food and health

addition of BSG and BSG-SD

Fruit beverages Hydroxycinnamic acid (phenolic extracts), 2.5, 10 (%v/v) Addition of BSG phenolic extracts to juices (72)
liquid and smoothies (2.5 and 10%) did not
significantly enhance their total phenolic
content nor significantly alter the scavenging
activity
Only ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP)
activity was significantly increased in cranberry

Copyright © 2016 The Institute of Brewing & Distilling

Dough (wheat)
Baked snacks (crispy-slices)
juice with added phenolic extracts compared
with the un-supplemented control
Flour 15, 25, 35 Increased water absorption and dough (70)
development time with increasing levels of BSG
Decreased final viscosity
Storage and loss moduli were increased,
indicating more solid-like behaviour
Decreased dough height in rheofermenter.
Poor extensibility of dough
Breads of low volume and dense structure are to
be expected
Flour 10, 15, 25 BSG addition increased the fibre and the protein (100)
content of the samples

(Continues)

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563
 K. M. Lynch et al.
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expected to have a ‘puffed’ structure, increasing levels of BSG have

Reference

been shown to reduce expansion during extrusion cooking, which

(69)
may be related to reduction in starch levels, as this is the main
component responsible for the dough development inside the
extruder barrel and consequent expansion at the die exit (62,63).

BSG-SD + dough conditioner improved the sensory

For the purposes of bread-making, Steinmacher et al. (65) utilised
were observed in high levels in the BSG-containing

Xylanase and dough conditioner reduced firmness

compounds present in high levels in the BSG flour
Addition of >10% BSG affected the texture – high

Dough conditioner alone and the combination of

Fermentation reduced the phytic acid content of
a novel process for hydrolysis of BSG that involved the applica-
levels of BSG led to a closed, compact structure

Antioxidant activity highest in BSG-SD samples

Use of 10% BSG resulted in snacks with similar
tion of cellulase and protease enzymes during the extrusion pro-

texture and structure as the control and was

BSG altered the odour profile in the snacks,

cess (termed reactive extrusion). The extruded material was

subsequently dried and milled for use in bread-making.

Highest firmness observed for BSG and

Compared with extrusion in the absence of enzymes, reactive
extrusion successfully modified BSG as evidenced by an increase
Main finding(s)

in solubility index and reducing sugars and a decrease in

properties of the BSG breads

water-holding capacity (65).
Most studies have examined the application of BSG in prod-
accepted by panellists

ucts at levels of between 10 and 40% on a dry weight basis.

of both bread types

BSG breads by 30%

It is generally seen that BSG incorporation leads to an increase
in fibre and protein levels and a decrease in starch levels in
BSG-SD breads

these products, being correlated with the level of BSG added

as ingredient. Stojceska and Ainsworth (66) increased fibre levels
snacks

in wheat bread by 4 and 9% upon addition of 10% (w/w) and

30% BSG, respectively. Protein levels did not change signifi-
cantly from the control. In the production of breadsticks,
Ktenioudaki et al. (67) more than doubled the dietary fibre
Proportion BSG incorporated

content upon addition of 15% BSG, and while this BSG level
did not significantly increase the protein content, use of higher
BSG levels (35%) increased the protein content by ~4%. Starch
(% w/w)

was also found to decrease with respect to the levels of BSG

included.
While inclusion of BSG at high levels (>20%) is likely to have a
greater positive impact on dietary fibre and protein levels of a
product, addition of such amounts typically has a negative effect
on final product structure, texture, volume and colour, and thus,
15

sensorial characteristics and ultimate consumer acceptance. It is

known that addition of fibre generally results in darker products
Untreated flour (BSG)Flour fermented with
sourdough starter (BSG SD) ± xylanase or

of lower volume, increased hardness and a denser structure (68).

Processing/form of incorporated BSG

In general, consumers associate particular physical attributes,

including colour, size and shape, with certain products and
deviation from this norm can result in rejection of a food before
taste, aroma or texture are experienced (9). As might be expected
(or component)

BSG inclusion has been shown to also influence dough rheological

properties. Ktenioudaki et al. (69) showed that inclusion of BSG in
wheat dough increased the dough development time and led to
dough conditioner

a decrease in dough height in the rheofermenter, which was

related to lower dough extensibility, preventing expansion. It is
thought that the fibre in BSG may both interfere with the gluten
network formation and present a physical disruption to the
gluten–protein matrix in addition to also restricting water for
gluten development. Breads of low volume and dense structure
would be expected from such a dough. Indeed Waters et al. (9)
demonstrated that increasing substitution of BSG into wheat
dough resulted in a reduced specific volume in the final breads,
postulated also to be due to a gluten dilution effect. Breads also
had increased hardness owing to the fibre content affecting
dough development. Fermentation of BSG, in a sourdough system,
prior to use in bread-making was also trialled by Waters et al. (9)
and, at low levels of inclusion was shown to result in a softer bread
Bread (wheat)
Food product

when compared with the same level of unfermented BSG. Upon

sensory evaluation breads containing 10% BSG or fermented
BSG were equally accepted, with a perceived lower sweetness in
breads containing fermented BSG. Technological aids have also
been used in the preparation of BSG-containing breads.
564

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Brewers’ spent grain: a review with an emphasis on food and health
Ktenioudaki et al. (68) demonstrated that the use of xylanase or
dough conditioner improved the specific volume and texture of
BSG breads when added to both sourdough and non-sourdough
BSG breads. Both treatments also lowered the firmness and
decreased the staling rate. In addition, owing to the solubilisation
of cell wall material, both treatments increased the amount of
soluble fibre present in the breads.
BSG has also been studied as an ingredient to increase the fibre
content of non-bakery food products, for example, frankfurters.
The total dietary fibre and water holding capacity was shown to
increase upon increasing additions of BSG as a fat replacer;
however, appearance and texture were also modified, partly as a
consequence of fat removal (61).
Phenolic acids are the main antioxidant compounds present in
cereals and, with up to 8 mg of hydroxycinnamic acids per gram
dry matter BSG, its potential to increase the antioxidant capacity
in food products has been investigated; however, results are not
conclusive (2). In the preparation of an extruded snack product
Ainsworth et al. (62) found that BSG inclusion did not lead to any
increase in total phenolic compounds or antioxidant capacity, a
result which was also found in follow-up studies (63,64).
Ktenioudaki et al. (68), similarly found that, for BSG-containing
wheat breads, the total phenolic content of the bound extracts
did not vary between bread samples, although the total phenolic
content of BSG flour was shown to be higher than that of wheat
flour. In addition, the antioxidant activity of free phenolic extracts
was found to be high for BSG employed as sourdough in breads.
This may be attributed to the production of certain enzymes (e.g.
FAE) by lactic acid bacteria (LAB) which could liberate free phenolic
compounds from the BSG (70). BSG may also serve as a source of
phenolic compounds for extraction and for application in food
products. Aiming to increase the phenolic content and antioxidant
activity of a number of commercial fruit juices and smoothies
McCarthy et al. (71) added BSG phenolic extracts to these products
at levels of 2.5 and 10% (v/v). Results indicated that the BSG
phenolic extracts did not significantly increase total phenolic
content or the antioxidant activity of the juices and smoothies,
as the extracts had a similar total phenolic content to the fruit
juices and lower than the smoothies. The authors concluded by
suggesting that the benefits of supplementation with BSG may
be more apparent in a food system with relatively low natural
polyphenol content.
BSG protein hydrolysates are also of potential importance when
considering incorporation into food products, particularly with
respect to their techno-functional properties, of which solubility
is important. Protein hydrolysis changes the molecular weight,
charge and exposure of hydrophobic groups and amino acid side
chains which alters solubility, viscosity, sensory properties, and
emulsifying and foaming behaviour (72). Celus et al. (72) examined
the functional properties of BSG protein hydrolysates prepared
using different commercial proteases under different hydrolysis
times and enzyme concentrations. The results indicated that the
type of enzyme used is a key factor in determining the emulsifying
and foaming capacities of the resulting hydrolysates. Emulsifying
and foaming capacities decreased with increasing degree of
hydrolysis and high molecular weight fractions were shown to give
the best emulsifying and foaming properties.
A small hurdle in the use of BSG in food products is the high
level of phytic acid in this material; however, this can be overcome
through fermentation of the BSG, as some cereal-associated LAB
and yeasts have been shown to possess phytase activity (73).
Sourdough fermentation has been demonstrated to effectively
J. Inst. Brew. 2016; 122: 553–568 Copyright © 2016 The Institute of Brewing & Distilling
Institute of Brewing & Distilling
reduce phytic acid content and to increase mineral solubility. Use
of sourdough BSG resulted in a 30% reduction in phytic acid
content in BSG breads (68).
In conclusion, BSG represents an inexpensive material for the
natural fortification (through increasing fibre and protein content)
of food productions. However, application to products at low
levels (<15%) is advised to avoid alterations in the flavour, texture
and colour of the final product (1).
Microorganism growth and fermentation of
BSG
An indication that BSG is a good substrate for cultivation of
microorganisms lies in the fact that, once removed from the lauter
tun, it will rapidly spoil owing to microbial activity if not processed
and stored appropriately. Such a rapid deterioration is due to the
elevated water content (70–80%) that it possesses and the
presence of proteins and sugars in its composition (1).
BSG has particularly been studied as a medium for growth of
fungi for the purposes of lignocellulosic enzyme production. Many
filamentous fungi such as members of the phylum Ascomycota
(e.g. species of Aspergillus, Trichoderma, Fusarium, Neurospora) are
natural degraders of lignocellulosic materials as many wild types
grow in the environment and function as decomposers of organic
matter. Bacteria such as species of Bacillus, Streptomyces,
Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus have also been grown on BSG
for the purposes of enzyme production. Some examples include
the use of A. oryzae and Bacillus for the production of α-amylase
(74,75), A. fumigatus, F. oxysporum and Streptomyces malaysiensis
for the production of cellulases (26,76,77), and Humicola grisea
and Penicillium janczewskii for the production of hemicellulases
(78,79). Most studies have shown that supplementation with
additional nutrient sources is not necessary to obtain efficient
enzyme production, but in some cases the addition of amino acids,
vitamins and inorganic compounds improved enzyme yield (1).
Few studies have used BSG as a growth medium for LAB most
likely due to the nutritionally fastidious nature of this group of mi-
croorganisms; however, following BSG degradation by enzymatic
or chemical means it is expected that the saccharified hydrolysate
would contain the necessary nutrients in adequate amounts to
support the growth of such organisms. Strains of Bifidobacterium
longum, Bifidobacterium catenulatum and Lactobacillus acidophilus
grown on BSG have been used for the production of FAE. Using a
minimal medium (similar to MRS) with BSG supplemented as car-
bon source (3%), Szwajgier and Dmowska (80) detected FAE activ-
ities when strains of B. longum and B. catenulatum were cultivated
in this medium, however, the levels of enzyme were low when
compared with the use of other cereal-related carbon sources such
as wheat and rye bran. In a similar study design by this group,
strains of Lactobacillus rhamnosus and L. acidophilus were
examined for their potential to produce FAE in a minimal medium
supplemented with cereal-related carbon sources (3%) (81).
Compared with other cereal-associated carbon sources, BSG
resulted in a comparatively higher FAE yield using strain L.
acidophilus K1. Novik et al. (82) designed a growth medium based
on polysaccharide and protein fractions isolated from BSG
(separated by milling and sieving), for the growth of strains of
lactobacilli and bifidobacteria. Both un-supplemented and supple-
mented (e.g. with lactose, yeast extract, ascorbic acid, minerals)
BSG-based media were investigated. While media containing the
polysaccharide and protein fractions without any supplemented
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nutrients were suitable for the cultivation of the bifidobacteria and
lactobacilli strains examined, nutrient supplementation led to
higher biomass, decreased pH and increased levels of organic
acids, as would be expected. It was observed that the protein frac-
tion (both supplemented and un-supplemented) was more suit-
able for the cultivation of the LAB than the polysaccharide
fraction. The carbohydrate fraction particularly gave very low
growth of the Lactobacillus strain used.
BSG has additionally been exploited as a medium for lactic
acid production by LAB, as a replacement for costly raw mate-
rials (glucose, sucrose or starch) used in the biotechnological
production of lactic acid. Shindo and Tachibana (83) investigated
the feasibility of BSG fermentation to lactic acid using
L. rhamnosus. Supplemented (Tween 80) BSG hydrolysate, pro-
duced via a novel process of steam explosion followed by enzy-
matic treatment, resulted in 19 g L 1 of lactic acid from a total
sugar concentration of 40 g L 1. Similarly, lactic acid produced
from cellulose pulp derived from chemical pre-treatment of
BSG has been reported by Mussatto et al. (84). Saccharified
hydrolysate produced using cellulase had a glucose concentra-
tion of ~50 g L 1, from which a strain of L. delbrueckii produced
lactic acid at a level of 0.73 g per gram of glucose. The control of
pH during the fermentation and supplementation of the culture
medium with MRS ingredients (except carbon source) resulted in
an increased conversion efficiency of 0.99 g lactic acid per
gram glucose consumed (30). A BSG hydrolysate has also
recently been used for the production of lactic acid by a L.
fermentum strain (85). In addition, LAB fermentation and
sourdough technology can be used to enhance bakery products
fortified with BSG, as discussed in the section ‘Food applications
of BSG’ (9,68).
The above studies indicate that BSG represents a valuable and
inexpensive base from which media for the growth of LAB can
be produced, however prior processing is required to release the
necessary nutrients to support growth and fermentation, while
supplementation with additional nutrients typically improves
growth and increases the yield of fermentation products.
Conclusions
Increasing efforts are being directed towards the reuse of
agro-industrial by-products, from both an economic and environ-
mental standpoint. BSG is an abundant by-product produced in
breweries worldwide. However, despite the wide range of possible
applications, not the least as a functional ingredient for the food
industry, or a valuable source of bioactive products, it is still mainly
restricted to use as animal feed or simply deposited to land fill. For
this reason, the development of new avenues and processes to use
this brewing by-product is of great interest, particularly since BSG
is a low-cost material readily available in large quantities through-
out the year.
From a nutritional point, the high fibre and protein content of
BSG makes it very interesting for application in the human diet.
This by-product also represents a valuable raw material and source
of compounds that alone also have potential for use as functional,
bioactive ingredients in human nutrition. Thus, ingestion of BSG or
derived products can provide several benefits to human health. It
is noteworthy that continued research is, however, necessary to
thoroughly substantiate any health claims.
Cereal products are likely the main market that can benefit from
the use of BSG as an ingredient and further research into the
technological aspects related to such applications is encouraged.
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K. M. Lynch et al.
Considering that carbohydrates and proteins are the major
constituents of BSG, this material is a valuable substrate for
utilisation by microorganisms, and fermentation technology
represents an important tool for the exploitation of BSG.
Key factors that need attention if BSG is to be fully utilised in the
area of food and health include the development of efficient
methods for preservation and the formulation of regulatory
guidelines governing various aspects of its application from pro-
duction through to addition to the food product.
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