Lecture 14:

Accelerometer Transducer
 Motion Sensor
➢ It
is designed to measure rate of change of position, location or displacement of an
object over time.
➢ By knowing position or displacement of object over time, we can get velocity and
acceleration.
➢ First derivative gives velocity:

𝑑𝑥(𝑡)
𝑣 𝑡 =
𝑑𝑡

➢ Second derivative gives acceleration:

𝑑𝑣(𝑡) 𝑑 2 𝑥(𝑡)
a 𝑡 = =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2
 Accelerometer
➢ Primary form of motion sensor is Accelerometer.
➢ It is a device used to measure acceleration, a(t) of an object.

➢ By integration previous equations, both velocity, v(t) and position,

x(t), can be determined from acceleration, a(t):

𝑡
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑣 0 + න 𝑎 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑜
𝑡
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥 0 + න 𝑣 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑜
➢ Thus, the accelerometer can be used to determine:
➢ Acceleration, a(t) → unit is 𝑚Τ𝑠 2
➢ Velocity, v(t) → unit is 𝑚Τ𝑠
➢ Position, x(t) → unit is 𝑚
 Type of Motion
➢ Before design a motion sensor, we need to know the type of motion.
➢ There are three types of motion:

1) Linear motion/Rectilinear
• Characterized by velocity and acceleration in straight-line segments.
• The object may accelerate forward a certain velocity, decelerate to a stop,
reverse, and so on.
• Examples: Anything that moves in a straight line such as linear actuators,
and cylinder in car engine
2) Angular/Rotary motion
• Anything that moves in an arc or circle.
• Examples: Analog clock, car engine, shaft of a motor.
http://wsdt.wellingboroughschool.org/resources/dtoncd1/scho
ol/motion.html
3) Vibration / Oscillation motion
• Vibration is a mechanical phenomenon whereby oscillations occur about an
equilibrium point or resting point.
• The oscillations may be periodic called periodic motion, such as the motion
of a pendulum and bobblehead Dolls.

Vibration – periodic motion

x(t) = x0sint
v(t) = x0cost
a(t) = -2x0sint
4) Shock Motion
• Modestly accelerates then suddenly come to rest

Typical shock acceleration profile

 Accelerometer Principle
In industrial world, the accelerometer is designed based on a combination
between Newton Law mass acceleration and Hooke’s Law of spring action.
➢Spring-Mass Accelerometer System
Newton’s Law: 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
Hooke’s Law: 𝐹 = 𝑘∆𝑥
Equating both:
𝑘∆𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎
𝑘
𝑎 = (∆𝑥)
𝑚
𝑘 = spring constant (𝑘/𝑚)N/m)
∆𝑥 = spring extension (𝑚)
𝑚 = seismic mass (𝑘𝑔)
𝑎 = acceleration (𝑚/𝑠 2 )
Seismic mass :The mass that convert the acceleration to spring displacement
➢ Natural Frequency
• If we pull the mass on the right (in absence of damping) and then release it,
the mass will pulled back by spring, overshoot the equilibrium(rest point) and
oscillate back with some frequency called natural frequency.
• A system consisting of a spring and attached mass always exhibits oscillations
at some characteristic natural frequency.
• The natural frequency (Hz) is

1 𝑘
𝑓𝑛 = 1 𝑘
2𝜋 𝑚 𝐹𝑁 =
2𝜋 𝑚
𝑓𝑛 = natural frequency (Hz)
𝑘 = spring constant (𝑁/𝑚)
m = seismic mass (𝑘𝑔)
➢Damping
• Only friction associated with mass and base eventually brings the mass to
rest.
• The friction that brings the mass to rest called damping coefficient , (s-1).
In general, the effect of oscillation is
called transient response described
by:
𝑋𝑇 𝑡 = 𝑋0 𝑒 −∝𝑡 sin(𝜔𝑡)
𝑋𝑇 𝑡 = 𝑋0 𝑒 −∝𝑡 sin(2𝜋𝑓𝑛 𝑡)
𝑋𝑇 𝑡 = transient mass position
𝑋0 = peak position, initially
∝ = damping coefficient
𝑓𝑛 = natural frequency
➢Vibration Effects
How about the effect of natural frequency and damping that was generated
by a table that is vibrating to our spring-mass accelerometer system?

a(t)

a(t)

If the spring-mass system is exposed to vibration, the resultant acceleration

of the base is:
𝑎 𝑡 = −𝜔2 𝑥0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
Where:
𝑥0 is the peak amplitude of the table vibration.
Resultant acceleration to the spring-mass accelerometer:
𝑎 𝑡 = −𝜔2 𝑥0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
Based on Newton’s and Hooke’s Law on the spring-mass accelerometer:
𝑘∆𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎
𝑘∆𝑥 = 𝑚 −𝜔2 𝑥0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝑚 2
∆𝑥 = − 𝜔 𝑥0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
Where:
𝑘
𝒙𝟎 is the peak amplitude of the table vibration
∆𝒙 is the maximum displacement of vibration of seismic mass/ mass motion within the
accelerometer.

Thus:
∆𝒙 is varies as the vibration frequency squared, 𝜔2
∆𝒙 is linearly with peak amplitude of the table vibration, 𝑥0 .
12

Figure shows two effects

a) Actual seismic-mass motion is limited by the physical size of the accelerometer
-it will hit ‘stop’ built into the assembly that limit its movement during resonance
b) For freq above natural freq., the motion of mass is proportional to the table peak motion x0 but
not to the frequency
Generally, accelerometer is not used near the resonance at its natural freq. Because of high
nonlinearities in output.
A rule of thumb - f < fN/2.5 or f > 2.5fN
 Example 14.1
An accelerometer has a seismic mass of 0.05kg and a spring constant of 3.0 × 103 𝑁Τ𝑚.
Maximum mass displacement is ±0.02𝑚 (before mass hits the stop). Determine:
a) Maximum measurable acceleration in g. (1𝑔 = 9.8 𝑚𝑠 −2 )
b) Natural frequency
Step 1
Gather all information involved.
Seismic mass, 𝑚 = 0.05𝑘𝑔
Spring constant, 𝑘 = 3.0 × 103 𝑁Τ𝑚
Maximum displacement, ∆𝑥 = 0.02𝑚

Step 2 Step 3
Calculate maximum acceleration. Calculate natural frequency, 𝑓𝑛 :
𝒌 3.0 × 103 𝑁𝑚−1
𝒂= ∆𝒙 = 0.02𝑚 = 1200 𝑚𝑠 −2 𝒇 = 𝟏 𝒌
𝒎 0.05𝑘𝑔 𝒏
𝟐𝝅 𝒎
−2 −2
1: 𝑥 = 9.8 𝑚𝑠 : 1200 𝑚𝑠
1 9.8 𝑚𝑠 −2 1 3.0 × 103 𝑁Τ𝑚
= =
𝑥 1200 𝑚𝑠 −2 2𝜋 0.05𝑘𝑔
−2
1200 𝑚𝑠
𝑥= −2
= 122𝑔 = 39𝐻𝑧
9.8 𝑚𝑠
 Type of Accelerometers
➢ The variety of accelerometers used results from different applications with
requirement of range, natural frequency and damping.
1) Potentiometric Accelerometer
▪ The simplest accelerometer type to measure mass displacement.
▪ A potentiometric accelerometer employs a seismic mass, spring
arrangement, dashpot/damper, and a resistive element
(potentiometric displacement sensor).
▪ The seismic mass is connected between spring and
dashpot/damper.
▪ The wiper of the potentiometer is connected to the mass.
▪ In the presence of acceleration, the displacement of mass is
transferred to the potentiometer through wiper.
▪ Therefore, the resistance of potentiometer changes.
▪ The changes in resistance gives the value of mass displacement
and hence the acceleration.
 2) LVDT Accelerometer
▪ It employs a coil former, moveable/LVDT core (seismic mass), spring steel and a base.

▪ In the presence of acceleration on the spring steel, the moveable core will move up and down.

▪ Thus, the displacement by core will be converted into linearly proportional AC voltage.

▪ Natural freq. Less than 80Hz, commonly used for steady-state and low freq. vibration

Spring steel

Base LVDT

Seismic Mass
c) Variable reluctance
▪ Inductive principle is employed.
▪ It employs seismic mass is usually a permanent magnet, Cantilever-beam springs, and coil
form.
▪ As magnetic mass moves due to acceleration, voltage induced in a surrounding coil
▪For vibration and shock studies only, output only when the mass in motion
▪ Natural frequency less than 100Hz
▪Application: Oil exploration to pick up vibration reflected from underground rock strata or
called geophone Cantilever beam

Coils Coils

Seismic Mass
d) Piezoelectric accelerometer
▪ A voltage is generated across the crystal when stressed
▪Piezoelectric material is spring-loaded with a test mass in contact with
crystal/piezoelectric element.
▪When exposed to an acceleration, the test mass stresses the crystal by a force (F = ma)
resulting a voltage generated.
▪A measure of voltage is a measure of acceleration
▪Output levels- typically in milivolt range
▪Natural frequency may exceed 5 kHz, for vibration and shock
 Integrator Circuit
➢ An integrator circuit using an op amp.

Since 𝐼𝑠 = 0;
𝑉+ = 0,
𝑉− = 𝑉+
II22
V- Applying Kirchoff’s law,
𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼𝑠 = 0 d
I1I1 Is =0 From Ohm Law: I =C V
𝐼1 = −𝐼2 dt
V+ 𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝑉− 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝐼1 = = 𝐼2 = −𝐶
𝑅 𝑅 𝑑𝑡

𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 1
= −𝐶 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 =− න 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑡
𝑅 𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶
1 𝑑𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
− 𝑉𝑖𝑛 =
𝑅𝐶 𝑑𝑡
 Differentiator Circuit
➢ An differentiator circuit using an op amp.

Since 𝐼𝑠 = 0;
𝑉+ = 0,
𝑉− = 𝑉+

Applying Kirchoff’s law,

𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼𝑠 = 0
Is =0
𝐼1 = −𝐼2

d 𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝑉− 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑉−
C =−
𝑑𝑡 𝑅

𝑑𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −𝑅𝐶
𝑑𝑡
 An Integrator Circuit
➢Now we have obtained acceleration form an accelerometer.
➢We can obtain velocity and displacement by using an integrator circuit.
➢Velocity:
𝑑𝑣(𝑡) II22
a 𝑡 = V-
𝑑𝑡
I1I1 Is =0

𝑣 𝑡 = න 𝑎(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 V+

➢Displacement 1 1
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 =− න 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑡 𝑉𝑣 = − න 𝑉𝑎 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥(𝑡) 𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝐶
𝑣 𝑡 =
𝑑𝑡
𝑥 𝑡 = න𝑣 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 1
𝑉𝑥 = − න 𝑉𝑣 𝑑𝑡
𝑅𝐶
 Example 14.2
An accelerometer outputs is 14 mV/g. Design a signal conditioning system
that provides:
a) a velocity signal scaled at 𝑉𝑣 = 42.9mV/𝑐𝑚𝑠 −1 .
b) a displacement signal scaled at 𝑉𝑥 = 0.2 V/𝑚𝑚.

Solution
a) a velocity signal scaled at 𝑽𝒗 = 𝟒𝟐. 𝟗𝐦𝐕/𝒄𝒎𝒔−𝟏
Step 1 Step 2
Gather all information involved. Convert 𝑉𝑎 = 14𝑚𝑉𝑔−1 to 𝑚𝑉/𝑚𝑠 −2
Accelerometer output, 𝑉𝑎 = 14𝑚𝑉/𝑔. unit.
1g = 9.81𝑚𝑠 −2 14𝑚𝑉
𝑉𝑣 = 42.9mV/𝑐𝑚𝑠 −1 𝑉𝑎 =
𝑔
14𝑚𝑉
=
9.81𝑚𝑠 −2
= 1.43 𝑚𝑉/𝑚𝑠 −2
Step 3 Step 4
Draw integral circuit and choose the Find the velocity, 𝑉𝑣 based on R and
value of R and C of integral circuit. C value.
𝑉𝑎 R C 1
𝑉𝑣 = − න 1.43 𝑚𝑉/𝑚𝑠 −2 𝑑𝑡
(1𝑀)1𝑢
accelerometer
𝑉𝑣 = −1.43 𝑚𝑉/𝑚𝑠 −1
which is negative value
- 𝑉𝑣(−𝑣𝑒) = −1.43 𝑚𝑉/𝑚𝑠 −1
𝑉𝑣
But required signal is, 𝑉𝑣 = +42.9mV/𝑐𝑚𝑠 −1 , thus we
+
need inverting amplifier so that can get +ve value.
Step 5
Convert 𝑉𝑣 = 42.9 mV/𝑐𝑚𝑠 −1 given
1 to unit mV/𝑚𝑠 −1 unit.
𝑉𝑣 = − න 𝑉𝑎 𝑑𝑡
𝑅𝐶 𝑉𝑣 = 42.9mV/𝑐𝑚𝑠 −1
1 𝑐𝑚 = 0.01𝑚
To make easier, choose RC = 1. 1 𝑐𝑚𝑠 −1 = 0.01𝑚𝑠 −1
42.9mV 42.9mV
Thus, a resistor and capacitor of R = 1MΩ and C = 1𝜇F Thus, 𝑉𝑣 = =
1𝑐𝑚𝑠 −1 0.01𝑚𝑠 −1
can be used. = 4.29V/𝑚𝑠 −1
Step 6
Draw inverting circuit and find the value 𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = − ( )𝑉𝑖𝑛
and 𝑅𝑓 of inverting amplifier based on given 𝑅1
𝑉𝑣 = −𝐺𝑉𝑣(−𝑣𝑒)
velocity. R 𝑉𝑣 4.29 V/𝑚𝑠 −1
2
−𝐺 = =
𝑉𝑣(−𝑣𝑒) −1.43 𝑚𝑉/𝑚𝑠 −1
R1 Required
- Velocity −𝐺 = −3000
𝑉𝑣(−𝑣𝑒) 𝐺 = 3000
+ 𝑉𝑣
𝑅𝑓
= 3000
Inverting Amplifier 𝑅1
Step 7 Let 𝑅𝑓 = 3MΩ, thus 𝑅1 = 1K Ω

Combine integrator and inverting circuit.

𝑉𝑎 R = 1.0MΩ C = 1.0𝜇𝐹

accelerometer Rf
3MΩ
- 𝑉𝑣(−𝑣𝑒) R1
- 𝑉𝑣
Velocity 1K Ω
+ + Required
(-ve)
Velocity
Integrator circuit Inverting Amplifier
b) a displacement signal scaled at 𝑽𝒙 = 𝟎. 𝟐 𝑽/𝒎𝒎
Step 1 Step 3
From previous circuit: Find value RC of integrator circuit
𝑉𝑣(−𝑣𝑒) = −1.43 𝑚𝑉/𝑚𝑠 −1 based on equation.
1g = 9.81𝑚𝑠 −2
Target: 𝑉𝑥 = 0.2 V/𝑚𝑚 1
𝑉𝑥 = − න 𝑉𝑣 𝑑𝑡
𝑅𝐶
Step 2
200V 1 𝑚𝑉
Target is 𝑉𝑥 = 0.2 V/𝑚𝑚. Thus we need one =− න −1.43 −1
𝑑𝑡
𝑚 𝑅𝐶 𝑚𝑠
integrator to get displacement value. But, need
to convert first 𝑉𝑥 = 0.2 V/𝑚𝑚 given to 200V = 1 1.43 𝑚𝑉
𝑚 𝑅𝐶 𝑚
unit V/𝑚 unit. (1.43𝑚) 𝑉/𝑚
𝑅𝐶 =
(200) V/𝑚
𝑉𝑥 = 0.2V/𝑚𝑚 𝑅𝐶 = 7.15 × 10−6
1 𝑚𝑚 = 0.001𝑚 Let 𝑅 = 715𝑀Ω,
0.2V 0.2V Thus 𝐶 = 0.01pF
Thus, 𝑉𝑥 = =
1𝑚𝑚 0.001𝑚
𝑉𝑥 = 200V/m
Step 4
Draw first and second integrator.

R = 1.0MΩ C = 1.0𝜇𝐹

𝑉𝑎
Accelerometer
- 𝑅1 𝐶1

+ 𝑉𝑣 (−𝑣𝑒) 715𝑀Ω 0.01pF

Velocity
(-ve) - 𝑉𝑥
Displacement
+
Overall circuit:
𝑉𝑎 R = 1.0MΩ C = 1.0𝜇𝐹

Accelerometer Rf
𝑉𝑎 = 14𝑚𝑉/𝑔 3MΩ
- 𝑉𝑣 R1
- 𝑉𝑣 (+𝑣𝑒)
Velocity 1K Ω
+ + Required
(-ve)
Velocity
Integrator circuit
𝑉𝑣 = 42.9mV/𝑐𝑚𝑠 −1
Inverting Amplifier

𝑅1 𝐶1

715𝑀Ω 0.01pF

- 𝑉𝑥
Required
+ Displacement
Integrator circuit 𝑉𝑥 = 0.2 V/𝑚𝑚
a) An accelerometer output reading is 50 mV/g. Design a signal conditioning system that can produce an
output 0.2 V/mm displacement signal. Show clearly its related components and values in your design.
(5 marks)
a) An accelerometer output reading is 50 mV/g. Design a signal conditioning system that can produce an
output 0.2 V/mm displacement signal. Show clearly its related components and values in your design.
(5 marks)
 Accelerometer

Examples and applications

29
 X2000 - Easier than Flying - Faster Than The
Train ®
• In 1950 S.J. (Statens Järnvägar - Swedish State Railways)
handled 70% of the passenger transport market in Sweden.
• 1995 this had fallen to 16% with car travel accounting for
68% of traffic and the remainder by bus and air.
• In the 1960's talk started on how to win back business. At
that time the maximum passenger tram speed in Sweden was
130Km/h (80mph).
• In 1967 it was decided that speeds needed to increased to
200Km/h (125mph), but with the mainlines laid with 50
Kg/m rail and a minimum radius curve of 1000m the
maximum permitted speed in comfort was only 140Km/h
(87mph).

30
• In 1967 it was decided that speeds needed to increased
to 200Km/h (125mph), but with the mainlines laid with
50 Kg/m rail and a minimum radius curve of 1000m the
maximum permitted speed in comfort was only
140Km/h (87mph).
• In 1990, S.J. decided to name the train X2000 – “The
train for the year 2000" ®. Passenger services
commenced on 4th September 1990 between
Stockholm and Göteborg with a running time of 3 hrs
35min. At this stage approximately half the route, some
230Km (140 miles), was available for 200 Km/h,

31
 Tilt
• Tilt is used primarily for comfort. A sensor, an
accelerometer, is fitted in the first bogie of the train in
the direction of travel and measures, like a pendulum,
lateral forces as the train enters a curve.
• The signal from the accelerometer is processed by
computer and sent down the train.
• Computer-controlled hydraulic ram tilt each coach into
the curve, up to a maximum inclination of 6.5º.
• The tilting system compensates for up to 75% of the
lateral force of a curve and is only employed at speeds
above 70Km/h (44mph).
• Incidents of 'sea-sickness' or 'tilt nausea’ are very ran as
25% of lateral forces are still felt by the
passengers. With the driving trailer leading, the rate of
tilt is slightly higher in this coach, as there is no prior
warning of the train entering a curve, as them would be
with the power car leading. The rate of tilt for the
intermediate trailers is 1m/s and 1.5m/s for a leading
driving trailer, there is no tilt fitted on the power car.

32
 Application
By mounting accelerometers at strategic points
on bearings, we can measure the acceleration and
derive the velocity. These measurements are
recorded, analyzed, and displayed as tables and
plots by condition monitoring equipment. A plot
of amplitude vs. time is called a time waveform.

33
34
35
 Spring-damper system

xo(t)
xi(t)

• Force on spring: Fs = k(xi – xo)

• Force on damper: FD = cDxo

36
1998 Lexus rear
suspension system

Suspension system:
Spring – absorb and store road
shocks by bumps, dips, cracks
-Either compress or extend

Damper – shock absorber

- Dampens road impact of up
and down oscillation

37
 Project development
PROJECT Project development • Idea generation / concept
• Component selection
> Mechanical
> Electrical/Electronic
Prototype Fabrication • Acquisition of components
• Circuit development/Integration

Calibration

Testing

Report writing

Demonstration
38
PROJECT Project development
Group Work:
1-4 max
Prototype Fabrication

Calibration

Testing

Individual
Report writing

Demonstration
39
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MINGGU ULANGKAJI
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