Lecture 2:

Analog and Digital, Transfer Function,

Analysis of Data
 Analog and Digital
Instrumentation components can be in analog or digital
Example:
• Analog – Tachometer °
i
• Digital – Absolute shaft encoder
I

o
Analog data

Data representation can be in analog or digital:

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1. Analog data:
• There is a smooth and continuous variations.
2. Digital data:
• Numbers are represented in terms of binary called bits (1 or 0) Digital data
 Transfer Function
Engineers usually represent the instrumentation system into block diagram.
We use transfer function to know the relationship between the output and input.

Signal A/D
Transducer conditioning Display
Converter

④
block
diagram Typical Instrumentation system

T 𝐾𝐾[1 ± ∆𝐾𝐾/𝐾𝐾] G[1 ± ∆𝐺𝐺/𝐺𝐺] 𝑉𝑉 ± ∆𝑉𝑉

Temperature Transducer Signal Conditioning Output Voltage

T 0.005 𝑉𝑉 Relationship between output and input

𝑉𝑉 = 0.005𝑇𝑇
Simplified block diagram
 Example 2.1
Suppose the temperature range 20° to 120°C is linearly converted to

-÷÷
the standard current range of 4 to 20 mA. What current will result from
66°C? What temperature does 6.5 mA represent?
Solution
1) Determine what is input and output? What is the linear
equation relating temp and current?:

÷÷÷÷i÷÷÷ ⇐ ⇐

Block diagram Graph . Linear equation

2) Insert all values given into the linear equation:
I = 4mA when T = 20°C
I = 20mA when T = 120°C → ①
t Io
Therefore: Coo )
m → ②
4
=

t Io
MC 120 )
20 =
MA 1°C
16
O -

=
M
o .
8mA
Io =
5) So, linear equation based all calculated values :
I
=mTtIo
0.8
I = 0.16 Tt

6) Question 1: What is the current for T = 66℃:

66 ) to 8
16C
.

O
I
-

= 11.36mA #

-6-5=0.16
7) Question 2: What is the temperature for 𝐼𝐼 = 6.5𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚:
( T) to 8.

T = #
 Data signal Transmission
• For electrical instrumentation system, we used a range of electric
current carried in wires as a data signal transmission.
The range is between (4 – 20 mA)
• For pneumatic instrumentation system, we use a range of gas
pressure carried in pipes.
( 3 – 15 psi or 20 – 100kPa)

080 Industrial Environment

 Why used current signal?
• Current is used instead of voltage because the system is less dependent on load.
=
• Voltage is not used for transmission because of its susceptibility to changes of
resistance on the line
• Look at the example below:
• Sensor to current converter is designed to launch a current into wires
regardless of load.
• If there is a problem with the wire or transmission lines, current still held in
constant although a new wire is added.

ores .

Plant Control room

 Significance Figures
• The significant figures are the digits (places) actually read or known
from a measurement or calculation.
Example 16:
A digital multimeter measures the current through a 12.5kΩ resistor
as 2.21mA using 10mA scale. Find the voltage across the resistor.

𝑉𝑉 = 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅 = 2.21mA 12.5𝑘𝑘Ω = 27.625 𝑉𝑉

=

We note that current is 3 significant figures = 2.21mA. Thus the

voltage should be = 27.6 V
 Statistical Analysis of Data
Consider this case:
You are asked to measure temperatures in 8 locations in a room and
the values you have obtained were 21.2°C, 25.0 °C, 18.5 °C, 22.1°C,
- - - -

19.7°C, 27.1°C,19.0°C and 20.0°C. What is the that value that can
describe overall temperature in the room? It is 21.2°C? or 18.5°C? or
19.0°C?
Answers:
Statistical analysis can help to analyze the measured data. In this case,
O
we use mean to find the value that can represent temperature in the
room.
 Statistical Analysis of Data
1) Arithmetic Mean : ∑ 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖
𝑥𝑥̅ =

.
𝑛𝑛
• Use to obtain an average value of variable.

𝑑𝑑12 + 𝑑𝑑22 + 𝑑𝑑32 + ⋯ + 𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛2

2) Standard deviation : 𝜎𝜎 =
𝑛𝑛 − 1
where deviation, is 𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖 = 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 − 𝑥𝑥𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛

• Use to know about how the individual values are spread out about the mean.
• Larger the standard deviation, the more spread out the numbers.
For example:
Given two data sets (50, 40, 30, 70) with mean is 47.5 and (5, 150, 21, 14) with O
O
-

- - - - - -

mean is 47.5.
-

,
Data set 1 Data set 2
80 160

70 140

60

50
⇐.
𝜎𝜎 = 17.07 Deviation, 𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖 .
120

100
Deviation, 𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖

I
40 80

𝜎𝜎 = 35.29
30 60

¥7:
20 40

10 20

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
 Example 2.2
Temperatures was measured in 8 locations in a room and the values obtained
were 21.2°C, 25.0 °C, 18.5 °C, 22.1°C, 19.7°C, 27.1°C,19.0°C and 20.0°C. Find the
arithmetic mean of temperature and standard deviation.
Solution
∑ 𝑇𝑇𝑖𝑖
Arithmetic mean, 𝑇𝑇� =
𝑛𝑛
21.2 + 25 + 18.5 + 22.1 + 19.7 + 27.1 + 19 + 20
=
8
𝑇𝑇� = 21.6℃

𝑑𝑑12 + 𝑑𝑑22 + 𝑑𝑑32 + ⋯ + 𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛2

Standard deviation, 𝜎𝜎 =
𝑛𝑛 − 1
(21.2−21.6)2 +(25−21.6)2 + ⋯.+(20−21.6)2
=
8−1
= 3.04℃
 Example 2.2
Standard Deviation
Measured Mean Deviation, 𝒅𝒅𝟐𝟐𝒊𝒊
𝒅𝒅𝟐𝟐𝒊𝒊 � 𝒅𝒅𝟐𝟐𝒊𝒊 � 𝒅𝒅𝟐𝟐𝒊𝒊
𝒙𝒙𝒊𝒊 �
𝒙𝒙 𝒅𝒅𝒊𝒊 = 𝒙𝒙𝒊𝒊 − 𝒙𝒙𝒎𝒎𝒊𝒊𝒎𝒎 𝒎𝒎 − 𝟏𝟏 𝝈𝝈 = �
𝒎𝒎 − 𝟏𝟏
21.2 21.6 -0.4 0.16
25 21.6 3.4 11.6
18.5 21.6 -3.1 9.61
22.1 21.6 0.5 0.25
64.8 9.25142857 3.04
19.7 21.6 -1.9 3.61
27.1 21.6 5.5 30.3
19 21.6 -2.6 6.76
20 21.6 -1.6 2.56