Laboratory Guide for

Electric Circuits I
Direct Current

Prepared by

Francisco Glover, S.J.

Version 1.1

Copyright 2002, Ateneo de Davao

Electronic and Communication Engineering

Ateneo de Davao University

June, 2001
 Preface
The present text is a laboratory guide for a set of eight
hardware modules, comprising eighteen separate experiments in
direct current electrical circuits. It is designed for use in the course,
Electric Circuits I, a traditional subject for third-year engineering
students, employing a textbook such as Electrical Circuits, Direct
and Alternating Current, by Charles Siskind.

The complete set of modules (including a function generator

and regulated DC power supply) was developed at the Ateneo de
Davao University. Currently in the development stage is an additional
set of modules for alternating current applications. A number of
stand-alone computer programs are also included, to assist the
student in processing the gathered data.

Following the directions in this manual, the student joins

together various pre-wired sub-components, and gathers and records
data on the actual operation of the circuit. As far as possible the
equipment has been designed to be “student proof”, by incorporating
limiting resistors and diodes, normally not shown in the diagram on
the module face. Generally the components are internal to the
module but access for measurement is provided by tie points in the
circuit diagram. This approach was adopted to reduce set-up time for
the experiments, prevent accidental damage to the components, and
highlight more clearly the schematic diagram of the actual circuit.

i
 Electric Circuits I

1: Introduction to a Digital and Analog Multimeter

2: Multimeter measurements {EC1-B}
3: Internal resistance of a source of EMF {EC1-A}
4: Resistors in series and parallel {EC1-B} [with RESIST.EXE ]
5: Kirchoff’s node voltage {EC1-C} [with SIMUL-2.EXE]
6: Kirchoff’s mesh current {EC1-C} [with SIMUL-2.EXE]
7: Thevenin’s theorem {EC1-C}
8: Superposition theorem {EC1-C}
9: Reciprocity theorem {EC1-C}
10: Wye-Delta transformations {EC1-D} [with DELTA-WY.EXE]
11: Maximum power transfer {EC1-A}
12: Measurement of Inductance {EC1-E}
13: Transients in an inductive circuit {EC1-F}
14: Transformers {EC1-G}
15: Discharging a capacitor {EC1-H} [with SEMI-LOG.EXE]
16: Measurement of capacitance {EC1-E}
17: Transients in a capacitive circuit {EC1-F}
18: Capacitors in series and parallel {EC1-B} [with CAPACITY .EXE]

ii
Electric Circuits I
Module One: Multimeters
Materials: Analog and Digital multimeter, Decade resistance box or individual
resistors, regulated power supply

In almost every area of electricity and electronics multimeters are used to

measure electrical quantities as current, voltage or resistance. Two common types,
differing in their display, are ANALOG (moving pointer and numerical scale) and
DIGITAL (direct display of numbers).

There are many different models of digital and analog multimeters on the market
today, but the models shown above are typical. Both meters have a multi-position rotary
switch to select function and range. Function specifies the type of measurement you
wish to make, e.g., direct current milliamperes (DCmA), AC voltage (ACV) or resistance
(). Range indicates the maximum numerical value of the quantity to be measured;
e.g., DCV 250 says that the largest voltage for this range is 250 volts. If the voltage
you wish to measure is somewhere near 300 volts, move to the higher DCV 1000
range.

The digital display shows directly the algebraic sign, numerical value, including the
decimal point, and the units of measurement; 3.999 milliAmperes, direct current, for the
display shown. Interpreting the analog display takes a bit of practice. Along the scale
there are sets of three numbers, e.g., 6, 30 and 150 at the same scale position, So

1: Multimeter 1
which do we read? Notice there are seven DCV range values: for the 0.1, 10, and 1000
range use the top set of numbers; for the 0.5 and 50 range, use the middle set; for the
2.5 and 250 range use the bottom set. However, it is still up to you to determine the
position of the decimal point. For example, if the needle points to the 8 / 40/ 200
mark what is the proper value? If the range switch is set to 2.5, use the bottom set of
numerals and place the decimal point to give the answer of 2.0 . Recall that the correct
reading is never greater than the range value, so 20.0 or 200.0 are not correct, since
these are greater that the range value of 2.5. For the same pointer position, if the
range switch were set at 0.1, we use the top numeral, 8, and place the decimal point to
give an answer of 0.08, less than the range value of 0.1 .

Differences:
While both the analog and digital meters have a similar rotating Function /
Range switch, there are also a number of differences between the two meters.
A: Input Polarity The two input terminals of the analog meter, labeled + and
-COM have their polarity clearly marked. If you interchange the input, the needle
moves backwards, with possible damage to the meter. For the digital, there are no +
or – markings shown; if the V input is less that the COM, a minus sign, “-“, appears in
the display area.
B: Current Input For the analog, current, voltage and resistance are all measured
using the same pair of input terminals, + and -COM. For the digital, voltage and
resistance measurements use the V and COM terminals. For currents less than 400
milliamperes use the mAA and COM terminals (if you enter more than 400
milliamperes here, you’ll blow the fuse inside and will have to pay big money!) The
10A and COM pair are used for currents up to 10 amperes.
C: Overloads If you accidentally place too large an input for a given range, the
analog needle moves off the right end of the scale with possible damage. The digital
displays the letters OL, for overload.

D: AC-DC functions For the analog, to change the function from alternating
voltage to direct, you must rotate the Function / Range switch to a new area; for the
digital you move the slide switch between the AC and DC positions.

E: Different functions Unlike the digital, the analog has no AC current

function. The digital has additional functions for measuring capacitance, inductance
and frequency.
Note #1: The terminal on the analog marked OUTPUT is really an input terminal, used
for measuring alternating voltages in terms of decibels (on the small red scale marked
dB) .
Note #2: To save battery power the digital meter automatically shuts off after a certain
number of minutes of non-usage. To restore, rotate the Function / Range dial to any
new position, or slide the POWER switch off and then back to ON.

1: Multimeter 2
Procedure:
1: Voltage measurement:
Set the analog meter to DCV 10 and the digital to DC and V 40 and connect
both meters to an adjustable power supply. The box at left shows a picture display and
a schematic diagram of the connection. Notice that all + terminals are connected
together (parallel connection). Vary the voltage source, in one-volt steps, so that the
analog meter reads exactly 1.0 , 2.0, 3.0,…,10.0 , and for each value record the digital
reading. Display your results in a neat table.

2: Current measurement:
Set the analog meter to DCmA 25 and the digital to DC and A 40m . Connect
as shown in the diagram. Notice that the same current flows through each circuit
element (series connection), and the + terminal of the power supply is connected to the
+ terminal of the meter. Vary the power source so that the analog meter reads exactly
1.0, 2.0, 3.0,…, 10.0 milliamperes, and record the corresponding reading of the digital
meter.

3: Resistance Measurement:
Before each resistance measurement with the analog meter, connect the input
terminals together and adjust the Zero Ohms knob, so that the needle points to 0 on the
top -scale.

The decade resistance box has six dials, marked 100K, 10K, 1K, 100, 10, and 1.
These values are multipliers, so that the contribution of each dial to the total resistance
is the dial reading times the multiplier. The accuracy of each dial is approximately 1%.
Set the dials to read, in succession, values of 862000, 33500, 2670, 334, 72, and 8 .
For each setting, measure the resistance first with the analog, then with the digital
meter and record measurements in a neat table; select the range value which gives the
most precision. Do not connect both meters at the same time to the decade resistance
box.

NOTE: If a decade resistance box is not available, use a set of six resistors, one each
with resistance somewhere within the ranges of the individual decade dials.

1: Multimeter 3
Data Sheet: Electric Circuits I Experiment # 1
Multimeters
Name:__________________________ Date:______
Voltage measurements:
Analog Digital Analog Digital

1.00 6.00
2.00 7.00
3.00 8.00
4.00 9.00
5.00 10.00

Current Measurements:
Analog Digital Analog Digital

1.00 6.00
2.00 7.00
3.00 8.00
4.00 9.00
5.00 10.00

Resistance measurement:
Pre-set Analog Digital
862000
33500
2670
334
72
8

1: Multimeter 4
Electric Circuits I
Experiment 2 Voltage, Current and Resistance Measurements
Materials: Module EC1-B, 2 multimeters, regulated power supply, 300Ω resistor, 3
assorted resistors.

In working with most electrical circuits we are concerned with resistance, voltage
and currents. Multimeters are useful for such measurements, but their accuracy is
limited. In this experiment we first consider meter accuracy before making circuit
measurements.
Part A: Often we must use two or more multimeters at the same time. How
closely do their readings agree?

1: Identify Meter #1 and Meter #2 by recording their Serial Numbers on the back of
each meter. For the following steps, refer to the diagram above.
2: Connect the meters for voltage measurements. Take sample readings on the
4 V and 40 V volt ranges, record and compute the percentage error: 100% x (Difference
of readings) / ( average of readings).
3: Repeat for current readings on the 40 mA and 400 mA ranges
4: Repeat for resistance readings on the 400 and 4K ranges. For resistance
measurements, use only one meter at a time.

Part B: For a single multimeter, are the range settings consistent?

Refer again to the diagram above.

1: Maintain the power source at a constant voltage, as read by Meter #1, and
record the reading on Meter #2 on its 4 V and 40 V ranges, and determine the
percentage error.
2: Repeat for current readings on the 40 mA and 400 mA ranges of Meter #2,
while maintaining the current constant, as read by Meter #1.
3: With Meter #2, measure the same resistor on the 400 and 4K ranges, and
compute percentage error.

2: Current, Voltage & Resistance 5

 Part C: Is the condition of the circuit changed
when we touch the meter leads to different parts
of the circuit?
1: Input resistance on voltage ranges: Set
meters as shown in [A]. Record the input resistance
of Meter #2 for all voltage ranges.
2: Input resistance on current ranges: Set
meters as in [B] . For the 40 mA and 400 mA
ranges on Meter #2 record the voltage across its
terminals, and from Ohm’s law compute the meter
input resistance.
3: Output voltage on resistance ranges: To
measure resistance, the meter applies a voltage to
the unknown resistor, measures the current, and
calculates the resistance. Set meters as in [A], and
for each resistance range of Meter #1, record its
output voltage on Meter #2.

Part D: Series Circuits

In a series branch the same current flows through each resistor. First measure the
resistance of each resistor, then connect the circuit as shown above. For each resistor,
compute the current through it by Ohm’s law and compare with the measured current
In the light of the accuracy measurements in Parts A, B and C, are your results
reasonable?

2: Current, Voltage & Resistance 6

Part E: Parallel Circuits
Resistors R1 and R2 are in parallel and R3 is in series with this combination. Measure
each resistor, connect the circuit as shown above and compute the current through
each resistor. How accurate is the expression for I3, shown above?

2: Current, Voltage & Resistance 7

Data Sheet: Electric Circuits I Experiment # 2
Voltage, Current and Resistance Measurements
Name:_____________________________ Date:______

Serial Numbers: Meter #1___________ Meter #2 _________

Part A:
Meter Range Meter #1 Meter #2 % Error
Voltage 4 V
Voltage 40 V
Current 40 mA
Current 400 mA
Resistance 400 
Resistance 4 k

Part B:
Meter #1 #2 4 V range #2 40 V range % Error

Meter #1 #2 40 mA range #2 400 mA range % Error

Meter #1 #2 400  range #2 4 k range % Error

Part C:
#1 & #2 #3
Range Resistance
Range Value
400 mV 400 
4V 4 k
40 V 40 k
400 V 400 k
40 mA 4 M
400 mA 40 M

2: Current, Voltage & Resistance 8

Experiment #2 Data Sheet (cont.)
Voltage, Current and Resistance Measurements

Part D: Series Circuits

Resistance Voltage V/R Current
R1
R2
R3

Part E: Parallel Circuits

Resistance Voltage V/R Current

R1
R2
R3

2: Current, Voltage & Resistance 9

Electric Circuits I
Experiment Three: Internal resistance of a source of EMF
Materials: Module EC1-A, 2 multimeters, 9V and penlight batteries, function generator

Almost all voltage sources

possess some internal resistance, which
means the terminal voltage of the
source decreases with increasing
source current. Such a source may be
thought of as a constant source of EMF,
E0, in series with an internal resistance,
ri. Suppose such a voltage source, for
example a penlite battery, is connected
at the input terminals of the circuit
shown. If only the voltmeter is attached, no current is provided by the
source, and no voltage drop occurs across the internal resistance, ri .
Then the voltmeter reading gives the value of E0. If an ammeter is now
connected and the variable resistance R is adjusted, a current, I, will flow
both through ri , the ammeter and the resistance R. Apply Ohm’s law to the
internal resistance to obtain (E0 – V) = I rI or ri = (E0 – V) / I .

Procedure:

1: Attach a 9-volt dry cell to the input terminals, as shown in the diagram.
Attach the voltmeter but not the ammeter, and measure E0.

2: Attach the ammeter, as shown, and adjust the resistor, R, in small

steps, so that the value of V decreases to about 0.8 E0 in approximately
10 steps. Display this data in tabular form with columns for V, I (E0 – V)
and ri. Take the average of the rI column at the internal resistance of the
source of EMF.

3: Repeat steps 1 and 2 for two size AA penlite batteries in series.

4: Repeat steps 1 and 2 for a function generator, at approximately 500

Hz, sine-wave output. Switch the multimeter to the AC mode.

3 Internal Resistance of a Source of EMF 10

Data Sheet: Electric Circuits I Experiment # 3
Internal resistance of a source of EMF
Name:_____________________________ Date:______

9-volt battery Two AA batteries

V I (mA) E0 - V ri V I (mA) E0 - V ri

Value of E0 = Value of E0 =
Average value of rI = Average value of rI =

Function
generator
V I (ma) E0 - V ri

Value of E0 =
Average value of rI =

3 Internal Resistance of a Source of EMF 11

Electric Circuits I
Module Four: Resistors in Parallel and Series
Materials: Module EC1-B, multimeter, 5 assorted resistors

Ohm’s law relates the current, I, passing through a resistor

of resistance, R, to the potential difference or voltage, V,
between the end terminals: V = I R. Given two resistors, #1
and #2, which obey Ohm’s law: V1 = I1 R1 and V2 = I2 R2 .

If they are connected end-to-end, series, the same

current flows through each, Iseries = I1 = I2, while the potential
difference is the sum of that across each individual resistor,
Vseries = V1 + V2 . Therefore

Iseries RSeries = Vseries = I1 R1 + I2 R2 = Iseries ( R1 + R2 ).

Rseries = R1 + R2

If they are connected side-by-side, parallel, the same potential

difference appears across each, Vparallel = V1 = V2 while the
current divides between them, Iparallel = I1 + I2.
Vparallel / Rparallel = Iparallel = V1 / R1 + V2 / R2 .
1 / Rparallel = 1 / R1 + 1 / R2
In this exercise you are asked to verify these relations for the
configurations, A through G, as shown in the diagram.

Procedure:
(1): Measure and record the values R1,… R5.

(2): For each configuration, A to G, measure and also compute

the resistance between the free ends of R1 and R5.

(3): Display the results in a neat table, including the

percent difference,
200% (|Rmeasured - Rcomputed|) / (Rmeasured + Rcomputed)

(4): Use the computer program, RESIST.EXE to verify your results.

12
Data Sheet: Electric Circuits I Experiment # 4
Resistors in Parallel and Series

Name:_____________________________ Date:______

R1 = ___ R2 = ___ R3 = ___ R4 = ___ R5 = ___

Measured R Calculated R % Difference
A
B
C
D
E
F
G

Include with this report:

1: Work sheets showing resistance calculations for each configuration.

2: Printed results of computer program RESIST.EXE

13
Electric Circuits I
Module Five: Kirchoff’s Node Method
Materials: Module EC1-C, multimeter, power supply

In previous modules we found substitution methods for resistors

between two nodes (parallel and series combinations). The case of three
nodes will be considered later under WYE-DELTA transformations. Such
circuits are passive, that is, they contain no energy sources such as
batteries or power supplies. We now move forward to consider active
networks, those which contain one or more energy sources. Although our
circuit elements are still resistors, similar techniques will apply to networks
containing inductors and capacitors as well. In this module you will work
with a circuit board as shown here. It contains eight resistors , R1 to R8,
and eight terminals, A to J (with I omitted, to avoid confusion with the
symbol for current). The various “removable links” may be replaced by
batteries or power supplies.

In working with such networks

certain terms are in common use:

NODE: Point of connection

between two or more circuit
elements.

BRANCH: Portion of a circuit

containing a single element and
the nodes at each end of this
element.

LOOP: Any closed path through

the network in which no node is
crossed more than once.

MESH: Any LOOP which does not contain within itself another loop.

In the diagram, with the links in place, the network is passive (no
power source) and contains 4 nodes, D, E, F, and (A-B-C). Two
connection points, such as J and H joined by a link do not form a
BRANCH, so the two points are considered to be a single NODE. Point G

5: Kirchoff’s Node Method 14

is not a NODE since only one circuit element, R3 is connected to it. But if a
voltage source is inserted between points G and J, then G and (J-H)
become NODES and the network is active. We will consider the LOOPS
and MESHES of this circuit in a later module.

With Kirchofff’’s nodal analysis, we assume the values of all resistors

and voltages sources are known. We seek the voltages at each NODE, for
from these values we can determine the magnitude and direction of the
current through each resistor. One NODE is always selected as reference
or ground node, and all other node voltages are measured (positive or
negative) with respect to this node.

The principle of conservation of

charge demands that the algebraic
sum of all currents entering (or
leaving) any NODE must be zero. This
is a statement of Kirchoff’s NODE
LAW. Also, from Ohm’s law, the
current, I, through any resistor, R,
equals the voltage, V, between the
terminals divided by the resistance
value, R; I = V / R.

To apply Kirchoff’s Node method, start

by selecting one NODE as the ground
NODE. Now suppose we have placed
a voltage source , E1, between
NODES G and J. We then apply the
NODE law to each NODE with 3 or
more branches (so NODE G will be
omitted). The diagram at the left
shows the application to NODE D.
This leads to a linear equation with the
unknown NODE voltages all on the left
side.

Next repeat this process for NODES A, E and F which will involve the
node voltages VA, VD, VE and VF. This gives us four linear simultaneous
equations in the four unknown NODE voltages. Then use the short

5: Kirchoff’s Node Method 15

computer program, SIMUL-2.EXE to solve for the unknown NODE
voltages.

This process, Kirchoff’s Node method, may be applied to networks with

more or fewer NODES and voltage sources. The number of linear
simultaneous equations will always equal the number of unknown NODE
voltages

5: Kirchoff’s Node Method 16

Procedure:
1: Measure and record the eight resistance values. Remove all links for
this measurement. It may be convenient to record resistance in units of
kilohms (103 ohms).

2: Place voltage source E1 between G and J and note the polarity.

Replace tightly all other links. Then measure the four other NODE voltages
with respect to the ground NODE, J.

3: Set up and solve the four linear simultaneous equations, using SIMUL-
2.EXE. Compare the calculated NODE voltages with the values measured
in step (2).

4: Move voltage source E1 from points G-J to points A-C, and select the
new ground NODE as C, and measure the other NODE voltages with
respect to C. and repeat step (3),

NOTE: For increased accuracy in resistance measurements, use the range

that gives the greatest number of significant figures, but do not change
ranges while measuring. Follow this same procedure for voltage
measurements as well.

5: Kirchoff’s Node Method 17

Data Sheet: Electric Circuits I Experiment # 5
Kirchoff’s Node Method

Name:_____________________________ Date:______
R1 = ____ R2 = ____ R3 = ____ R4 = ____
R5 = ____ R6 = ____ R7 = ____ R8 = ____

E1 at G-J, ground node = J E1 = _____

Measured Calculated %-Difference

VCJ
VDJ
VEJ
VFJ

E1 at A-C, ground node = C E1 = _____

Measured Calculated %-Difference

VDC
VEC
VFC
VJC

Include with this report (for each trial):

1: Work sheets showing how the equations were set up.

2: Printed results of computer program SIMUL-2.EXE

5: Kirchoff’s Node Method 18

Electric Circuits I
Module Six: Kirchoff’s mesh current
Materials: Module EC1-C, power supply, multimeter

In the previous module on Kirchoff’s Node Method we analyzed a

network of resistors and voltage sources. We created a set of linear
simultaneous equations and then solved these for the unknown NODE
voltages. The method was based on the principle that electric charge can
neither be created nor destroyed: the algebraic sum of all currents entering
(or leaving) any node must be zero.

In the present module we consider an alternate method of analyzing

a similar network, based on the principle of conservation of energy: the
sum of voltage rises and drops, as we traverse any MESH, must total zero.
This time we create a set of linear simultaneous equations in terms of the
unknown MESH currents and then solve for these currents.

Recall that a LOOP is

left, with R3 , R6 and R8 in series. By placing a link either at J-H or A-C,
we obtain two meshes.
location, A-C or B-C or A-B, three different configurations may be obtained,
defined as any closed
path through the
network in which no
node is crossed more
than once. A MESH is
defined as any LOOP
which does not contain
within itself another
loop. In the diagram
shown, by changing
links we can create a
circuit with 1, 2, 3 or 4
meshes: In each case
place the power
source at G-J .
With all links
removed there is only
one mesh, at the lower
By placing a link at J-H and at one other

6: Kirchoff’s Mesh Current 19

each with three meshes. Finally with all links in place, the circuit contains
four meshes.
For each mesh, assign a mesh current in the clockwise direction. In
what follows we consider in some detail the four-mesh configurations,
with all links in place.

First we assign arbitrary mesh currents, I1, I2, I3, I4, all in the clockwise
direction; I1 in the upper left mesh, I2 in the upper right, I3 in the lower left
mesh, and I4 in the lower right mesh The actual directions may be different,
depending of the polarity of the voltage source we insert at G-J. If the
algebraic value of any current turns out to be negative, that mesh current
must be in the counter-clockwise direction.

Note that in the lower-left mesh only I3 flows through R3 while both I1
and I3 flow through R6 but in opposite directions. Insert a voltage source,
EGJ, between terminals G and J ( + at G, - at J) and set up the equation for
this mesh. Start at terminal J with a voltage rise of EGJ, and moving in the
clockwise direction we have a voltage drop of I3R3 as we move through R3.
Through R6 the drop is (I3 – I1)R6 and through R8 the drop is (I3 – I4)R8 and
then we are back to our starting point at J. The algebraic sum of these
rises and drops must total to zero. We rearrange the terms, grouping the
current terms together:

- I1 R6 - 0 I2 + (R3 + R6 + R8) I3 - R8 I4 = EGJ .

Use this same approach for each mesh; then solve the resulting 4
equations for the currents. You can check on the accuracy of any current
value by applying Ohm’s law to any resistor through which a single current
flows; for example, I3 = ( EGJ - VD ) / R3 .

Procedure:

1: Measure and record the eight resistance values, R1, . . ., R8. You must
remove all links for these measurements.

2: Replace links to form a two-mesh circuit involving |3 and I4, and place
a known voltage source at G-J.

6: Kirchoff’s Mesh Current 20

3: Select J as the ground node, and measure and record all other node
voltages with respect to this ground.

4: For each mesh write the appropriate equation. The number of

unknown currents and the number of separate equations should equal the
number of meshes in the circuit Use the computer program SIMUL-2 to
solve these equations for the unknown currents.

5: Use the resistors R1 , R2, R3 and R4 as needed, to calculate the

expected current values, I1, I2, I3, I4. Divide the voltage difference across
each resistor by the value of the resistor itself. Compare these current
values with the solutions of the equations.

6: Make a three-mesh circuit by placing links at J-H and A-B, maintain

source at G-J to and repeat steps (3) to (5).

7: : Make a four-mesh circuit by placing links at J-H and A-C and B-C,
maintain source at G-J to and repeat steps (3) to (5).

Submit the computer print-outs with your data sheet.

6: Kirchoff’s Mesh Current 21

Data Sheet: Electric Circuits I Experiment # 6
Kirchoff’s mesh current

Name:_____________________________ Date:______

R1 = ____ R2 = ____ R3 = ____ R4 = ____

R5 = ____ R6 = ____ R7 = ____ R8 = ____

Two-mesh circuit:

Link at J-H, Source at G – JH: EGJ = ____

Mesh #3 = JH – G – D – E – JH
Write equation for #3:

Mesh #4 = JH – E – F – JH
Write equation #4:

Use SIMUL-2.EXE to solve these 2 equations:

Measure: VDJ = ____ VEJ = ____ VFJ = _____

Verify results:
I3 = ____ (EGJ- VDJ)/R3 = _____ % Difference = _____
I4 = ____ VFJ / R4 = _____ % Difference = _____

6: Kirchoff’s Mesh Current 22

Data Sheet: Electric Circuits I Experiment # 6 (page 2)

Kirchoff’s mesh current

Three-mesh circuit:

Link at J-H, A-B Source at G – JH: EGJ = ____

Mesh # 12 = E – D – AB – F - E
Write equation for #12:

Mesh #3 = JH – G – D – E – JH
Write equation for #3:

Mesh #4 = JH – E – F – JH
Write equation #4:

Use SIMUL-2.EXE to solve these 3 equations:

Measure: VAJ = ___ VDJ = ____ VEJ = ____ VFJ = ____

Verify results:
I12 = ____ (VDJ- VAJ)/R1 = ____ % Difference = ____
I3 = ____ (VDJ-EGJ)/R3 = ____ % Difference = ____
I4 = _____ VFJ / R4 = _____ % Difference = ____

6: Kirchoff’s Mesh Current 23

Data Sheet: Electric Circuits I Experiment # 6 (page 3)
Kirchoff’s mesh current

Four-mesh circuit:
Link at J-H, A-C, B-C Source at G – JH: EGJ = ____

Mesh # 1 = E – D – AC – E.
Write equation for #1:

Mesh # 2 = E – CB – F – E.
Write equation for #2:

Mesh #3 = JH – G – D – E – JH
Write equation for #3:

Mesh #4 = JH – E – F – JH
Write equation #4:

Use SIMUL-2.EXE to solve these 3 equations:

Measure: VAJ = ___ VDJ = ____ VEJ = ____ VFJ = ____

Verify results:
I1 = ____ (VDJ-VAJ)/R1 = ____ % Difference = ____
I2 = ____ (VAJ-VFJ)/R2 = ____ % Difference = ____
I3 = ____ (EGJ-VDJ)/R3 = ____ % Difference = ____
I4 = ____ VFJ / R4 = ____ % Difference = ____

6: Kirchoff’s Mesh Current 24

Electric Circuits I
Module Seven: Thevenin’s Theorem
Materials: Module EC1-C, power supply, multimeter

Thevenin’s theorem states

that if a single resistor, R, is
connected between any two
nodes of a resistive network,
A and B, the entire network
may be represented by a
single constant voltage
source, Et, in series with a
resistor, rt. Et is the voltage
between A and B, and rt is the “looking back” resistance between A and B
with all voltage sources of the original network short-circuited. We can
verify this with the resistive network shown:

7: Thevenin’s Theoremt 25
Procedure:

1: Remove the link at B-C, and place links at J-H and A-C. We seek the
Thevenin equivalent circuit between points B and C.

2: Place a link at G-J; then measure rt, the resistance at B-C. Next replace
the link at G-J with a voltage source, VS, of about 10 volts; then measure
Et, the voltage at B-C.

3: With jumper leads, connect terminals B and C to X and Y of the

Thevenin equivalent circuit. Interchange these connections, if necessary,
so that X is positive with respect to Y. Place a voltmeter and ammeter at
the indicated position and move the switch to the right side. Then vary the
load resistor, R, over its entire range, and record current as you vary
voltage in 0.2 volt steps. Use the same current range for all values, to avoid
small errors in changing ranges. Make a neat graph of this data, with
current vertical and voltage horizontal.

4: Next, remove the connections to X and Y. In the Thevenin equivalent

circuit set the resistor rt to the measured value of step (2). Insert a variable
power supply and set its value to Et . (move the switch to the left to
measure this voltage) . Then vary the load resistor over its full range,
record current-voltage values as above and make a neat graph of current
against voltage using the same axes as in step (3) above. While taking
readings, move the switch from side to side to make sure that the voltage
source remains exactly at Et as the current changes. Thevenin’s theorem
predicts that the two graph lines should be identical.

5: Repeat steps (1) to (4), but this time verify the Thevenin equivalent
between A and C. (Voltage source, Vs, is still placed at G-J.)

7: Thevenin’s Theoremt 26
Data Sheet: Electric Circuits I Experiment # 7
Thevenin’s Theorem
Name:_____________________________ Date:______
Terminals B – C Terminals A – C
rb at B-C = _____ rb at B-C = _____
VS at G-J = _____ VS at G-J = _____
Et at B-C = _____ Et at A-C = ____

V IStep #2 IStep #3 %Diff. V IStep #2 IStep #3 %Diff.

7: Thevenin’s Theoremt 27
Electric Circuits
Module Eight: Superposition theorem
Materials: Module EC1-C, power supply, multimeter

The superposition theorem states that in a resistive network with

two or more voltage sources, the current in any branch (or voltage at any
node, with respect to the ground node) is the algebraic sum of the currents
in any branch (or voltages at any node) measured one at a time with one
voltage source present and all other voltage sources replaced by a short

circuit.
We may verify this with the network
module shown. Use terminal E as the
ground node:

Procedure:
1: Place links at A-C, B-C and J-H and
voltage source E1 at G-J and record
all node voltages with respect to
ground node at E.
2: Remove E1 and link J-H. Place link
at G-J and voltage source, E2, at J-H.
Again record all node voltages with
respect to E.
3: Return E1 to G-J. With both sources
present, record again voltages at all
nodes. Verify if these are the algebraic
sum of the values measured in (1) and (2). (If a second power supplies are not
available, use a battery pack instead)

4: Repeat steps (1) to (3), using instead terminals A, B and C.

8: Superposition Theorem 28
Data Sheet: Electric Circuits I Experiment # 8
Superposition Theorem
Name:________________________________
Date:______

Sources at G-J and H-J

E1 = _______ E2 = __________
Single source present Both sources present
E1 at G-J Voltage E2 at H-J calculated measured % Diff.

VABC
VD
VF
VG
VJ
VH

Sources at A-C and B-C

E1 = _______ E2 = __________
Single source present Both sources present
E1 at A-C Voltage E2 at B-C calculated measured % Diff.
VGHJ
VD
VF
VA
VC
VB

8: Superposition Theorem 29
Electric Circuits I
Module Nine: Reciprocity theorem
Materials: Module EC1-C, power supply, multimeter

We may define transfer

impedance within a
resistive network as the
ratio of a voltage source in
any branch, EA, to the
current in any other
branch, IB. The
Reciprocity theorem
states that if the selected
branches are interchanged,
with no other change in the circuit, the corresponding transfer impedance is
unchanged. We may verify this theorem with our network model by
placing a voltage source, EA, at one point in the circuit and measure the
current, IB, at another location; EA / IB is the transfer impedance. Next
interchange the two locations and measure again the transfer impedance.
The applied voltage need not be the same, for we are to compare the ratio
of voltage to current..

Procedure:
1: Remove links at J-H
and B-C, so we work
with only a two loop
circuit. (R2, R4 and R7
are effectively out of the
circuit) At G-J place a
voltage source, EGJ, of
approximately 4 volts.
We seek to measure the
current, IAC at A-C. This
current might be
measured with a ideal
ammeter, one with no
input resistance. Real

9:Reciprocity Theorem 30
ammeters do have some input resistance, so placing an ammeter at A-C is
like making a slight change in the value of R1 or R5. But the Reciprocity
Theorem assumes no circuit change except moving the voltage source. To
get abound this problem, we put a link at A-C, and measure the voltage
drop V1 across the known resistor R1 and apply Ohm’s law , IAC = V1/R1.
The transfer impedance between G-J and A-C is EGJ / IAC .

2: We next look in the other direction from the same pair of terminals. At A-
C place a voltage source, EAC which need not be the same value as the
former EGJ. Place a link at G-J and measure the current through it, IGJ =
V3 / R3. From this the transfer impedance is given as EAB / IGJ. By the
Reciprocity Theorem these two impedance values are equal.

3: Next, select the terminal pairs G-H and A-B (place no connection on C
or J) and verify the Reciprocity Theorem for this pair, using the method
presented in (1) and (2) above.

9:Reciprocity Theorem 31
Data Sheet: Electric Circuits I Experiment # 9
Reciprocity Theorem

Name:_____________________________ Date:______

Pair G-J with A-C

EGJ = ______ EAC = ______

R1 = ______ R3 = ______
V1 = ______ V3 = ______
IAC = V1 / R1 = _______ IGJ = V3 / R3 = _______
EGJ / IAC = _______ EAC / IGJ = _______

% Difference = __________

Pair G-H with A-B

EGH = ______ EAB = ______

R1 = ______ R3 = ______
V1 = ______ V3 = ______
IAB = V1 / R1 = _______ IGH = V3 / R3 = _______
EGH / IAB = _______ EAB / IGH = _______

% Difference = __________

9:Reciprocity Theorem 32
Electric Circuits
Module Ten: WYE – DELTA Transformations
Materials: Module EC1-D, multimeter

Combinations of resistors between any two points (nodes) in a

network may be replaced by a single equivalent resistor, as you have done
in a previous laboratory activity on resistors in series and in parallel. May
we always use this approach, again and again, to reduce the entire network

to a single equivalent resistor between two selected nodes? How about the
network in Fig. 1 ?

The cross-over of R3 and R6 complicate the original diagram in Fig 1.

Note that Fig. 2 is equivalent to the original. In both cases, each node, A,
B, C and D, is connected to every other node by a single resistor, but no
pair of resistors are either in series or in parallel. Also the outer nodes, A, B
and C are connected to each other, either directly or through the central
node, D.

Focus you attention on nodes , A, B and C. They are connected to

each other directly by resistors R4, R5, and R6. Such a direct connection is
often called a DELTA configuration (in the figure it appears more like an
upside-down Greek ).

The same three nodes are connected to each other, indirectly,

through the common central node, D, by resistors R1, R2, and R3. Such an
indirect or Y-shaped connection is often called a WYE configuration
(spelling out the name of the letter Y).

10: WYE–DELTA Transformation 33

 Notice that both the WYE and DELTA configurations involve three nodes, A, B,
and C, while the parallel and series combinations considered before reduced to only the
two end nodes. The surprise is that any three node WYE configuration may be
transformed into an equivalent DELTA configuration between these same three nodes,
and vice versa. See Fig. 3.

Stating that a particular WYE and DELTA configuration are equivalent means
that the resistance is the same between any pair of nodes. Let’s start with nodes A and
B. For WYE the resistance is the series combination, RY1 and RY2, while for DELTA it
is parallel combination of R3 with R1 and R2 in series:

For node pair A B :

RY1+RY2 = R3 (R1+R2)/(R1+R2+R3) = (R3R1+R2R3)/(R1+R2+R3) []

Likewise, for node pair B C:

RY2+RY3 = R1 (R2+R3)/(R1+R2+R3) = (R1R2+R3R1)/(R1+R2+R3) []

And for node pair C A:

RY3+RY1 = R2 (R3+R1)/(R1+R2+R3) = (R2R3+R1R2)/(R1+R2+R3) []

We’re almost there! Combine the above three equations in three different ways,
by adding together any two equations and subtracting from their sum the third equation:

10: WYE–DELTA Transformation 34

 WYE side DELTA side

RY1 = R2 R3 / (R1 + R2 + R3) for [] – [] + []

RY2 = R1 R3/ (R1 + R2 + R3) for [] + [] - []

RY3 = R1 R2 / (R1 + R2 + R3) for - [] + [] + []

So here we have the WYE values in terms of the DELTA resistors. Next, let’s go in
the reverse direction. We first form a sum of products of the WYE resistors,
represented by the symbol :

 = RY1RY2 + RY2RY3 + RY3RY1 .

Next substitute the DELTA equivalent values we found for RY1, RY2, and RY3.

 = { R1 R2 R3 (R1 + R2 + R3) } / (R1 + R2 + R3)2

 = (R1 R2 R3) / (R1 + R2 + R3).

 = R1 RY1 = R2 RY2 = R3 RY3 From these we have

R1 =  / RY1 , R2 =  / RY2 , R3 =  / RY3 .

Finally, substitute the original value of  and we have the DELTA equivalents:
DELTA side WYE side

R 1 = (RY1RY2 + RY2RY3 + RY3RY1) / RY1

R 2 = (RY1RY2 + RY2RY3 + RY3RY1) / RY2

R 3 = (RY1RY2 + RY2RY3 + RY3RY1) / RY3 .

10: WYE–DELTA Transformation 35

We now have the DELTA – WYE transformations in either direction. So
we can go back to Fig. 2 and replace the WYE configuration of R1, R2, R3
with an equivalent DELTA configuration given by R1, R2, R3 as shown
in Fig 4 .

Finally we may replace the

parallel resistors between pairs of
nodes by a single equivalent resistor;
our simplification is complete.

In transforming from WYE to

DELTA the equivalent DELTA
values are larger; for example, if RY1,
RY2, RY3 were each 10 , the
equivalent R1, R2, R3 become 30
 each. In going in the opposite
direction from DELTA to WYE, the equivalent WYE resistors are smaller;
for example if R1, R2, R3 are each 10 , the equivalent RY1, RY2, RY3
become 10/3  each.

This WYE –
DELTA transformation
is more than just a
mathematical exercise.
In later circuit analysis
the resistors will be
replaced by inductors
and capacitors, or 3-
phase motor and transformer windings. Also WYE and DELTA
configurations are sometimes considered as Pi and Tee filter
configurations, as shown in Fig. 5. However, in whatever configuration the
basic ideas remain the same.

10: WYE–DELTA Transformation 36

Procedure:
You are provided with a circuit board containing both a WYE (Tee) and a DELTA
(Pi) resistor configuration. The six resistors, RY1, RY2, RY3, R1, R2, R3, may be
individually adjusted with the knob and ohmmeter. While setting the DELTA values, the
bottom link should be removed.

DELTA to WYE

(1) If available, use the computer program, DELTA-WY.EXE to provide you with a
set of three resistance values for , R1, R2, R3 ; otherwise select and record your
own arbitrary values in the range of 600 to 900 . Remove the bottom link. Adjust the
DELTA circuit resistors to these values and then replece the bottom link.

(2) Calculate the four terminal resistance values:

1: Input resistance with output open
2: Input resistance with output shorted
3: Output resistance with input open
4: Output resistance with input shorted

(3) Measure with the ohmmeter and record these same terminal resistances, and
compare with the calculated values of (2).

(4) Use the selected R1, R2, R3 values of (1) to calculate the equivalent WYE
values, RY1, RY2, RY3 and then set the WYE circuit resistors to these values.

(5) With the ohmmeter measure the four terminal resistances for the WYE circuit, and
compare these with those of the DELTA circuit of (3). The values should be quite close.

WYE to DELTA
Repeat the above steps, this time going from WYE to DELTA, but select the
values for RY1, RY2, RY3 in the range of 200 to 300 .

(6) For both the DELTA and the WYE data run the computer program, DELTA-
WY.EXE, to verify your results

Display all your data in a neat table.

10: WYE–DELTA Transformation 37

Data Sheet: Electric Circuits I Experiment # 10
Wye – Delta Transformations
Name:_____________________________ Date:______

Delta to Wye
Given: R1, = ______ R2 = ______ R3 = _______
Calculate: RY1 = ______ RY2 = ______ RY3 = _______

Delta Impedance Wye

Calculate Measure % Diff. measurement Calculate Measure % Diff.
Output Open
Output Short
Input Open
Input Short

Wye to Delta
Given: RY1 = ______ RY2 = ______ RY3 = _______
Calculate: R1, = ______ R2 = ______ R3 = _______
Wye Impedance Delta
Calculate Measure % Diff. measurement Calculate Measure % Diff.
Output Open
Output Short
Input Open
Input Short

10: WYE–DELTA Transformation 38

Electric Circuits I
Experiment Eleven: Maximum power transfer
Materials: Module EC1-A, power supply, 2 multimeters

The power produced in an

external resistor, R, depends
2
on the current, I : PEXT = I R
. This current, I, from the
source must also pass
through any internal
resistance, ri of the source
and generate power, PINT =
I2 rI within the source.

What are the conditions

for maximum power delivered
to the external load? Let E0
represent the EMF of the source. The total series resistance of the circuit is R + ri so
2 2 2
the circuit current is: I = Eo / (R + ri) and PEXT = I R = Eo R / (R + ri) . So
PEXT is zero if R=0 and also if R ∞. To find the value of R that gives maximum
power, differentiate PEXT with respect to R and set the derivative to zero . This gives
the condition of maximum power to the load as: R = ri

Procedure:
1: Carry through the indicated differentiation and verify the result: : R = ri

2: Measure the resistance of the low  resistor. Insert a voltmeter, ammeter and a
power source (set to 5.00 volts) as shown. As you vary R from maximum to minimum
resistance, the power delivered to it equals the product of V and I. Record the values of
V and I at enough values to enable you to draw a smooth graph of the product, VI
against V. Determine from this data the value of R that gives maximum power.
Compare this value of R with ri.

3: Repeat step 2 for the mid  resistor.

4: Repeat step 2 for the high  resistor

11: Maximum Power Transfer 39

Data Sheet: Electric Circuits I Experiment # 11
Maximum Power Transfer
Name:_____________________________ Date:______

Rlow = _____ Rmed = _____

Voltage Current Power Resist Voltage Current Power Resist

Volts mA mW Ohms Volts mA mW Ohms

11: Maximum Power Transfer 40

Data Sheet: Exp # 11: Maximum Power Transfer (page 2)

Rhigh = _______

Voltage Current Power Resist

Volts mA mW Ohms

11: Maximum Power Transfer 41

Electric Circuits I
Module Twelve: Measurement of inductance
Materials: Module Board EC1-E, function generator, multimeter, two inductors

In the circuit shown, the same

current passes through the
inductor, L and the resistor, R, so
the voltage across each element is
proportional to its impedance. The
function generator is set to produce
a sine wave of frequency f. At this
frequency the impedance of the
inductor is 2fL. By adjusting either
f or R we can make the same
voltage appear across R and L. In this condition, R = 2 f L. From this we have an
expression for L in terms of easily measured quantities:

L = R / (2 f )

A note on INDUCTANCE

A single-loop conductor produces a magnetic field, B, in its neighborhood directly

proportional to the current, I in the conductor. An element of magnetic flux, , is
defined as B·A , where A is an element of a surface in the plane of the loop, with
the loop as its perimeter. Sum B·A over the area of the loop to obtain the total
magnetic flux, , through the loop. If the loop in compact with N turns, the flux is
approximately N times the  of a single turn

If the magnetic flux through the loop, , changes with time, an EMF (voltage) is
induced in each turn of the loop, proportional to d/dt. For a given loop of N turns, the
total B, and also the total , is proportional to the current, I, in each turn times N, the
total number of turns. The time rate of change of this total  or d/dt is therefore
proportional to N dI/dt. The EMF induced in a single turn is proportional to d/dt, and
2
so the EMF induced in all N turns is proportional to N d/dt = N(N dI/dt) = N dI/dt.

For a loop or coil of given size, shape and number of turns the induced EMF may
be expressed as

EMF = L dI/dt , (1)

12 Measurement of Inductance 42
where L is termed the inductance of the loop and is measured in units of henry . If a
current through a loop or coil is changing at a rate of one ampere per second, and the
induced EMF is one volt, the inductance is defined as one henry. Clearly the
2
inductance of a coil is proportional to N . If magnetic material is in the neighborhood
of the loop or coil, the inductance may be considerably increased, but is still proportional
2
to N .
Such a coil is termed an inductor.

Isolated inductors in SERIES

If two isolated inductors, L1 and L2, are connected in SERIES, the same current
flows through each, while the total induced EMF is the sum:
I = I1 = I2 , V = V1 + V2. (2)
Therefore V = Lseries dI/dt, V1 = L1 dI/dt, V2 = L2 dI/dt and from these we
obtain the relation:
Lseries = L1 + L2 . (3)

Isolated inductors in PARALLEL

If the two isolated inductors are connected in parallel, the current divides, while the
EMFs across each are the same:
I = I 1 + I2 , V = V1 = V2. (4)
Therefore V / Lparallel = dI/dt; V1 / L1 = dI1/dt; V2 / L2 = dI2/dt
And from these we obtain
1 / Lparallel = 1 / L1 + 1 / L2
(5)
Lparallel = L1 L2 / (L1 + L2 ).

Mutual Inductance
The parallel and series formulas above are similar to those for resistors and
capacitors. For the resistor and capacitor, the electric field is mainly within the element
itself. For inductors the changing magnetic field extends outside the coil itself, and could
produce a change in magnetic flux, d/dt, in a neighboring coil. For such cases the
concept of mutual inductance is useful: the ratio of the induced EMF in one coil to the
rate-of-change of current in an adjacent coil

V1 = M12 dI2 / dt , V2 = M21 dI1 / dt , (6)

Because of the symmetry of the interaction M21 = M12 = M. The mutual

inductance depends on the size and shape of each coil and their orientation relative to
each other.

12 Measurement of Inductance 43
Coupled inductors in SERIES
For such coupled inductors, even without changing their physical orientation, we may
reverse the current direction (and the magnetic field direction) through the external
connections. The magnetic flux of the two coils may either add or subtract.
V1 = L1 dI1/dt  M dI2/dt , V2 = L2 dI2/dt  M dI1/dt (7)
For the series case use Eq. (2): I = I1 = I2 and V = V1 + V2 and so
V = Lseries dI/dt = (L1 + L2  2 M) dI/dt and
Lseries = L1 + L2  2 M (8)
If there is no mutual inductance (M = 0) then Eq. (8) reduces to Eq. (2). The plus sign is
used if the magnetic flux adds, the minus sign if it subtracts.
Ladd – Lsubtract = 4 M (9)

Coupled inductors in PARALLEL

For the parallel case Eq(4) holds: I = I1 + I2 , V = V1 = V2. Combine these with
Eq(6) to obtain the pair of equations:
V = L1 dI1/dt  M dI2/dt (10)
V = M dI1/dt + L2 dI2/dt
These equations have a unique solution for dI1/dt and dI2/dt provided the determinant
of the coefficients, , is not zero :  = L1L2 - M2 ≠ 0. The solution is:
dI1/dt = V (L2  M) /  , dI2/dt = V (L1  M) / 
By definition V = Lparallel d(I1 + I2)/dt = Lparallel (dI1/dt + dI2/dt). We may eliminate
V, dI1/dt and dI2/dt to obtain V/Lparallel = V (L1 + L2  2M)/ or
Lparallel = (L1L2 - M2) / (L1 + L2  2M) (11)
Notice the similarity of this result with Eq(5) for M=0.

Procedure:
1: To measure the inductance L1 and L2 of each of the two inductors given set f about 2 kHz.
Use the two control knobs the vary the R value. When the voltage across R and L are the same,
disconnect the function generator, and use the multimeter to measure the value of R. Make sure
that all connections are tight before you make any measurements. (Measure voltage in the AC
mode, resistance in the DC mode). Record the R and f values and calculate the inductance, L.

2: Using the same procedure verify Eqs (3) and (5) . To insure zero coupling, let the planes of
two coils be perpendicular to each other.
3: Align the two coils, touching face to face. Verify Eqs. (8) and (9) . To change from add to
subtract, do not move the coils but only the connecting wires.
4: Verify Eq. (11), with flux adding and subtracting.

12 Measurement of Inductance 44
Data Sheet: Electric Circuits I Experiment # 12
Measurement of Inductance
Name:_____________________________ Date:______
Inductor L1: f = __________ R = ___________ L = ____________
Inductor L2: f = __________ R = ___________ L = ____________

ISOLATED:
Series: f = __________ R = ___________ L = ____________
Eq.(3):____________ % Difference______________

Parallel: f = __________ R = ___________ L = ____________

Eq.(4):____________ % Difference______________

COUPLED:
Series: {Eq. 8}
LADD: f = __________ R = ___________ L = ____________

LSUBT: f = __________ R = ___________ L = ____________

Mutual Inductance, M {Eq. 9} _____________

Parallel:
LADD: f = __________ R = ___________ L = ____________
Eq. (11) ___________ % Difference______________

LSUBT: f = __________ R = ___________ L = ____________

Eq. (11) ___________ % Difference______________

12 Measurement of Inductance 45
Electric Circuits I
Module Thirteen: Transients in an inductive circuit
Materials: Module Board EC1-F, Function Generator, Oscilloscope

Any change in current, dI/dt, through an inductor, L, produces a

counter EMF expressed as L dI/dt. For an inductor, L, connected at time
t=0, through a series resistor, R, to a voltage source V0, we may write the
differential equation
V0 = L(dI/dt) + I R , I(0) = 0
-t/(L/R)
which has the solution I(t) = (V0/R) [ 1 – e ].
The quantity, L/R, is the time constant of the circuit, and equals the time,
-1
in seconds, for the current to rise to [1-e ] ( = 0.632… ≈ 5/8) of its final
value. In this experiment we use the circuit shown above with an
oscilloscope to measure voltage and time, and a function generator to turn
the applied voltage on and off.

Procedure:

1: Connect the function generator and the oscilloscope, as shown above.

Place jumpers to include L1 and the 220Ω resistor. Set the function
generator to produce a square wave of in the range of 30-50 Hz. Set the
oscilloscope sweep rate to the 10 ms/cm range, with internal triggering.
Adjust the vertical position and vertical gain ( or function generator
output ) and the horizontal position and trigger level so that the vertical
size of the display just fits the screen, as shown in the diagram below. The
current is alternately changing direction through the inductor and resistor.
13: Transients in an Inductive Circuit 46
 2: Without changing the vertical
controls, decrease the time/div to
expand the display horizontally, as
shown in the display below. The
oscilloscope display is a 10.0 x 8.0
cm graph, with time along the
horizontal and voltage along the
vertical axis. Note the line three cm
from the top of the display: here the
voltage has increased to 5/8 ( ≈
[1-e-1] ) of its final value. The
graph, in the example shown,
below crosses this 5/8 line about
8.3 cm from the left edge. Expand horizontally the display (by decreasing
the sweep rate) so that the crossing of the 5/8 line is as close as possible
to the right edge. This provides increased accuracy in measurement.

If the sweep rate were set to 100 sec/cm, the time constant,  for the
circuit is (100
sec/cm) x (8.3 cm)
= 830 sec. Using
this procedure
determine the time
constant for the
circuit with L1 and
220 . Compare
this measured value
with the ratio L/R.
Note the limit of
accuracy due to the
limited precision of
reading from the
oscilloscope display.

3: Repeat steps 1 and 2 for L1 and 330 for L2 and 220,

and for L2 and 330.

13: Transients in an Inductive Circuit 47

Data Sheet: Electric Circuits I Experiment # 13
Transients in an inductive circuit
Name:_____________________________ Date:______
(Sketch oscilloscope display)
Use L1
R = 220
Sweep rate (s/cm) = ___
Time Constant,  = ____
L1 = R  = ____

Use L1
R = 330 
Sweep rate (s/cm) = ___
Time Constant,  = ____
L1 = R = ____

Use L2
R = 220 
Sweep rate (s/cm) = ___
Time Constant,  = ____
L1 = R  = ____

Use L2
R = 330 
Sweep rate (s/cm) = ___
Time Constant,  = ____
L2 = R  = ____

13: Transients in an Inductive Circuit 48

Electric Circuits I
Module Fourteen Transformer action
Materials : Module EC1-G, function generator, multimeter

A transformer is basically
two adjacent inductors, with
a non-zero value of M, their
mutual inductance. In this
experiment we use an iron
core transformer which has
tight coupling between
primary and secondary
windings. Each winding has
a total of 110 turns, but by
proper selection of taps,
either winding can
effectively have between 10
and 110 turns, in steps of 10
turns. There is no electrical
connection between the
primary and secondary
windings,

Procedure:
A: Single inductor
The inductance of an inductor increases as the square of N, the number of turns. Using
the multimeter, measure the inductance of the primary for 10, 20,…,110 turns. Make graphs of
2
inductance against N and against N .

B: Series coupled inductors

With the multimeter measure the inductance of the primary and secondary windings, L 1
and L2. The primary and secondary coils may be connected in series (adding by connecting
the 30 end of one to the 10 end of the other; or subtracting, by connecting the two 10 ends
together. Use Eq. (9) of Experiment 12 to determine the mutual inductance, M, of the
transformer.

C: Parallel coupled inductors

Connect the primary and secondary coils in parallel, either adding or subtracting, and
measure the inductance in each case. Then use Eq. (11) of Experiment 12, to compare the
predicted and experimental results.

14: Transformer action 49

D: Isolation transformer
Connect to the primary winding a function generator (output as 4.00 volts, 500 Hz, sine
wave,), and record the voltage across the secondary. The voltage across the windings
depends on inductance and rate-of-change of the current:

V1 = L1 dI1/dt  M dI2/dt
V2 = M dI1/dt + L2 dI2/dt

In our case I2 and dI2/dt are zero (the input resistance of the voltmeter is some ten
million ohms) . Therefore by dividing one of the above equations by the other we have an
alternate means to determining the mutual inductance, M, of the transformer coils: M = L1
( V2 / V1)

The coupling of two coils is often rated by the dimensionless quantity,

K = Coefficient of Coupling = M ( L1 L2 )-1/2

Determine the value of K for this transformer.

The voltage induced in a single turn equals the rate-of-change of magnetic flux, EMF =
dΦ/dt. Because of the “tight” coupling between primary and secondary (K≈1) the same flux
links every turn of both coils. Thus, the induced voltage across any sub-section of the coil is
directly proportional to the number of turns included.

Connect the function generator (500 Hz, sine, 2.00 volts) across 50 turns of the primary
coil, and measure the secondary coil voltage across 10, 20, 30,.., 110 turns. Verify the
relation:
Vsecondary = Vprimary (Nsecondary /Nprimary)

Thus the secondary voltage may be less, greater, or the same as the primary.

E: Autotransformer
In the circuit above, no electrical connection exists between the primary and secondary
( isolation ). An autotransformer saves on wire and uses only a single winding. The input
voltage taps into Nprimary turns on the single winding, and the output is taken across Nsecondary
turns of the same winding. Place 2.00 volts across 50 turns, and measure the output voltage
across 10, 20,… 110 turns, to verify above formula for an autotransformer.

14: Transformer action 50

Data Sheet: Electric Circuits I Experiment # 14
Transformer action

Name:_____________________________ Date:______

A: Single Inductor B: Series Coupled Inductors

N Inductance
L1 = ______ L2 = ______
10 LAdd = _____ LSubtract = ______
4 M = LAdd - LSubtract
20
M = ______
30
40
50 C: Parallel coupled inductors
Lparallel = (L1L2 - M2) / (L1 + L2  2M)
60
Adding:
70
Measured L____ Calculated L____
80
% Difference = _______
90
100
Subtracting:
110 Measured L____ Calculated L____
% Difference = _______

D: Isolation transformer
V1 = ______ V2 = ______ M = L1 ( V2 / V1) = _____
K = Coefficient of Coupling = M ( L1 L2 )-1/2 = ______

14: Transformer action 51

Data Sheet: Exp. # 14 Transformer action (continued)

D: Isolation transformer E: Autotransformer

(cont.)
NP = 50 VP = 2.00 volts NP = 50 VP = 2.00 volts
N
S VS VP(NS/NP) NS VS VP(NS/NP)
(cont.)
10 10
NP =2050 VP = 2.00 volts 20
30 30
40 40
50 50
60 60
70 70
80 80
90 90
100 100
110 110

14: Transformer action 52

Electric Circuits I
Module Fifteen: Discharging a capacitor
Materials: Module Board EC1-H, Power supply, Multimeter, wristwatch or stopwatch

If a capacitor, C, is discharged through a resistor, R, the same voltage

appears across each: Q/C = voltage = I R . Since I = -dQ/dt we obtain the
-
differential equation dQ/dt = -Q/RC which has the solution, Q(t) = Q0 e
t/RC
+ const.

Since it is easier to measure current than charge, differentiate the above

-t/RC
expression to obtain I(t) = I0 e .

Procedure:
1: Measure and record the values of R1 and R2. The values of C1 and C2 may
be beyond the range of the multimeter. Place jumpers to connect C1 to A´ and
R1 to B´. Set the multimeter ampere range to its most sensitive value, close the
switch, and adjust the power supply voltage so that the current is close to full
scale. When the current has stabilized, the capacitor has its full initial charge and
the current is the I0 value mentioned above.

2: Next disconnect the power supply by opening the switch. Record the current,
I(t), at this moment and at every 10-seconds thereafter, until the current had
dropped to about 1/3 its original value. It will be convenient to record this data in
three columns: time, current and natural logarithm of the current.

3: Repeat steps 1 and 2 three more times, using C1 with R2, C2 with R1
and C2 with R2
15 Discharging a capacitor 53
4: For each set of data make a neat graph of I(t) against time and natural
logarithm of I(t) against time. The I(t) graph should look like a typical
exponential decay curve; the Ln( I(t) ) graph should be a straight line with slope
-1/RC. Since the value of R is known quite accurately, from the slope of the
logarithm graph calculate the value of C.

A short computer program, SEMI-LOG.EXE, is available which can plot the

data for both graphs, and display the best fitting graph line and its corresponding
algebraic equation. Let the current be the Y value of the program, and time the t
value. It is convenient to express the current in units that are all greater than 1.0
; for example express the current in microamperes rather than amperes or
milliamperes

15 Discharging a capacitor 54
Data Sheet: Electric Circuits I Experiment # 15
Discharging a capacitor
Name:_____________________________ Date:______
R1 = _____ C1 = _____ R2 = _____ C1 = _____

t i(t) Ln(i(t)) t i(t) Ln(i(t))

0 0
10 10
20 20
30 30
40 40
50 50
60 60
70 70
80 80
90 90
100 100
110 110
120 120
130 130
140 140
150 150
160 160
170 170
180 180
190 190
200 200
210 210
220 220
230 230
240 240
250 250
260 260
270 270

(include graphs of this data)

15 Discharging a capacitor 55
Data Sheet: Exp. # 15 Discharging a capacitor (cont.)

R1 = _____ C2 = _____ R2 = _____ C2 = ____

t i(t) Ln(i(t)) t i(t) Ln(i(t))

0 0
10 10
20 20
30 30
40 40
50 50
60 60
70 70
80 80
90 90
100 100
110 110
120 120
130 130
140 140
150 150
160 160
170 170
180 180
190 190
200 200
210 210
220 220
230 230
240 240
250 250
260 260
270 270

15 Discharging a capacitor 56
Electric Circuits I
Module Sixteen: Measurement of capacitance
Materials: Module Board EC1-E, function generator, multimeter, two capacitors

In the circuit shown,

the same current passes
through the capacitor, C,
and the resistor, R, so the
voltage across each
element is proportional to
its impedance. The
function generator is set to
produce a sine wave of
frequency f. At this frequency the impedance of the capacitor is 1/(2fC).
By adjusting either f or R we can make the same voltage appear across R
and C. In this condition, R = 1/(2fC). From this we have an expression
for C in terms of easily measured quantities:

C = 1 / (2 f R)

Procedure:
1: Measure the capacitance of each of the two capacitors given, and
record these values as C1, and C2. Set f in the range of 1 to 2 kHz. Use
the two control knobs the vary the R value. When the voltage across R and
C are the same, disconnect the function generator, and use the multimeter
to measure the value of R. Make sure that all connections are tight before
you make any measurements.

2: Connect the capacitors in parallel and measure their total capacitance

Cparallel . Compare this measured value with the value predicted by the
formula: Cparallel = C1 + C2.

3: Connect the capacitors in series and measure their total capacitance,

Cseries. Compare this measured value with the value predicted by the
formula: 1/Cseries = 1/C1 + 1/C2.

16: Measurement of capacitance 57

Data Sheet: Electric Circuits I Experiment # 16
Measurement of Capacitance

Name:_____________________________ Date:______

Capacitor C1 :
f= R= C=
Capacitor C2 :
f= R= C=

PARALLEL

Measured Value:
f= R= C=

Calculated Value: (Cparallel = C1 + C2) = _______

% Difference = _____

SERIES

Measured Value: f= R= C=

Calculated Value: (1/Cseries = 1/C1 + 1/C2) = _______

% Difference = _____

16: Measurement of capacitance 58

Electric Circuits I
Module Seventeen: Transients in a capacitive circuit
Materials: Module EC!-F, Function Generator, Oscilloscope

If a capacitor, C, is discharged through a resistor, R, the same

voltage appears across each: Q/C = voltage = I R . Since I = -dQ/dt
we may obtain the differential equation

dQ/dt = -Q/RC which has a solution, Q(t) = Q0 e-t/RC + const.

Since the voltage across a capacitor is directly proportional to the charge,

the capacitor voltage must have this same exponential form. The quantity,
RC, is the time constant of the circuit, and equals the time, in seconds,
-1
for the current to decrease to e ( = 1/2.718 = 0.368… ≈ 3/8) of its initial
value. In this experiment we use the circuit shown above with an
oscilloscope to measure voltage and time and a function generator to
recharge the capacitor.

Procedure:

1: Connect the function

generator and the oscilloscope,
as shown. Place jumpers to
include C1 and the 10 K
resistor and short out the 20 K.
Set the function generator to
produce a square wave of
approximately 100 Hz. Set the
oscilloscope sweep rate to the 1
ms/cm range, with internal
triggering. Adjust the vertical position and vertical gain ( or function
18 Capacitors in Parallel & Series 59
generator output ) and the horizontal position and trigger level so that
the vertical size of the display just fits the screen, as shown in the diagram
above. The capacitor is alternately charging and discharging through the
resistor.

2: Without changing
the vertical controls,
decrease the
time/div to expand
the display
horizontally, as
shown in the display
below. The
oscilloscope display
is a 10.0 x 8.0 cm
graph, with time
along the horizontal
and voltage along
the vertical axis.
Note the line three cm from the bottom of the display: here the voltage has
decreased to 3/8 ( ≈ e-1 ) of its initial value. The graph, in the example
shown, crosses this 3/8 line about 8.3 cm from the left edge. Expand
horizontally the display (by decreasing the sweep rate) so that the crossing
of the 3/8 line is as close as possible to the right edge. This provides
increased accuracy in measurement. If the sweep rate were set to 200
μsec/cm, the time constant, τ for the circuit is (100 μsec/cm) x (8.3 cm) =
830 μsec. Using this procedure determine the time constant for the circuit
with C1 and 10 K . Compare this measured value with the product R C.
Note the limit of accuracy due to the limited precision of reading from the
oscilloscope display.

3: Repeat steps 1 and 2 for C1 and 20 K.

4: Repeat steps 1 and 2 for C2 and 10 K.

5: Repeat steps 1 and 2 for C2 and 20 K.

18 Capacitors in Parallel & Series 60

Data Sheet: Electric Circuits I Experiment # 17
Transients in a Capacitive Circuit
Name:_____________________________ Date:______

(Sketch oscilloscope display)

Use C1
R = 10 k
Sweep rate (s/cm) = ___
Time Constant,  = ____
C1 =  /R = ____

Use C1
R = 20 k
Sweep rate (s/cm) = ___
Time Constant,  = ____
C1 =  /R = ____

Use C2
R = 10 k
Sweep rate (s/cm) = ___
Time Constant,  = ____
C2 = / R = ____

Use C2
R = 20 k
Sweep rate (s/cm) = ___
Time Constant,  = ____
C2 = /R = ____

18 Capacitors in Parallel & Series 61

Electric Circuits I
Module Eighteen: Capacitors in parallel and series
References:
Materials: Module EC1-B, multimeter, 5 assorted capacitors

The capacitance, C, of a capacitor with charge, Q,

and potential difference, V, 1s C = Q / V . Given two
capacitors, C1 = Q1/V1 and C2 = Q2 /R2 . If they are
connected end-to-end, series, the charge on each is the
same, Qseries = Q1 = Q2, while the potential difference is
the sum of that across each individual capacitor,
Vseries = V1 + V2 . Therefore

Qseries /CSeries = Vseries = Q1/C1 + Q2/C2 = Qseries(1/C1 +

1/C2).

1 / Cseries = 1 / C1 + 1 / C2

If they are connected side-by-side, parallel, the

same potential difference appears across each, Vparallel
= V1 = V2 while the total charge is the sum of the
individual charges, Qparallel = Q1 + Q2.

Vparallel Cparallel = Qparallel = V1C1 + V2 C2 .= Vparallel (C1

+ C2)

Cparallel = C1 + C2
Procedure:
(1) Measure and record the values C1,… C5.

(2) For each configuration, A to G, measure and also compute the

capacitance between the free ends of C1 and C5.

(3) Display the results in a neat table, including the percent difference,
200% (|Cmeasured - Ccomputed|) / (Cmeasured + Ccomputed)
(4) Use the computer program, CAPACITY.EXE to check your results.
18 Capacitors in Parallel & Series 62
Data Sheet: Electric Circuits I Experiment # 18
Capacitors in Parallel and Series

Name:_____________________________ Date:______

C1 = ________ C2 = ________ C3 = ________

C4 = _________ C5 = ________

Measured Calculated % Difference

A
B
C
D
E
F
G

Include with this report:

1: Work sheets showing capacitance calculations for each configuration.

2: Printed results of computer program CAPACITY.EXE

18 Capacitors in Parallel & Series 63

 Ateneo de Davao University

Electronic Communication Series

Electric Circuits I: Direct Current

Electric Circuits II: Alternating Current

Electronics I: Basic Components

Electronics II: Amplifiers and Oscillators

Electronics III: Operational Amplifiers

Communications I: AM and FM

Communications II: Digital Communications

Digital Logic Circuits, with Verilog HDL

Industrial Electronics

LOGO! PLC: Learning a Programmable Logic Controller

We are a university in a Third World country, the Philippines. We

believe that more than chalk and whiteboard pens are needed to train a
communication engineer for today’s world. “Hands on” is a must for every
student. Excellent student laboratory equipment is readily available on the
world markets. Yet the funding necessary for us to purchase such
equipment, and in the quantity we desired, was completely unavailable.
Our only viable option was to design and fabricate locally the materials of
which before we only dreamt. For each item of laboratory equipment
student instructional material had to be prepared, as shown in the above
listing. With a view to share with other institutions the fruit of our own
endeavors, we are making these student manuals freely available.
Permission is given to copy this material, and to suitably modify it to the
needs of a particular institution.

64