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Acoustics of Corrugated Pipes: A Review

Article in Applied Mechanics Reviews · September 2013

DOI: 10.1115/1.4025302

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B. Rajavel
M. G. Prasad1
e-mail: mprasad@stevens.edu
Noise and Vibration Control Laboratory,
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Stevens Institute of Technology,
Hoboken, NJ 07030
Acoustics of Corrugated
Pipes: A Review
Corrugated pipes and tubes are commonly used in many engineering and industrial
applications because they offer global flexibility combined with local rigidity. Some of
the engineering systems which use the corrugated pipes are Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG)
storage systems, risers for offshore oil and gas industries, heat, ventilation, and air con-
ditioning systems (HVAC), aerospace and automobile cabin cooling systems, and certain
domestic appliances such as vacuum cleaners. Air flow through a short or a long length
of corrugated pipes can cause the pipes to emit loud and clear “tonal” sounds or
“whistling” at some critical flow conditions. Interaction and coupling of these acoustic
waves with vortex shedding-flow instability can result in severe noise and structural
vibration problems. A phenomenon of sound generation in corrugated pipes is also
observed in a children’s toy called “Hummer,” “Voice of the Dragon,” or “Magic
Whistle.” This review paper focuses on the research work carried out to date to study the
sound generation mechanism and its reduction methodology in corrugated pipes with air
flow. This paper reviews and summarizes the various theoretical, experimental and com-
putational work carried out in relation to acoustics of corrugated pipes.
[DOI: 10.1115/1.4025302]

1 Introduction
Air flow through short or long length of corrugated pipes can
cause the pipes to emit loud and clear tonal sounds. This is also
known as whistling. The production of these tones is interesting
in a sense that the same flow through a smooth pipe of similar
geometry will not produce clear tones. Pipes with transversally
corrugated walls are used in many industrial and domestic appli-
cations because they offer globally flexibility combined with
locally rigidity. Some of the engineering application of corrugated
pipes are flexible risers in the oil and gas industry, vacuum
cleaners, HVAC control systems of heating ducts in buildings, air-
craft and automotive cabin conditioning system, liquid propulsion
system in rockets, and compact heat exchangers. Corrugated pipes
are also used as musical toys such as Hummer or Voice of the
Dragon. Whistling induced by airflow through such pipes can
lead to serious environmental and structural problems.
1.1 The Problem Statement. A typical corrugated pipe,
which will produce the discrete tonal frequencies when air flows
through it, is shown in Fig. 1, where Lcorr is the length of the cor-
rugated segment of the pipe, and Lin and Lout are inlet and outlet
lengths of the pipe. L is the total length of the corrugated pipe.
The distance between two successive troughs or peaks of axisym-
metric cavities is called “pitch (Pc)” and “dc” is the depth of the
cavity. “lc” is the length of the cavity and “wc” is the width of
the uncorrugated segment between two successive cavities. Din is
the internal diameter of the pipe (or tube) and Dout is the outer
diameter of the equivalent smooth pipe. “N” is the number of
corrugations. In this review, we have excluded the flow-
structure interaction problem which would arise due to flow-
acoustic-structure coupling. The primary focus of this review
paper is the aeroacoustic part of the corrugated pipe due to
airflow.
1.2 Literature Review. Singing of corrugated pipes was first
observed by Burstyn [1], who used a helical pressing for his
experiment and found that the pitch of the sound note produced
1
Corresponding author.
Manuscript received January 18, 2013; final manuscript received August 26,
2013; published online October 4, 2013. Assoc. Editor: Bettina Frohnapfel.
was a harmonic of the fundamental and depended on the air veloc-
ity. He suggested that the corrugation cavities acted as numerous
lips which were responsible for the tone. A more detailed experi-
mental study on this subject was reported by Cermak [2]. He
experimented with 1 m and 0.5 m long tubes of narrow (10 mm
outer diameter) bore, and reported that the fundamental tone was
difficult to excite, but when extracted as the difference between
consecutive higher partials, it was found to be lower than the reso-
nance frequencies expected from smooth pipe of the same geome-
try. He ascribed it tentatively to the air flow rather than to the tube
shape being responsible for the reduced resonant frequency
observed in comparison to smooth tube. He also observed a jump
in tones phenomenon in which a tone will remain constant over a
flow velocity interval, and then jump to the next harmonic once a
certain velocity is exceeded. Cermak calculated a bump frequency
based on flow velocity and corrugation pitch and found this to be
close to the generated tones. He [3] also studied the sound pro-
duced by a tube obstructed with a washer and the produced sound
appears to have been a kind of bird call. The possibility of reso-
nance exists in an arrangement similar to corrugated pipes and
was also reported by Mason [4].
The effect of transverse harmonic corrugations in the bed of an
open water channel is a classical problem which was first solved
by Kelvin [5]. With the assumption that the amplitude of the dis-
turbance is infinitely small, he showed that on the free surface, a
pattern of stationary waves is formed, and this result is confirmed
by common observation. Later, Binnie [6] studied the conse-
quence of corrugating the sides of the water channel; when an
experiment was made for the first time, it was unexpectedly found
that, if the velocity and the depth were properly adjusted, then a
continuous train of progressive waves appeared and moved stead-
ily upstream into the reservoir from which the channel drew its
supply. A stream confined by fixed boundaries can be disturbed
by self-induced traveling waves was similar to the earlier phenom-
enon observed when the air flows through corrugated pipe. The
stream velocity at which self-induced waves appeared for single
corrugation and multiple corrugations proved the hypothesis that
waves were dependent upon the pitch was plausible, as noted by
Binnie [6].
After investigating the effect of the corrugated walls on the
water which produced the self-induced wave, Binnie [7] also car-
ried out the experiments with air on the metal bellows. He likened

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 Fig. 1 Physical model of corrugated pipe
the flow through the corrugated tubes as converse of an exhaust si-
lencer because unlike the silencer, the tubes produce and strength-
ened the sound waves. More powerful notes were obtained during
his experiments when the metal bellows inside the pipe were
replaced by helically finned tubes and also in case when air was
passed outside the corrugated or finned tubes. He noted that the
phase velocities of corrugated pipes were less than the velocity of
sound and this effect was explained by applying the theory of
wave propagation in periodic structures. The pressure distribution
in this arrangement was examined and found that the ratio of aver-
age frequency at which an air particle passed through the pertur-
bations, to the frequency of the sound emitted was usually 1.6.
Wild [8] observed the production of musical tones when air
flow is passed through a hollow, open ended tube of flexible,
semirigid material, which has internally projecting ridges or cav-
ities. The papers by Crawford [9], Silverman et al. [10], Cadwell
[11], Nakamura et al. [12,13], and Serafin et al. [14–16] were
inspired by the musical toy called “Voice of the Dragon.” They
reported more information on the frequencies sounded and associ-
ated flow velocities as well as turbulence levels needed by charac-
terizing the Strouhal numbers. Although Crawford [9] did not
refer the work of Burstyn [1] or Cermak [2,3] in his paper, he also
introduced a term “bump frequency,” (the frequency at which air
bumps into the corrugations) and stated that the pipe starts singing
when the bump frequency equals a natural harmonic of the pipe
provided that the flow velocity is sufficiently high to induce turbu-
lent flow; the similar observations were also reported by the other
researchers [1–3]. Crawford [9] concluded that Reynolds number
of minimum 2000 was required, which is a threshold value for
generating turbulence in smooth pipe, to cause the pipe to sing.
But he also noted that for some pipes, they started singing for
much smaller value of Reynolds number. Based on his experi-
ments, Crawford [9] proposed a theory for predicting the singing
in a corrugated tube based on frictionless flow, turbulence, and
Bernoulli’s principle. By testing tubes of different designs and
geometry, Cadwell [11] found that a Reynolds number based on
the corrugation length must exceed 500 (Re(L,CR) > 500) for nar-
row bore pipes to sing. Cadwell [11] interpreted that this, as a
minimum turbulence level of this scale, is required; however, this
prediction of Reynolds number indicates that the flow is in the
laminar region with very small scale turbulence. Hence the work
of Crawford [9] and Cadwell [11] implied that the flow may not
be required to be fully turbulent for the corrugated pipe to start
singing.
Petrie et al. [17] studied the noise problem encountered in vac-
uum cleaners which have flexible corrugated pipes. They observed
that a low velocity air traveling through the flexible tube can
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generate a noise at the duct outlet in the region of 140 dB, which
was very high value. They demonstrated that roughening the cav-
ities of corrugated pipe, i.e., placing an obstruction closes to the
flow separation region (close to the cavity) or introducing smooth
pipe at upstream of corrugated region would reduce the noise.
They reasoned that the avoidance of noise generation appears to
be centered around the changing of the turbulence structure in the
system closer to the corrugated wall cavity.
The acoustic resonant modes of a corrugated tube open at both
ends when rotating in a plane were examined experimentally by
Silverman et al. [10]. He carried out the experiment in a rotating
apparatus based on Bernoulli’s principle to measure the relation
between rotational velocity and resonance frequency of the tube.
He observed the similarity between the sound generation in rotat-
ing the corrugated pipe to the electromagnetic waves generation
in a Smith–Purcell [18] light source whereby the image charge of
an electron beam races grooves in a metal surface placed in an
optical cavity.
Nakamura et al. [12,13] carried out wind tunnel measurements
to study the acoustic oscillation in a corrugated tube open at both
ends with air flowing through the tube. They concluded that the
sounds that the tube emits are the natural harmonics of the tube,
and resonant modes are excited by the impinging shear layer
instability that occurs in the flow over corrugations. The resulting
instability is characterized by a self-excited resonant oscillation
occurring in the fluid-acoustic coupled system. Nakamura et al.
[12,13] suggest that the acoustic oscillation in a corrugated tube is
driven by vortical sound sources in accordance with theories of
Powel [19] and Howe [20].
Experimental work similar to Nakamura et al. [12,13] was also
reported by Hammache et al. [21], where they studied the sound
generation mechanism of various corrugated geometries in a
wind tunnel using hot wire probes and microphones. They carried
out the parametric study to figure out the minimum number of
corrugation required to cause the tube to emit sound. One of the
surprising results they reported was that with the presence of even
one bump (two bumps required to form the cavity) placed at the
downstream end, the place where pressure node sets in is enough
to cause the tube to sing. The level of sound pressure observed for
the one bump in smooth pipe is comparable to the sound produced
by the full corrugated pipe of same length and cavity geometry.
Hammache et al. [21] mapped the pressure and velocity standing
wave patterns formed during the resonant condition at the second
fundamental mode since they also found that the fundamental did
not sound. Hammache et al. showed that the pressure node is a
place where sound generation occurs which was later confirmed
by Tonon et al. [22,23] and Nakiboglu et al. [24]. In their
Transactions of the ASME
 experiment, Hammache et al. [21] noted the presence of vortical
structure during pipe singing condition (resonant mode), which
was also studied in detail by Peters [25] and Kriesels et al. [26].
Hammache et al. [21] also looked into the sound suppression
mechanism in corrugated pipe and also explored the application
of active control methods.
Taylor et al. [27,28] studied the acoustics of sound generation
in a musical toy called the “Magic Whistle” and this new musical
toy tube has geometry smaller in comparison with “Voice of the
Dragon.” The musical notes in “Magic Whistle” can be produced
easily by simply blowing the air through the tube unlike the
“Voice of the Dragon.” Blowing through the “Voice of the Drag-
on” is very difficult because the tube diameter is very large. Some
of the interesting observations they found were that increasing the
depth of the corrugation would lower the fundamental frequency,
as will increasing the corrugation width (plateau) with respect to
the spacing (cavity length) in some cases. Impedance and inser-
tion loss measurements which were carried out by Taylor et al.
[27,28] reveal that the presence of corrugation affects the acoustic
impedance and insertion loss value and corrugation depth is
the parameter which affects both values very significantly. The
authors of Ref. [28] also reported that for some industrial grade
pipe geometries, the singing frequency is more than the smooth
tube frequency, which was unusual and opposite of the other
observations reported in the literature. Meadows [29] designed a
musical device similar to “Voice of the Dragon” by placing a sin-
gle cavity at the exit of the long hollow tube and noted the produc-
tion of harmonic overtones when swinging the tube similar to
“Hummer.” Other variants of this music device are, placing a side
hole closer to open inlet end and placing a side hole and also clos-
ing the inlet end.
Serafin et al. [14–16] combined the rotating corrugated tube
model of Silverman et al. [10] and digital wave guide model of
Smith [30] to synthesize the corrugated tube resonances in vir-
tual music production. They implemented a computer algorithm
based on Doppler shift effect. The simulation of Doppler shift
for virtual acoustic environment was studied by Takala et al.
[31] and Savioja et al. [32]. The simulation of Doppler shift
effect for Leslie horn was proposed by Smith et al. [33], which
uses the time varying delay lines [34]. Since there is a strong
similarity between the rotation of Leslie horn and corrugated
tube, Serafin et al. [14] used the same algorithm which was used
earlier for simulation of Leslie horn. The virtual corrugated tube
model based on Doppler shift effect has been implemented as an
extension to the real time environment Max/MSP platform [35].
This virtual model controls the virtual choir of tubes using the
fiddle and pitch tracker [36] of Max/MSP audio. Hence, this
work by Serafin et al. [14–16] shows that, the sound produced
by corrugated tubes can also be used to produce music and in
real time audio analysis. A recent contribution to the acoustics
of corrugated pipes is presented by Elliott [37]. His experiments
on various corrugation pipe geometries confirmed that the reso-
nant frequency of self-excited oscillation is indeed less than the
resonant frequency of equivalent smooth pipe. He noted that the
fundamental mode is difficult to excite and the disturbances to
flow at the entrance of corrugated tube is of little importance in
the sound generation process. The effect of inlet condition on
resonant frequency of corrugated is also reported by Petri et al.
[17] and Hammach et al. [21]. Elliott [37] proposed a model for
sound production in corrugated tube based on the noise due to
single cavity oscillations.
Sound generation of flow over single cavity is a well under-
stood phenomenon and numerous literature are available on this
subject [38–58]. The observed flow-acoustic coupling in corru-
gated tube is similar to single cavity flow-acoustic coupling,
which was studied in detail by Bruggeman [59–62], and Dequand
et al. [63] studied the self-sustained oscillations in a closed side
branch system. This flow acoustic coupling involves an acoustic
dipole source which causes an unsteady pressure differential
across a free shear layer, giving rise to vortices that are convected
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with mean flow and interact with solid pipe surface leads to struc-
tural vibration. Analyzing the shear layer movement in the cavity
of corrugation, Elliott [37] recognized that the real part of the ad-
mittance (which is reciprocal of the input impedance) presented
by the cavities to the pipe flow must be negative for any sound
generation to be occurred. A theoretical model for the sound prop-
agation in corrugated pipes by Cummings is also discussed in
Elliott [37]. Cummings assumed that the effect of the cavities in
corrugated pipe is somewhat similar to compressible springs pre-
senting a reactance to the acoustic field along the cylindrical
boundary. By assuming an idealized cavity shape, a formula pre-
dicting the corrugated pipe’s acoustic resonances was proposed by
Cummings [37].
Kop’ev et al. [64] studied the effect of external sound field
introduced to the corrugated tube with flow. They observed the
strong decay of sound for Strouhal numbers below 0.4 and
sound amplification at Strouhal numbers above 0.4. They pro-
posed a semiempirical model for aeroacoustic interaction in a
corrugated duct. In the semiempirical model, they considered the
effect of viscous and thermal losses at the corrugated wall and
eliminated the radiation losses at the exit by incorporating a
horn. The details of equation obtained using this model will be
presented in a later section. Testing of corrugated pipes with
more marked differences between cavity length and pitch indi-
cates that the cavity length is a better parameter to use in defin-
ing the Strouhal number [22,65].
The structural problem encountered in flexible risers of offshore
natural gas and oil production platforms due to whistling [66]
forced the acoustical engineers to understand the problem deeply
and how to solve them effectively. Tonon et al. [22,23,67], and
Nakiboglu et al. [25,68] modeled the corrugated pipe as series of
side branch resonators. Radavich et al. [69] used the computa-
tional approach to solve acoustic problem as a side branch resona-
tor. Tonon et al. [22] utilized the Cummings acoustic model on
the multiple side branch resonators to predict the low frequency
resonance modes and used the plane wave acoustic model to pre-
dict the high frequency resonance modes and compared with
experiments. They proposed a model for the whistling behavior
based on energy balance approach and this proposed model pre-
dicts the resonance frequencies accurately but the amplitude of
sound pressure with lesser accuracy. However, this is the only
model (energy balance approach) [67] available in literature,
which would predict the acoustic pressure amplitude.
Tonon et al. [67] also observed that the sound generation
regions are at pressure nodes which are converse to the experi-
mental work carried out by Kristiansen et al. [70] where he pre-
dicted that the source of noise is at the pressure antinode region.
Experimentally observed Strouhal numbers during whistling for
corrugated pipes are in the region of 0.32–0.5, but for the side
branch resonator it is in the region of 0.5–0.623 [68]. For multiple
side branch resonators, it was shown that the pipe termination ge-
ometry is one of the design parameter and it should be included
for acoustical design. Another interesting result that the authors
[24] noted on side branch resonators is that the shape of the
upstream edge will play an important role in pressure amplitude.
It has been observed that the rounding of upstream edge increases
the pressure fluctuation amplitude to five times and shape of the
downstream edge of the cavity did not have an effect on the pres-
sure amplitude; however, this observation may not be applicable
to corrugated tube [12,13]. Reference [24] also reported the effect
of cavity depth, gradient in side branch depth on resonant fre-
quency and pressure amplitudes. For multiple branch resonators,
Tonon et al. [67] noted that the appearance of hysteresis was at
very high rate of change with respect to flow velocity, which was
consistent with the observation earlier made by Petrie et al. [17]
for flow through corrugated pipes.
Sound wave propagation in ducts, which have slowly varying
cross sections and a sinusoidal type of undulation without flow
has been analyzed by many researchers in detail [71–78]. Salant
[71] examined the propagation of acoustic waves through a plane
SEPTEMBER 2013, Vol. 65 / 050000-3
 wave guide consisting of two rigid sinusoidal walls analytically
and found that the phase difference between the walls, the wall
wave number, and the mode number strongly influence both the
form of the disturbances generated by the walls, and the condi-
tions under which these disturbances become very large. Nayfeh
et al. [72,73] and Nusayr [74] used the method of multiple scales
to analyze the propagation of acoustic modes in rectangular, circu-
lar ducts with slowly varying cross sections and two-dimensional
hard-walled ducts with sinusoidal walls. They observed that
acoustic energy in a duct can be reduced by gradually decreasing
and then increasing its cross- sectional area and, for traveling
waves, resonance occurs whenever the wall wave number is equal
to the difference of the wave numbers of any two duct acoustic
modes. Nusayr [74] noted that interacting modes traveling in the
same direction propagate unattenuated and the modes that travel
in opposite directions are attenuated.
Bostr€om and Lundqvist et al. [75,76] used the null field
approach to study the propagation of acoustic waves in an axi-
symmetric hard-walled duct with periodically varying cross sec-
tion. Using numerical methods, they showed that the pressure
patterns inside the corrugated duct and reflection coefficients at
the junction between straight and a corrugated duct. Recently,
Potel et al. [77,78] studied the acoustic pressure field inside fi-
nite or infinite, fluid-filled wave-guides with surfaces having dis-
tributed small deviations such as corrugations using an approach
called shape profile model and one-dimensional integral formu-
lation approach. Potel et al. identified two coupling mechanisms,
namely the “bulk” or “global” modal coupling and the
“boundary” or “local” modal coupling. Blackburn et al. [79–81]
studied the effect of corrugation depth on flow in wavy-walled
pipe using CFD-direct numerical simulation (DNS). In this
study, an acoustical aspect of corrugated pipe is not considered;
however, the friction values near the corrugation is computed.
Popsecu et al. [82], Rajavel et al. [83], and Brac et al. [84] used
the commercial CFD software FLUENT to study the wave propa-
gation in low Mach number flow using the large eddy simulation
(LES) approach, and in fact, the first researchers who used com-
mercial CFD software FLUENT were Taylor et al. [28], but they
used the steady k  e model, which is less accurate than the
unsteady LES or DNS model. Popsecu et al. [82] demonstrated
that the acoustic source in corrugated pipes is dipole in nature,
which was earlier proposed also by Elliott [37]. Popsecu et al.
[82] were also able to capture the pulsating vortex near the cav-
ity and standing wave pattern in the corrugated pipe.
Nakiboglu et al. [85] carried out the numerical investigation to
understand the effect of the ratio of cavity depth to pipe diameter
in acoustics of corrugated pipe. Combining the total enthalpy dif-
ferences across the cavity, which is calculated from numerical
simulations, and vortex sound model, an equivalent time averaged
acoustic source power is determined as a function of the Strouhal
number for different cavity geometries and pulsation amplitudes.
This model [85] accurately predicts the increase in peak-whistling
Strouhal number upon increase of the cavity depth to pipe diame-
ter ratio which was also noted earlier by Binnie [7]. They also car-
ried out the numerical study [86] and found that round upstream
and sharp downstream edge cavity leads to higher sound produc-
tion levels than sharp upstream and round downstream cavity of
corrugated pipes. This numerical study of edge effect on whistling
level of corrugated pipes is in closer agreement with experimental
data.
Another interesting paper which does not exactly deal with
flow through corrugated pipe but similar phenomenon of genera-
tion of acoustic waves in pipe is that by Bonneau et al. [87]. In
that paper, the authors experimentally showed that contrary to or-
dinary fluids, low Mach number granular pipe flows are linearly
unstable towards the emission of acoustic waves. Exponential
amplification of acoustic waves in the direction opposite to the
main flow was observed and the same observation has also been
reported by Binnie [6] and Kristiansen et al. [70] on flow through
corrugated pipes. The Bonneau et al. [87] study shows that a small
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change in the roughness inside of the pipe is sufficient for sound
generation.
Tonon et al. [88] studied the various reasons for why the funda-
mental mode of corrugated pipe is not excited. One of the explan-
ations for missing fundamental mode is that the viscothermal
losses are higher at the lowest resonant mode. Nakiboglu et al.
[89] studied the effect of pipe length and flow profile on the
whistling of corrugated pipe and found that the peak-whistling
Strouhal number, where the maximum amplitude in pressure fluc-
tuations is registered, is independent of the pipe length. In this
study, they obtained the modified form of peak-whistling Strouhal
number based on confinement ratio (Dout/W). To estimate the
acoustic power in periodic system such as corrugated tube and
multiside branch resonators, they proposed a model which com-
bines the incompressible flow simulation (no turbulence, RANS
model) and theory of vortex sound (the details of this theory is
described in a later section). Although the proposed model is
promising in many aspects for the physical understanding of the
whistling behavior of periodic systems, the model does have some
limitations. Limitations arise due to the assumptions such as the
cavities are only acoustically coupled and hydrodynamic interac-
tions between cavities are neglected. The assumption of no turbu-
lence for developing numerical RANS model makes this method
unsuitable for shallow cavities and, the effect of flow profiles at
the inlet can be improved. The proposed model also over predicts
the fluctuation amplitudes because the viscothermal losses
encountered in the corrugated pipe are not accounted efficiently.
As a continuation of previous work, Nakiboglu et al. [90] also
studied the effect of hydrodynamic interference on the sound
production in multiple compact axisymmetric cavities. In this
work, they found that if the multiple axisymmetric cavities are
placed at different pressure nodes, which are hydrodynamically
separated from each other, the total acoustic source power of the
system can be determined from the addition of the individual
contributions of each cavity. They noted that if the cavities are
closer to each other, then the vortex shed from the upstream cav-
ity reaches the upstream edge of the downstream cavity and
affects the vortex shedding there. This hydrodynamic interfer-
ence between successive cavities can be constructive for sound
production/absorption, if it is enhancing the synchronized vortex
shedding. They also observed that, when the cavities are placed
very close or further away from each other, a strong hydrody-
namic interference between the cavities are observed and this
will enhance or reduce the whistling ability. This hydrodynamic
interference on the whistling in a corrugated pipe depends both
on the Strouhal number and on the travel time of the vortex
between adjacent cavities, which is determined by the plateau
length separating the cavities.
Nakiboglu et al. [91,92] studied the aeroacoustic power genera-
tion due to a self-sustained oscillation by an axisymmetric cavity
exposed to a grazing flow using experiments and numerical meth-
ods (CFD-RANS, no turbulence model). In this work, they studied
the maximum of the time-averaged aeroacoustic source power
hPsource i attained during whistling as a function of velocity fluctu-
ation amplitude, peak-whistling Strouhal number Stpw obtained
at this maximum source power and, the variation of Stpw and
hPsource i as a function of cavity depth to width ration (d/W). They
found that Stpw is decreasing linearly with cavity width to depth
ratio for shallow cavities 1.5  w/d  4 at high velocity fluctua-
tion amplitudes ðju0 j=UÞ  102 . They obtained this Stpw based
on analytical model, which is developed using image vortex
method. For deeper cavities, they observed that Stpw is reaching
a threshold value which does not depend on W/d ratio of the cav-
ity. It is also found that for two types of inlet flow profiles (turbu-
lent and top-hat), the proposed numerical approach based on
RANS CFD model, the peak-whistling amplitude ju0 j=U remains
constant for deeper cavities and decreases in shallow cavities. The
numerical method developed to predict the acoustic source power
hPsource i overestimates by a factor of two and overstates the effect
of cavity depth on the acoustic source power in shallow cavities.
Transactions of the ASME
 In addition, the proposed model for hPsource i is not useful if the
fluctuation amplitude is in the order of 103.
Goyder [93–95] formulated a mathematical model for develop-
ment for the acoustic poles (or resonance frequencies) of corru-
gated pipes, which has side branch configuration at the upstream
section and T-junction at the downstream end. He developed these
acoustic poles based on reflection coefficients derived from
boundary conditions. To predict the acoustic power generated at
each cavities in corrugated pipe, he utilized the experimental data
obtained for monopole type of noise source, typically encountered
in deep cavities. With the use of shear layer instability model,
which is responsible for formation of vortices and noise produc-
tion in a corrugated tube, a general model for one wavelength is
constructed that explains the net energy production or absorption
observed at various points in the pipe. The proposed energy based
model for predicting acoustic power in a corrugated tube equation
includes losses at the boundaries, absorption due to friction,
sound generation, and dissipation at cavities. This energy based
approach is applicable when some experimental data is available
and there is a need to interpolate or extrapolate. In addition, the
proposed model is simple to construct, but the equation was
derived from a monopole source and it is not validated for differ-
ent types of corrugation geometry and flow conditions. In the
follow-up paper [96], Goyder proposed a theoretical model for
corrugated tube to predict the fluctuating pressure amplitude based
on dipole source generated at the corrugated cavities. However,
this new model requires experimental data as one of the input pa-
rameter to estimate the pressure amplitude.
Lacombe et al. [97,98] studied the whistling ability of single
hole orifice using CFD-URANS and CFD-LES methods. In the
URANS approach [97], the orifice is subjected to an average flow
velocity with superimposed small harmonic perturbations and
obtains the acoustic impedance of the orifice. Simulated URANS
model is then compared with experimental observations and by
which they were able to reproduce the whistling phenomenon
with reasonable accuracy [97]. In the LES [98] approach, after the
flow simulations are carried out, they applied the Weiner–Hopf
inversion to extract the scattering matrix. From the scattering
matrix, they studied whistling ability of the orifice using acoustic
criterion. Kristiansen et al. [99] studied the influence of low fre-
quency flow modulation on the whistling behavior of a corrugated
pipe experimentally. In this study, the authors observed that with
the addition of 10 Hz sound fed through the speaker as an excita-
tion source along with mean flow in corrugated pipe reduces the
peak frequency at the particular mode number and also shifts the
lock-in frequency to the higher mode. This interesting behavior
was also noted by the Kop’ev et al. [100]. Reference [99] noted
that the addition of 10 Hz external source not only reduced the
original single peak frequency but also shifted to the next higher
mode, the shifted frequency is no longer single peak but a cluster
of closely spaced 10 Hz interval peaks centered around the next
mode. The authors of Ref. [99] were also able to make the pipe to
sing with only 10 Hz excitation frequency of the external source
without the flow by maintaining the strength of the speaker close
to the original flow strength. The difference between only flow
and only speaker excitation on the corrugated pipe is that, with
only flow, they observed up to eight mode numbers but only the
external source excited mode numbers two and three exclusively.
The effects of changing the length of the cavity and the pipe
section between the inlet and the single cavity is investigated by
Krogvig [101]. He carried out experiments and numerical simula-
tions using PALABOS open source software, which utilizes the Lat-
tice Boltzmann solver for acoustic simulations. Based on the
experiment and simulation, Krogvig [101] observed that inlet vor-
tices generated in the upstream edge of the pipe are essential for
the excitation of whistling sounds in the cavity. The study indi-
cated that initial vortices created at the inlet are amplified in the
cavity by a cavity flow. This observation is interesting in a sense
that this phenomenon has not been noted by other researchers and
requires further investigations. Almost all the literature reported
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that it is not possible to excite the fundamental mode in corrugated
pipe and only second or higher order modes are possible with
given flow velocities.
Nakiboglu et al. [88,102] carried out the detailed experimental,
analytical, and numerical study on a musical toy called “Hummer”
or “Voice of the Dragon” to explain this missing fundamental fre-
quency in corrugated pipes. By holding one end and rotating the
end of the “Hummer” tube at different speeds, many other discrete
frequencies can be generated. It was observed that the frequencies
obtained depend on the rotating speed. The higher the speed of
rotation, the higher the mode of tonal sound excited. In this work
[102], the authors corrected some of the error reported earlier in
modeling of rotating corrugated tube [10,14] and obtained the
expression for flow velocities including the friction. Using the
radiation model, which assumes the generated noise in the
hummer is radiated as a monopole source at both stationary and
rotating ends (this should not be confused with the dipole source,
which is the noise source responsible for noise production inside
the cavity), the authors of Ref. [102] obtained the mathematical
expression for source strength for this monopole source. Then,
using the method of images approach [103], the researchers
obtained a theoretical expression for fluctuating pressure in the
frequency domain. Futhermore, the sound field in time domain,
including the Doppler shift that is generated by a moving monop-
ole source as is in the case of “Hummer,” is obtained in this study.
Although the proposed theory for the “Hummer” is agreeing rea-
sonably well with the experiments conducted for different rota-
tional speeds and singing modes, the model makes number of
assumptions namely: (a) vertical height between the moving and
stationary ends are constant for all the rotational speeds and (b)
use of relatively shorter length to compute the average velocity
and rotating end remains fixed at the given plane for all the rotat-
ing speeds leading to varying degree of uncertainty, etc. However,
this model explains the singing phenomenon in “Hummer” in
detail, and this can be employed for musical studies if the error
caused due to many assumptions is eliminated.
As we know that most of the corrugated tubes can be modeled
as open-open tube configuration and during the fundamental
mode, there are only two pressure nodes developed at the inlet
and exit points. It was demonstrated by Tonon et al. and Naki-
boglu et al. that [23,24] the cavities which are closer to pressure
nodes participate more towards sound production and, in case of
the fundamental mode, only a lesser number of cavities are active
in sound production. Moreover, researchers [23,24] noted that,
due to the presence of smooth section in “Hummer,” the Strouhal
numbers (based on cavity width and upstream radius) evaluated at
the inlet and outlet are not the same because of the different veloc-
ity profile (flat profile at the inlet and fully developed flow profile
at the outlet) and lead to noncoherent sound generation. In addi-
tion, during the fundamental mode, the viscothermal losses are
higher compared to the source power. These high viscothermal
losses and production of different Strouhal numbers due to pres-
ence of different flow profiles explain the mystery of the missing
fundamental mode. Based on the experiments, they conclude that
the missing fundamental mode is not related to the lack of turbu-
lence as suggested by Crawford [9]. In the experimental work,
they explored the role of bending of the tube and observed that the
bending at 35 deg in horizontal plane will eliminate the whistling.
One possible explanation for this absence of singing is develop-
ment of a different Strouhal number before and after the bend sec-
tion. It should be noted that the plane of bending is in horizontal
plane and in an actual case, “Hummer” rotates in a 3D plane and
absence of singing is not noticed. As such, the role of additional
parameters such as the angle of bending, the radius of bending,
and the source location with respect to the bend should be
included for the study.
The recent work of Rudenko et al. [104,105] was inspired by
the work of Elliot, which studied the effect of onset of whistling
on “composite pipes” build out of a short corrugated pipe segment
between two smooth pipe segments. In this study, it was found
SEPTEMBER 2013, Vol. 65 / 050000-5
 Fig. 2 Musical toy made of corrugated pipes. (a) “Voice of the Dragon” (or) “Hummer,” (b)
“Magic Whistle.”

that increasing the downstream pipe length would result in reduc- The organization of this paper is as follows. The theories which
tion of whistling. This is due to viscothermal losses in the long are used to predict the resonant behavior and sound pressure am-
main pipe, which is higher than the source sound power gener- plitude are given in Sec. 2. The experimental work performed on
ated. Based on the experimental study, a linear semiempirical the corrugated pipes to understand the acoustics of corrugated
model was proposed that predicts the critical Mach number at pipes is explained in Sec. 3. The computational and numerical
the onset of whistling of a corrugated pipe segment placed in a work on corrugated pipes is presented in Sec. 4. Section 5 dis-
smooth pipe at moderately high Reynolds numbers. However, it cusses the noise reduction attempts carried out in corrugated
was also noted that the proposed model predicts that whistling pipes. The conclusions are given in Sec. 6. In this work, only the
should occur for very long downstream pipe above a critical flow-acoustics part of the problem is reviewed and flow-acoustic-
Mach number, which is contrary to the experimental data structure interaction studies are not included.
obtained. Golliard et al. [106] used the 2D URANS model for
higher Reynolds number flow usually encountered in gas trans- 2 Acoustics of Corrugated Pipes: Theoretical Studies
port system. This model is the improvement of the quasi-laminar
model proposed by Nakiboglu et al. [85] for low-Reynolds num- This chapter reviews the theories available in literature, which
ber flows, which does not account for turbulence. They noted are used to describe the sound generation mechanism in corru-
that the improved model compares well with the experimental gated tubes. The musical toys which are made of corrugations are
data for deep cavity type of applications. Nakiboglu et al. [107] shown in Fig. 2. Examples of corrugated pipes used in vacuum
carried out the experiments on a single axisymmetric cavity to cleaners, aerospace, automotive industries, and flexible risers in
study the effect of swirl at the inlet of the corrugated pipe and offshore oil and gas industries are shown in Fig. 3. The literature
found that increased swirl would result in decreased acoustic review reveals that most of the researchers explained the sound
amplitude pressure fluctuations and also marginally affect the generation mechanism in corrugated pipes predominately using
range of Strouhal numbers and whistling frequencies in corru- the following three theories. They are: (1) Bernoulli’s principle,
gated pipes. Experiments performed on double axisymmetric (2) the theory of vortex sound, which is also called the Cummings
cavity configurations with various plateau lengths (length acoustic model (CAM), and the (3) energy balance acoustic model
between trailing edge of one cavity to the leading edge of next (EBM). The following sections will describe each model in detail
immediate cavity) demonstrate that the effect of the swirl and associated equations (if any) used by the researchers to pre-
depends on the plateau length, and for some plateau lengths, it dict the resonant frequencies and other parameters of interest in
can be pronounced particularly for the amplitude. corrugated pipes.
Golliard et al. [108] evaluated the validity of the prediction
model, which are currently available for corrugated tubes to the
narrow cavity profile. They noted that if the cavities become so
narrow, the momentum thickness of the boundary layer developed
is too large compared to the cavity width and any instability of the
shear layer in the cavity is destroyed, which prevents whistling.
The effect of liquid injection and onset of whistling in corrugated
pipes has been studied by Golliard et al. [109]. During the experi-
mental study, they observed small quantities of liquid injection
would reduce the singing phenomenon in corrugated tubes. They
attributed this reduction in onset of whistling to the increased
acoustic damping due to liquid injection. They noted that for cor-
rugated tubes, the measured damping is dominated by the source
behavior at different flow conditions. With liquid injection, they
observed that at low flow velocities, source strength is decreased,
and at higher flow velocities, it has no effects.
The main focus of this review paper is to compile the research
work carried in acoustics of corrugated pipes up to this date. The
review summarizes the theories which are used to model corru-
gated pipes and experimental work carried out to understand the Fig. 3 Various applications of corrugated pipes: (a) general
sound generation mechanism and any numerical as well as com- view of offshore flexible riser system, (b) internal structure
putational work performed on the corrugated pipes to understand of flexible risers, (c) metal corrugated bellows used in aircraft,
the flow physics. Furthermore, noise reduction studies reported, if (d) vacuum cleaner, (e) in-tank fuel supply module in an
any, in the literature will be discussed. automobile

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 2.1 Application of Bernoulli’s Principle for Measuring
Resonant Frequencies in Corrugated Pipes. Application of
Bernoulli’s principle for acoustics of corrugated pipes is first
proposed by Crawford [9] and later it has been confirmed by
Silverman et al. [10] and Serafin et al. [16] with their experiments.
This theory works well for the singing of rotating musical toys
such as “Voice of the Dragon” or “Hummer.” This theory can also
be used for air flow through stationary corrugated tube as well,
provided one should know the values of friction coefficients. The
main focus of the theory is relating the rotational velocity to pipe
resonance. It is not possible to explain the flow physics such as
vortex shedding, which would occur closer to corrugation cavity
using this theory. For an ideal open-ended tube, the resonant
modes are given by the following expression:
nc
fn ¼ (1)
2L
for n ¼ 1, 2, 3…, where c is the speed of sound and L is the tube
length. Since the air is moving in and out of the tube, the effective
length Le should be used instead of L. The effective length of Le is
given by [3]
Le ¼ L þ 1:22r (2)
where r is the radius of the tube. If both ends of the tube are open,
the rotating corrugated tube resembles a centrifugal pump. When
whirling, the air is sucked in through the end closer to the hand
and pushed out through the outer end. In order to make the vibra-
tional modes resonate and thus produce pitch, some of the airflow
energy is converted to excitation energy. At a large scale, there
exists a vortical flow centered in the stationary end of the tube and
normal to the axis of the tube with tangential air velocity given
by, V(s) ¼ xms, where xm is the angular velocity and s is the posi-
tion along the tube (from 0 to L). Along the tube, the rotationally
induced pressure difference between the two ends produces an
axial flow with velocity v. In order to relate the angular velocity
xm to the pressure difference p, by assuming the flow to be incom-
pressible and smooth, we can use the following Bernoulli’s
principle:
1 h i sure. With this new assumption, they found that the frictionless
pðsÞ þ q vðsÞ2  x2m s2 ¼ const (3)
2
where p(s) is the pressure and v(s) is the axial velocity at position
s. With the same assumptions, the axial velocity through the
tube is uniform, i.e., v(s) ¼ const. for 0  s  L. Therefore the
pressure difference between the two extremities of the tube (when
stationary ¼ 0 and rotating ¼ L) is given by p ¼ pð0Þ  pðLÞ
¼ ðL2 x2m Þ=2. It should be noted that Silverman et al. [10] and
Serafin et al. [16] incorrectly assumed the atmospheric pressure
condition at the stationary inlet end of the pipe, which lead to neg-
ative sign in front of the x2 in Eq. (3). The correct assumption is
atmospheric pressure condition at the exit of the pipe, which was
later identified by Nakiboglu et al. [102]. It is now necessary to
explain the role of the corrugations. This is done by relating axial
air velocity vn to distance between corrugations d as follows:
vn
fn ¼ a1 (4)
d proposed by Cummings [37] is as follows. Let the corrugation
where a1 is a proportionality constant. Silverman et al. [10] found
the value for this proportionality constant as unity. The explana-
tion for Eq. (4) is unclear from the literature [10,14]. However,
Smith–Purcell [18] demonstrated that the frequency value of
visible lights (radiation) observed from localized surface charges
(electron) moving across a grating takes the following form:
vx
fn ’ (5)
d Euler equation has a quasi-1D form
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where, vx is the electron charge velocity and “d” is the distance
between two successive rulings or gratings if the radiation
assumed to be no preferred direction such as acoustic waves. To
relate the axial velocity v to the tangential air velocity V(s),
Bernoulli’s equation given in Eq. (3) is used, which gives
vn ¼ xmnL ¼ V(L), where xmn is the angular velocity of mode n.
This equation states that, in case of frictionless flow, the axial
velocity along the tube is the same as the tangential velocity at the
rotating end. However, since the flow is not perfectly frictionless,
it was assumed that the axial air velocity is proportional to the tan-
gential air velocity, i.e.,
vn ¼ a2 xmn L (6)
where a2 is another proportionality constant (experimentally
Crwaford [9] obtained the value for a2 ¼ 1). Combining Eqs. (4)
and (6) we get
xmn L
fn ¼ a1 a2 (7)
d
which states that the frequencies of the modes of the rotating tube
are directly proportional to the angular velocity and inversely pro-
portional to the distance between corrugations. Since the flow
inside the tube is not perfectly frictionless, it can be shown that
friction generates a nonuniform flow and the effect of friction is to
give a1 ¼ 2. From Eq. (4), it can be shown that
xmn L
fn ¼ 2vn =d ¼ 2 (8)
d
Equation (8) states that if we know the axial air speed and the
distance between corrugations, then it is possible to calculate the
frequency at which the corrugated tube resonates. In the recent
study of “Voice of the Dragon,” Nakiboglu et al. [102] included
the centrifugal force effect on their measurement of the pressure
difference across the rotating corrugated pipe, and correctly iden-
tified that the pressure at the outlet is equal to the atmospheric
pressure and the inlet pressure is higher than the atmospheric pres-
average velocity is a function of the rotating speed of the
“Hummer.” With the use of experimental and numerical RANS
data, they also obtained an average velocity of the flow with fric-
tion [102]. Hence, the new model proposed by the Nakiboglu
et al. [102] is much better in capturing the fluid dynamics aspect
of the rotating type of corrugated tubes unlike the model proposed
by Silverman et al. [10].
2.2 Cummings Acoustics Model for Corrugated Pipes. In
case of zero mean flow with M ¼ 0, by solving the Helmholtz’s
equation in polar coordinates, one can show that the real part
of the wall admittance (Re(b)) of smooth pipe is a parameter
responsible for sound pressure amplification or decay [37,64].
Cummings [37], in his model, assumed the effect of the cavities
in corrugated tubes to be similar to compressible springs present-
ing a reactance to the acoustic field along the cylindrical bound-
ary. A simple model for acoustics of corrugated pipe with flow
be rectangular cylinders, having a cavity length lc, cavity depth
dc, and a corrugation pitch, pc, as shown in Fig. 4. Let a basic
uniform flow, for 0 < r < R be separated from one at rest, for
R < r < R þ dc by a shear layer of zero thickness. We shall then
assume that the fluctuations do not vary across the pipe cross
section but allow a small radial particle velocity at the shear
layer by considering a control volume indicated by the dotted
lines whose cross section has a perimeter P ¼ 2pR and an area
of A ¼ pR2; it can be shown that in the interior of the pipe, the
SEPTEMBER 2013, Vol. 65 / 050000-7
 Fig. 4 Cummings rectangular corrugated pipe model. Reprinted from Ref. [37]
with permission from World Scientific Publishing.

       
@ @ @p lc V lc d
q0 þU u0 ¼  (9) hbw i ¼ ij ¼ ij d 1þ (16)
@t @x @x pc S pc 2R
 
1 @ @ @u0 P
2
þ U p0 þ q0 ¼ q0 hv0 i (10) Upon substituting P/A ¼ 2/R, one can obtain the following
c0 @t @x @x A relation:
  
where v0 is the space averaged radial velocity. Combining these d lc d
1þ 1þ
two equations results in a single equation of the form R pc 2R
k6  (17)
16M
     
1 @ @ @ 0 P @ @
þ U  p ¼ q 0 þ U hv0 i (11)
c20 @t @x2 @x2 A @t @x Since the phase speed of the upstream and downstream traveling
waves is c6 ¼ c0/j6, we can see that presence of corrugations in
the pipe will slow down the acoustic wave. Finally, in such a limit
Taking n0 to be the particle displacement and assuming the pres-
the resonant frequencies of the corrugated pipe are given by
sure and radial particle displacement to be continuous across the
shear layer gives
  nc0 ð1  M2 Þ
fn ¼     for n ¼ 1; 2; 3::: (18)
@ @ @ 2Le d lc d
hv0 i ¼ þU hn0 i; hv0w i ¼ ðhn0 iÞ at r ¼ h (12) 1þ 1þ
@t @x @t R pc 2R

where v0x is the radial velocity within the corrugations. After some From Eq. (18), one could see that the resonant frequencies can be
algebraic manipulations (for details, see Ref. [37]), Cummings effectively predicted if we know the flow speed and geometry of
formulated an expression for resonance in corrugated tube, which the corrugations. However, the Cummings [37] model cannot be
is given as used to predict the pressure amplitude of the sound wave produced
s ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
 in a corrugated pipe. Neglecting the Mach number dependency
2 P hbw i due to convective effects, one can see that Eq. (18) is the same
1M 1i
2npc0 npc0 A j as Eq. (1), but has some additional terms. If we assume that the
x ¼ c0 j ¼ ¼ sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
 (13) reactance has the effect of decreasing the speed of sound c0, then
ðkþ þ k ÞLe Le P hbw i
1i Eq. (18), can be rewritten in simple form as
A j
1
ceff ¼ c0 rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi (19)
where n is the mode number and Le is the effective length of the V
pipe. Thus the resonance frequency of the smooth hard walled 1þ
Sl
pipe, which are discrete values, is given by the following
equation:
where, ceff is the new speed of sound due to the presence of corru-
s ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
 gation, V is the volume of the corrugation, S is the cross sectional
P hbw i
1  M2 1i area of the pipe, and l is the corrugation pitch. With the use of ceff,
x nc0 A j one can calculate the resonant frequencies in corrugated pipe as
fn ¼ ¼ sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
 for n ¼ 1; 2; :::
2p 2Le P hbw i
1i nceff
A j fn ¼ (20)
2Le
(14)
Although Eq. (20) explains the reason for reduced resonant fre-
For low frequencies, Cummings [37] assumes that the walls quency in corrugated pipe compared to smooth pipe, this equation
behave as spring like manner and have purely imaginary imped- is actually a modified form of Binnie’s [7] equation. The experi-
ance (involving no energy loss or gain). Use of this assumption mental work of Binnie [7] suggests that corrugated pipes can be
leads to treated as periodic structures with flow. The general theory of
 waves in media of this type has been described in the monograph
ijV=S over the cavities by Brillouin [110], who showed that it can be traced back to New-
bw ¼ (15)
0 over the rigid wall ton. Using the lumped impedance theory of Stewart [111] and
Lindsay et al. [112], Binnie [7] modeled the corrugated pipe as
where S ¼ 2pRlc is the area presented by the cavity to the tube and tubes with closed branches. As per Bennie’s model, the resonant
V is the cavity volume. This leads to frequency of corrugated pipe is

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 nc 1
fn ¼ rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi (21)
2Le V
1þ
Sd

where V is the volume of the corrugation, S is the area of the pipe,

and d is the pitch of the corrugation. The same equation can also
be derived by assuming that the corrugated wall is characterized
by the effective acoustic compliance Y with ImY < 0. Then the
reduced sound velocity c in the pipe of radius R due to corruga-
tions is determined by [113]
Fig. 5 Impinging shear-layer instability in cavity flow [13].
(Copyright: The Japan Society of Fluid Mechanics. Reproduced
by permission of IOP Publishing.)

c
c ¼ rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi (22) 2.3.1 Impinging Shear Layer Instability and Mechanism of
2qc Sound Generation in a Corrugated Tube. It is well known that
1þ jYj
kR when a fluid flow is impinging upon a solid surface or other con-
figurations, the free shear layer (vortex shedding) can exhibit a
where q and c are the density of the medium and speed of sound self-sustained oscillation, known as impinging shear layer insta-
and k is the wave number. For example, for a pipe with small, bility or, more simply, an edge tone. Wind tunnel experiments car-
closely spaced, axisymmetric, rectangular grooves, we obtain ried out by Nakamura et al. [13] showed that the sound in a
  corrugated pipe is excited by an impinging-shear-layer instability.
i ka b The resulting instability is characterized by a self-excited resonant
Y¼ (23)
qc 2 pc oscillation occurring in the fluid–acoustic coupled system. In the
case of the flow past cavities as shown in Fig. 5, the shear layer
where a and b are the depth and width of a groove, respectively, separated from the upstream corner of the cavity can be unstable
and pc is the spatial period of corrugation or pitch. Then, the in the presence of a sharp downstream corner. The acoustic
change in velocity of sound in corrugated pipe is expressed as oscillation in a corrugated tube is driven by vortical sound sources
due to an impinging shear layer instability. The frequency of an
 
c a b impinging-shear-layer instability increases with an increasing
c ¼ rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi  c 1  (24) flow velocity. Accordingly, when the flow velocity is close to the
ab 2R L
1þ vortex-resonance velocity where the shear-layer frequency coin-
RL cides with one of the natural harmonics of the tube, the acoustic
oscillation of the tube could be resonantly excited. The measure-
This velocity linearly decreases with increasing groove depth. In ments by Nakumura et al. [13] on corrugated pipe shows the
the general case, the effective compliance of a corrugated surface values of sound frequencies plotted against the flow velocities in
cannot be determined by simple physical methods, and, therefore, Fig. 6. As it can be seen from Fig. 6, the sound frequency is con-
the deceleration of a sound wave should be calculated using the stant and locked into one of the natural harmonics of the pipe with
general theory of wave propagation in periodic structures increasing flow velocity and it jumps to the next at a certain
[110,114,115]. Lapin [116,117] showed that the velocity of sound threshold value of the flow velocity. The closer look of frequency
c for a pipe with a small sinusoidal roughness (corrugation) lock-in shown in Fig. 6 indicates that the shear layer instability is
h a i itself strongly influenced by the acoustic oscillation occurring in
cc 1 ðqaÞ (25) the fluid–acoustic coupled system. A block diagram illustrating
2R phenomenon of flow-acoustic coupling in single cavity is shown
in Fig. 7 [13]. A similar behavior of flow acoustic coupling was
this velocity decreases with increasing roughness amplitude noted by Kriesels et al. [26] on the study of aeroacoustic pulsation
according to a square law. The difference in the amplitude in gas transport system and also reported in other literature
dependences in Eqs. (24) and (25) is determined by the difference [118,119]. From the block diagram illustrating the onset of fluid
in the corrugation slopes. acoustic instability shown in Fig. 7, we can observe that the

2.3 Energy Balance Model for Predicting the Sound

Pressure Amplitude in Side Branch Resonator and
Corrugated Pipes. The model based on the energy balance
approach [67] is used to predict the acoustic pressure amplitude of
the corrugated system. As per this model, in order to obtain the
dimensionless amplitudejp0max j=q0 c0 U (where p0max is the maxi-
mum acoustic pressure amplitude, q0 is the density of the medium,
c0 is the speed of sound, and U is the mean flow velocity) of the
acoustic field inside the corrugated pipes, the time-averaged
acoustic source power has to be balanced by the time-averaged
acoustic losses

hPsource i ¼ hPrad i þ hPvth m i þ hPvth cr i þ hPvort i (26)

where hPsource i is the time averaged acoustic source power, hPrad i

is the time averaged radiated acoustic power loss, hPvth m i is the
time averaged viscothermal losses to the main pipe, hPvth cr i is
the time averaged viscothermal losses to the corrugations, and
hPvort i is the time averaged acoustic losses due to vortex shedding
at the outlet of the main pipe. The following sections explain the
sound generation mechanism in a single cavity, corrugated tube,
and application of EBM to corrugated tubes.
Fig. 6 Sound frequency versus flow velocity. The frequency
lock-in mechanism of vortex shedding and pipe resonance
(solid circle represents the loudest sound of each harmonic or
mode) [13]. (Copyright: The Japan Society of Fluid Mechanics.
Reproduced by permission of IOP Publishing.)

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 where V is the volume in which the vorticity is not vanishing and
the brackets h  i indicate time averaging. The vorticity in a flow
field is related to the forces acting on the flow; therefore it is
related to the sound produced. Equation (31) gives the source
power value for a single cavity, so, in order to use this for a corru-
gated pipe model, we have to add the value for the number of cor-
rugations present. If n number of corrugations is present then
Xn ð
hPsource i ¼ q0 ðx ~~ u0 dV
uÞ  ~ (32)
i¼1

Fig. 7 Block diagram illustrating the onset of flow-acoustic
instability [13,82]
system under consideration consists of two subsystems, namely:
(1) the acoustic subsystem with natural frequency equal to nf,
where n ¼ 1, 2…, and (2) the fluid subsystem with vortex shed-
ding frequency fv as its natural frequency. These two subsystems
are strongly coupled in such a way that the acoustic subsystem is
driven by the vortex-induced pressure while the fluid subsystem
is influenced and controlled by the acoustic pressure. Thus, the
acoustic oscillation observed in corrugated tube was similar to the
self-excited oscillation due to fluid–acoustic coupling in single
cavity flow. The essential feature of this instability is that the nat-
ural frequency of the fluid system is proportional to the fluid ve-
locity. Therefore the imposed acoustic oscillation can set the fluid
subsystem into resonance when the vortex resonance velocity is
approached. The vortex induced acoustic pressure source can be
explained using the theory of vortex sound. The next subsection
illustrates the calculation of acoustic source power due to vortex
shedding in the cavity.
2.3.2 Theory of Vortex Sound and Source Pressure. A formal
relationship between vortex shedding and sound generation has
been established for free field conditions by Powell [19] and gen-
eralized by Howe [20]. Using a Helmholtz decomposition of the
flow field to define the acoustic field, it can written as
~ ~
u ¼ rðu0 þ u0 Þ þ r  w (27)
2.3.3 Theory of Energy Balance Model. As shown in
Eq. (26), in order to satisfy the energy balance of the multiple side
branches similar to corrugated pipe, the time averaged acoustic
source power has to be equal to the time averaged acoustic losses
[23,64]. According to Tonon et al. [23], the time-averaged
acoustic source power generated by the whole multiple side
branch system for a given Strouhal number can be calculated by a
summation of the time-averaged acoustic source power generated
by each side branch, which is given by the following equation:
 
X
n
2p co jP0max j
hPsource i ¼ Kq0 U 3 SP cos (33)
Lmp xi ceff qo co U
i¼1
where xi is the abscissa of the ith side branch or corrugation and N
is the total number of side branches or corrugation, K is the con-
stant, Lmp is the main pipe length, SP is the area of the main pipe,
jP0max j is the maximum fluctuating pressure amplitude, ceff, co are
effective speed of sound in side branches and speed of sound
respectively. The time-averaged acoustic losses in a pipe contains
multiple side branches (similar to corrugation) and are: the radia-
tion acoustic wave loss at the pipe inlet [121], the viscothermal
dissipation losses (due to heat transfer and friction) in the pipe,
and the vortex shedding loss at the exit of the main pipe. If we
assume that the losses are independent of each other, then they are
given as [23]: (a) the time averaged acoustic power radiated loss
at the pipe inlet, which contains multiple side branches (similar to
corrugated tube) [121] is given by

where u0 is a steady scalar potential, u0 is the unsteady scalar hPrad i ¼ Sp hIinlet i (34)
potential, and w~ is the stream function. The acoustic field u0 is
defined as the unsteady irrotational part of the velocity field as and which can be rewritten by including the effect of reflection
co-efficient at the inlet as
u0 ¼ ru0
~ (28)    0 2
1 c2 jPmax j
hPrad i ffi 1  R2inlet qo o U 2 SP (35)
Neglecting friction and heat transfer and assuming a homentropic 8 ceff q o co U
flow condition, the momentum equation can be written as per
Crocco [23,120] is where Rinlet is the reflection coefficient and P0max ffi 2P because
it is assumed in the model that the standing wave pattern is built
@~
u up of a Pþ and P traveling wave of almost equal amplitude. (b)
þ rB ¼ ~ x~ u (29)
@t The time averaged viscothermal losses to the main pipe are given
Ð by
where B ¼ ð1=2Þju2 j þ ðdp=qÞ is the total enthalpy and þ þ

hPvth m i ¼ 2Sp hIinlet i  hIoutlet i (36)
~ ¼ r~
x u is the vorticity. At low Mach numbers and high
Reynolds numbers, we could neglect the convective effects on the
propagation of sound waves. With this approximation one finds which is equal to
  0 2
1 @B 1 c2 jPmax j
 r2 B ¼ r  ðx
~~
uÞ (30) hPvth m i ffi qo o aLmp U 2 SP (37)
c20 @t2 2 ceff q o co U

This corresponds to the assumption that the Coriolis force density where a is the acoustic damping coefficient in the main pipe. The
~
fcoriolis ¼ q0 ð~
x~
uÞ, where q0 is the fluid density, acts as source equation obtained by the assumption that the acoustic power lost
of sound. The time-averaged acoustic source power can be by the wave traveling in the positive direction hPvth mþ i after
estimated using the following estimation as per Howe [20] traveling along the whole main pipe is equal to the difference in
þ
acoustic power flow between the inlet hIinlet i and the outlet
ð þ
hIoutlet i. The power loss is twice this value because of two travel-
hPsource i ¼ q0 ðx
~~ u0 dV
uÞ  ~ (31) ing waves of equal amplitude. (c) The time averaged viscothermal
losses to the multiple side branches or corrugation is given as

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 Table 1 Predicted and measured dimensionless pressure fluctuation amplitude of the first whistling acoustic mode (n 5 2) (the
EBM [23] is used for predicting the pressure fluctuation amplitude. The corrugation is modeled as a side branch resonators for
this study). (Data used from Ref. [23] with permission from Elsevier.)

Number of side branches Whistling frequency f (Hz) Strouhal number StWeff Measured amplitude Predicted amplitude (EBM)

8 328.1 0.60 47 534

9 293.1 0.62 81 542
10 266.7 0.61 76 558
. . . .
. . . .

þ þ

hPvth sb i ¼ 2Ss b hImain i  hIwall i (38) Strouhal number for the given resonant mode before the pipe
mode moves to higher harmonics.
þ
where Ssb is the cross sectional area of the side branch and Imain In the theory of vortex sheet and sound interactions, one can
þ
and Iwall are the acoustic power fluxes at the main pipe and at the assume the effect of corrugations in terms of the acoustic wall ad-
end wall mittance of an equivalent smooth cylindrical pipe. The vortex
sheet which forms across each cavity of a corrugated pipe changes
n 
X    2 the effective acoustic admittance of the pipe wall so that it can
1 2p jP0max j
hPvth sb i ffi qo co sin2 xi aLsb U 2 Ssb now have a real part. The simplest corrugation configuration is
i¼1
2 Lmp qo co U one of length lc, with infinite depth, and the basic flow being that
(39) of a uniform stream of speed U separated from a fluid at rest by
two semi-infinite flat plates located at y ¼ 0 for x < 0 and x > lc,
where a is the acoustic damping coefficient in the side branch or respectively, as shown in Fig. 8. Consequently, there is a vortex
corrugation. (d) The time averaged acoustic losses due to vortex sheet across the cavity at y ¼ 0 emanating from the leading edge
shedding at the outlet of the pipe [121,122] are given by of the cavity. We therefore consider the scattering problem due to
a wave of frequency x ¼ coj. For small disturbances, the vortex
þ 
 sheet is displaced to y ¼ gðx; tÞ ¼ gðxÞeixt . On physical grounds,
hPvort i ¼ Sp hIoutlet i  hIoutlet i (40)
  0 2 the vortex sheet must vanish at the trailing edge of the cavity.
2 (Note: however, Dequand et al. [26,63] noted that for a closed
1 c jPmax j
hPvort i ¼ qo o U 2 SP M (41) side branch type system, the pressure fluctuations across the cav-
2 ceff qo co U
ity and main pipe, induced by unsteady vortex shedding at the
edges of the junction, drive acoustic waves in pipes and impinging
With the use of above equations and Eq.(26), which is developed
or reattachment of this shear layer induced vortices at the trailing
for multiple side branches, the EBM can be used to predict the
edge is not needed. However, this theory [37] assumes that the
acoustic sound pressure amplitude of corrugated tubes with simple
acoustic waves will be generated due to impinging of shear layer
modifications. Tonon et al. [23,67] successfully applied this
generated vortices at the trailing edge. Interested readers in the al-
energy balance model to the multiple side branch resonators. The
ternative theories can refer to the work reported in Refs. [26,63]).
result of the predicted and measured sound pressure amplitude for
It can be shown that the vortex sheet at the trailing edge leads to
side branches is given in Table 1. This is the only model available
growing and decaying Kelvin–Helmhotlz instability waves, if we
in the literature, which explains the prediction of sound pressure
consider the scattering problem at the cavity trailing edge as a sin-
amplitude in a corrugated type of system. However, the predicted
gle semi-infinite flat plate. It should be noted that some of these
pressure amplitude values (refer to Table 1) using this model are
instability waves would vanish at the trailing edge of the cavity
ten times higher if the number of side branches is less compared
and some would not. Applying the correct Kutta condition at the
to measured pressure amplitude values. The error of this over
trailing edge, the scattering coefficients are calculated by solving
prediction is reduced six times if the number of side branches
the Wiener–Hopf equations. Integrating the wall pressure over the
increases. Also, it should be noted that, although this model pre-
cavity length lc L yields
dicts the pressure amplitude reasonably well, one must use suita-
ble assumption for ratio of acoustic velocity to the mean flow ð lc ð lc x
velocity. Application of the EBM model to corrugated tube is pðtÞ ¼ p0 ðx; 0þ; tÞdx ¼ p0 eixt dx ¼ p0 lc eixt (42)
studied by Nakiboglu et al. [91], and they noted that the EBM 0 0 L
model overpredicted the fluctuating pressure amplitude in the
order of 2, which is consistent with the observation made by where p0 is the mean pressure which varies over the scale of the
Tonon et al. [23]. Some of the other theories such as Elliott’s [37] pipe length. However, the vortex sheet and the fluctuating normal
vortex sheet model, plane wave acoustic model (PAWM), Serafin velocity v0 will vary over the shorter scale of the cavity. Conse-
et al. [16] singing tube model for virtual corrugated tube for audio quently, upon integration over the cavity we have
analysis and the corrected model proposed by Nakiboglu et al.
[102] for “Hummer,” the semiempirical model proposed by
Kop’ev et al. [100], and Debut et al.’s [123] nonlinear phenome-
nological model for corrugated tube are also reported in literature.
Brief description of each of these theories is given in the follow-
ing subsections.

2.4 Theory of Vortex Sheet Model. From Fig. 6, we infer

that for the given harmonic mode, the frequency is constant, but
flow velocity increases. We know that the Strouhal number [124]
is the parameter which connects the resonant frequency of the cor-
rugated pipe, main pipe flow velocity, and corrugation pitch. Fig. 8 The vortex sheet model of corrugated pipe. (Reprinted
Using the vortex sheet theory, one could obtain the range of from Ref. [37] with permission from World Scientific Publishing.)

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 ð lc ð lc    
x ki ixt ki ixt functions of pressure. Then for the harmonic field with frequency
vðtÞ ¼ v0 ðx; 0þ; tÞdx ¼ v0 ; e dx ¼ v0 e x, Kop’ev et al. obtained
0 0 l lc lc
(43) x2
P00 þ P þ DQ ðixÞ þ DF P0 ¼ 0 (50)
co
where ki is the wavelength of the instability wave, v0 ¼ vðx; 0þÞ
is the reduced mean part of normal velocity across the cavity, x is
where DQ and DF are functions of frequency, flow velocity, and
the vortex shedding frequency, and v0 is a complex constant. This
corrugation pitch. By introducing the viscous and thermal losses
implies that the wall admittance over the slot b ¼ ðv=pÞ is a
at the wall into the above equation they obtained the expression
complex constant. Indeed analysis of the trailing edge problem
for the wave number of the sound wave as
suggests that b is the form
x
v v keff ðx; UÞ ¼ þ iDðx; l; UÞ þ icðxÞ (51)
b ¼  ¼  0 ¼ b0 eiðjlc =M2phÞ (44) co
p p0 lc
here c(x) represents the losses due to viscosity and heat conduc-
where b0 is real. In order for the real part of b to be negative, we tion and D(x, l, U) is equal to 0.5(coDQ þ DF). Using exhaustive
require search method, Kop’ev et al. [100] found the expression for D(x,
    l, U) which is similar to Strouhal number. For their experiment,
p jlc p 1 jlc 1 for one type of corrugated tube geometry, Kop’ev et al. gave the
   2ph  ; 2ph h    2ph h þ
2 M 2 4 M 4 following function, which is in good agreement with the measured
(45) data:
  
Now since qU 2 P h xl2 xl xl
Dðx; l; UÞ ¼ A X exp Bi  C þ U (52)
Sl Po U U U
flc xlc jlc
St ¼ ¼ ¼ (46)
U 2pU 2pM where Po is the static pressure in the tube and, A, B, C, and U are
dimensionless parameters. For the value of A ¼ 1, B ¼ 0.7,
the frequencies for the first domain of radiation lie in the range C ¼ 0.45, and / ¼ 0.2, they found a good agreement between the
experiments and the proposed theory. The aforementioned semi-
1 1 empirical model yields a qualitative description of sound absorp-
h  St  h þ (47)
4 4 tion and amplification in corrugated tubes with external sound
source. However, from the model it is difficult to classify which
Analysis suggests that mechanism dominates for the particular types of geometry and
flow conditions. In addition, the external source description is
9 unclear for this proposed model. This model is verified for only
h  0:562 radians (48)
16 one type of geometry and should be checked against different
flow conditions and geometrical features. If the shortcomings of
2.5 Semiempirical Model for Aeroacoustic Interaction in a this model could be improved upon, then this model would
Corrugated Duct. Kop’ev et al. [100] developed a semiempirical explain the influence of external sound source on the resonance
model of aeroacoustic interaction in a corrugated duct with the frequency.
presence of external source (speaker). They observed that there is
sound generation, sound amplification, and sound absorption if 2.6 Plane Wave Acoustic Model. Tonon et al. [23] proposed
the sound is fed through a loudspeaker along with the flow. a PWAM for a multiple side branch resonator based on applica-
Kop’ev et al. [100] found that if the corrugated tube is excited by tion of continuity of mass flow, pressure at each bifurcation
an external sound source along with flow, then the low frequency places, and perfect reflection condition at the side branch termina-
resonance peaks decreased by more than half and high frequency tions. The resulting system of 4N equations with 4N þ 2
resonance peaks increased when the flow velocity increases from unknowns (where N is the number of side branches composing the
0 to 17 m/s. Kop’ev et al. [100] characterized the sound absorption multiple side branch system) is closed mathematically by impos-
in a corrugated tube based on a ratio of the value of the resonance ing two boundary conditions. The two boundary conditions are an
peak maximum to the value of the neighboring minimum. With unflanged open pipe termination at the outlet and flanged open
the use of a semiempirical model which describes the generation, pipe termination at the inlet. Comparison of the PWAM model for
amplification and attenuation of sound in a corrugated tube with a multiple side branch resonator and its comparison with Binnie’s
the presence of external sound, Kop’ev et al. [100] observed that model [7] is shown in Table 2 (note: during the comparison,
the external sound pressure acts on the tangential discontinuity by Tonon et al. [23] wrongly called Binnie’s model [7] a CAM [37]
exciting hydrodynamic displacement waves n(x, t). These hydro- model). Tonon et al. [23] found that higher frequency resonance
dynamic waves exert an inverse action on the sound field because modes can accurately be predicted using a PWAM and lower fre-
first, they give rise to the volume velocity, and second, they cause quency resonance modes can be predicted using mathematically
an additional force acting from the side of the rear wall of the cav- simple Binnie’s model [7] for side branch resonators. The PWAM
ity in case of flow deceleration. By including these two effects model predicts all the relevant mode numbers with greater accu-
(volume velocity and additional forcing term) on the Euler equa- racy (less than 1.5%) for side branch resonators but the accuracy
tion, they obtained the following equation for the sound pressure: of the Binnie’s [7] model is very poor (more than 10%) when the
mode number increases. The PWAM model is developed based
1 @2P @2P P @Q P @F on no flow condition and the data given in Table 2 is for no flow
 2 þq  ¼0 (49)
c2o @t2 @x Sl @t Sl @x condition. The effectiveness of the PWAM model with mean flow
condition requires further experimental investigation and applica-
where P is the acoustic pressure, co is the sound speed, P is the tion of this model to corrugated tubes is not proven. Moreover,
perimeter of the tube, S is the cross sectional area of the tube, and there is no empirical equation or any detailed derivation provided
l is the length of the tube. It should be noted that the last two terms by Tonon et al. [23] for the PWAM model as it was stated that it
are volume velocity and forcing function, which are linear is much more complex to use than the other models.

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 Table 2 Predicted and measured “whistling” frequencies of corrugated pipe modeled as multiple side branch system (Compari-
son of CAM [37], should be read as Binnie’s [7], and PWAM model [23]). (Data used from Ref. [23] with permission from Elsevier.)

fM  fCAM fM  fPWAM
CAM Model 100% PWAM Model 100%
Mode number Measured frequency, fM (Hz) fM fM

1 89.7 3.1 1.11

2 181.3 2.02 0.22
3 271.5 2.19 0.29
. . . .
. . . .
12 989.2 12.19 0.85
13 1044.3 15.13 0.55

2.7 Singing Tube Model of Corrugated Tube for Virtual the fluctuating flow field in frequency and time domains better.
Audio Analysis. The complete singing tube model used for audio Hence Eq. (24) in Ref. [102] can be used for future work related
analysis developed by Serafin et al. [16] is shown in Fig. 9. This to musical studies.
model is derived from the Bernoulli’s principle, which is
explained in detail in Sec. 2.1. Doppler shift effect was also
included along with the Bernoulli’s principle, which explains the 2.8 The Coupled Non-Linear Acoustic Model for a
fluid dynamics aspects for this virtual audio simulation. The basic Corrugated Tube. In this phenomenological nonlinear model
cylindrical tube is modeled as a loaded wave guide, the corruga- [123,125–127], the acoustic response of the corrugated pipe is
tions inside the tube are modeled using Bernoulli’s principle and simulated by connecting the lossless medium moving with a con-
Doppler shift effect of tone generation is modeled using basic stant velocity with a source based on discrete distribution of Van
flow physics. The loaded wave guide model for the basic tube is der Pol oscillators arranged along the pipe. A simple model [128]
shown in Fig. 10 and the Doppler shift effect which affects the which utilizes the concept of a mechanical oscillator to represent
sonorities (or tones) is given by shear layer instability is described by the following equation:
vls p€s þ 2gr xr p_ s þ x2r ps ¼ nx2r p (54)
1þ
x l ¼ xs c (53)
vsl
1 where ps is the acoustic pressure in the cavity, p is pressure in the
c neck of the cavity, xr is angular frequency of the resonator, and gr
is the reduced damping. The alternative form of the equation using
where xs is the radian frequency emitted by the source at rest, xl Van der Pol type is given by [129]
is the frequency received by the listener, vls denotes the speed of
the listener in the direction of the source, vsl denotes the speed of ( 2 )
the source in the direction of the listener, and c denotes sound ps @ 3 ps
p€s þ 2gr A 2
1 xr p_ s þ x2r ps  v ¼ nxcp0
speed. It should be noted that the Bernoulli’s principle used for Bq0 U @t@z2
this model contains erroneous assumptions (refer to Sec. 2.1) and (55)
this was later corrected by Nakiboglu et al. [102]. Futhermore, in
this model, the use of Doppler shift effect on the listener is very
where x is angular frequency, v is diffusion parameter, and A and
simple and the detailed effect with the use of “method of images
B are coefficients. Popsecu et al. [129] found the empirical rela-
approach” proposed by Nakiboglu et al. [102] seems to capture
tion for coefficient A, which is A ¼ 0.5dr, where dr (boundary
layer ratio) is the ratio between the boundary layer thickness and
the radius of the pipe. For the coefficient B, Popsecu et al. [129]
chose the empirical value of B as the ratio between the volume
of the cavity and the volume of the pipe of length of the cavity
opening. In the pipe, the acoustic behavior can be described as the
lossless medium moving with a constant velocity linear wave
equation as
8
>
> @ðq0 uÞ @ðq0 uÞ @p
< þU þ ¼ Fðz; tÞ
Fig. 9 Singing corrugation pipe model for virtual audio analy- @t @z @x (56)
sis. (Adopted from Ref. [14] with permission.) > @p @p
>
: 2 @u
þ U þ q 0 c0 ¼0
@t @z @x

where the source term from the Eq. (55) is given by

@ps
Fðz; tÞ ¼ G (57)
@z

where ps is the pressure variation caused by the source cavities

Fig. 10 Wave guide model of main cylindrical tube as
corrugated pipe. The losses are lumped in a filter Hb and R
represents the reflection filter. (Adopted from Ref. [14] with
permission.)
and G is the ratio between opening of the cavity and the length of
the pitch. The nonlinear Eqs. (54) and (55) can be solved using
high order schemes such as optimized prefactored compact
finite volume (OPCfv) scheme for discretization in space, and
Runge–Kutta for time stepping [130,131]. This proposed one-
dimensional coupled nonlinear model effectively simulates the

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 acoustics of corrugated pipes. This coupled model is capable of
predicting the lock-in frequency as well as the onset of fluid
velocity. The application of this model for acoustics of corrugated
pipe is successfully demonstrated by Debut et al. [123] and
Popescu et al. [131]. It should be noted that, based on the LES
simulations, Popsecu et al. noted that the source of sound in a cor-
rugated pipe is a mixture of radial dipole and axial dipole based
on pressure measurement around the cavity. They also observed
that the radial dipoles are present at the pressure nodes and axial
dipoles are at the pressure antinodes (velocity nodes) for a given
mode number. From the experimental studies, Tonon et al. [23]
concluded that the cavities around the pressure nodes contribute
maximum to the noise generation and contribution from other
cavities are minimum. In the CFD-LES simulations, Popsecu
et al. [131] noted the presence of axial and radial dipole and that
radial dipole is the dominant one. It is known that a radial dipole
is generated due to radial force and it cannot radiate in the longitu-
dinal direction. Moreover, a radial dipole cannot excite the axial
acoustic field, and below the cut-off frequency for higher order
acoustic modes, this radial dipole cannot transfer any energy to
the axial acoustic field. As such, the sound source exciting the
longitudinal acoustic waves must be a longitudinal force corre-
sponding to an axial dipole. However, in the 1D Van der Pol oscil-
lator model proposed by Popsecu et al. [131], the sound source is
assumed as axial dipole, which is relatively weak according to
CFD simulations and the role of dominant radial dipole is
neglected in the 1D source modeling. Further work is needed to
investigate the role of radial dipole in source modeling of 1D phe-
nomenological model in corrugated tube analysis.
2.9 Discussions and Applications of Various Theoretical
Models for a Corrugated Tube. We could see from literature
that there are a number of theories available to predict the whis-
tling frequencies in corrugated pipes. The Cummings’s [37]
CAM given in Eq. (18) is simple to use and would predict the
singing frequency with reasonable accuracy if the geometrical
details of the corrugations are known. One could also use even
much simpler form of Binnie’s [7] model if the volume and
pitch of the corrugations are known. An alternative form of Bin-
ni’s [7] equation, which explains the reduced sound speed arises
due to cavity depth on the resonant frequency as given by Lapin
[117], can be used as well. PWAM can also be used to predict
the resonant frequency if the boundary conditions of a corru-
gated pipe are known accurately. The main drawbacks of the
Cummings [37], Binnie [7], and Lapin [117] models are that
they are not able to successfully predict the sound pressure level
or the sound pressure amplitude. Moreover, it should be noted
that in some cases (such as the application of CAM and Binnie’s
model to multiple side branch systems) the error is increasing
with increasing mode number. At present, none of the models
are able to predict the whistling frequency with greater accuracy,
and all the models calls for correction depending on the type of
geometry. Singing of a corrugated tube due to rotation can be
effectively modeled using Bernoulli’s principle as explained by
Silverman et al. [10] and by an improved model suggested by
Nakiboglu et al. [102]. Addition of Doppler shift effect to the
previous models could be used for virtual music applications as
explained by Serafin et al. [16] and by Nakiboglu et al. [102].
To calculate the relation between lock-in frequency and flow ve-
locity using Strouhal number in a particular resonant mode,
Elliott’s vortex sheet model [37] can be used. To predict the
acoustic pressure level and fluctuating pressure amplitude on the
corrugated tube, the EBM model [23,91] can be used. The for-
mulation of the EBM model is complex; hence the accuracy of
the model depends on the assumptions of the pipe geometry and
flow losses. The shortcomings of the above listed models call for
further research in this area to develop a simple, efficient and
elegant theoretical model that not only predicts the whistling fre-
quency but also the sound pressure amplitude as well.
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3 Acoustics of Corrugated Pipes: Experimental Study
From the first paper of Burstyn [1] to the very recent study of
Nakiboglu et al. [85], almost all the researchers carried out experi-
ments to understand the tone generation in corrugated pipes. The
theories described in Sec. 2 are all formulated using the extensive
experimental data gathered during the experiments. This section
introduces some of the experiments carried out on the acoustics of
corrugated pipes by researchers.
Binnie [7], for the experiment, used an electrically driven fan
fitted on the inlet with a short 3 in. pipe and on the outlet
with smoothing devices and an orifice-plate followed by a straight
1.25 in. diameter pipe and 23 ft long. He controlled the airflow by
changing the fan speed and the opening of the delivery valve. The
frequency spectrum and the form of the sound waves emanating
from eight different types of corrugated pipes were measured by
means of a double beam oscilloscope connected to a calibrated os-
cillator and to a microphone near the pipe under test. He tested the
corrugated pipes with an internal and an external flow. For exter-
nal flow measurement, Binnie introduced the smooth pipe outside
of the corrugated pipe. The pipe geometries and flow condition
used for the experiments are given in Ref. [7]. Some of the obser-
vations are: (a) a substantial contraction is necessary at the inlet
for short corrugated pipes to sing and contraction is not required
for longer pipes, (b) lower notes are observed for longer pipes
when the flow changed from internal to external, (c) some short
corrugated pipe during internal flow condition sing only when the
introduction of smooth axial rod, (d) the presence of resonant fre-
quency is directly proportional to the pipe lengths, (e) hysteresis
of frequency with flow velocity is observed, (f) at the exit of the
pipe plane waves are observed, and (g) sound radiated with equal
intensity in all directions.
Crawford [9] used the wrist watch for measuring the rotational
velocity of the “Hummer,” and with the use of his ear, he corre-
lated the rotational velocity to the note generated. By holding a
tube outside the car window, Crawford [9] measured the relation-
ship between speed of the car and singing frequency of the tube.
With his experiment, he found that it is possible to make the fun-
damental of the “Hummer” to sing by using the relation between
the length of the tube and the minimum frequency value. He also
studied the role of turbulence in causing “Hummer” to sing and
found the minimum Reynolds number required to cause the tube
to sound using, tube induced turbulence and corrugation induced
turbulence.
3.1 Wind Tunnel Experiments for Corrugated Tube.
Nakamura et al. [13] and Hammache et al. [21] used the wind
tunnel to measure the sound frequency of corrugated pipes. The
Experimental set up used by Nakamura et al. [12] is given in
Fig. 11(a), showing the positions of the microphone and hot-wire
probes used along with relevant dimensions of the corrugated tube
studied. Hammache et al. [21] also introduced two hot wire probes
near the corrugation to observe the vortex shedding frequency
which is shown in Fig. 11(b). Nakamura et al. [13] observed the
frequency lock-in mechanism and noted that during transitional
region of flow velocities, two or more sounds develop with narrow
band frequencies, which was also confirmed by Elliott [37]. Naka-
mura et al. [13] and Hammache et al. [21] were able to capture the
unlocked shedding frequency and lock-in whistling phenomenon
when the shedding frequency coincides with the tube resonance.
Based on the wind tunnel experiments, Nakamura et al. [13] pro-
posed a flow-acoustic coupling feedback model based on imping-
ing-shear-layer-instability which is described in detail in the Sec.
2.4.
3.2 Rotating Corrugated Tube Experimental Setup. The
apparatus used by Silverman et al. [10] to measure the “Voice of
the Dragon’s” resonant tones in a systematic way is shown in
Fig. 12. The corrugated tube was mounted on a thin wooden slab
which was attached to a spoked Bicycle tire wheel free to rotate in
Transactions of the ASME
 Fig. 11 Hot wire probe and microphone used for measurement of acoustic pressure and vortex shedding frequency in a corru-
gated pipe: (a) Nakamura et al. [13] (Copyright: The Japan Society of Fluid Mechanics. Reproduced by permission of IOP Pub-
lishing) and (b) Hammache et al. [21]

Fig. 12 Schematic diagram of the apparatus used to measure the resonant tones in rotating
“Voice of the Dragon” [10,14]. (Copyright: IOP Publishing Ltd and European Physical Society.
Reproduced by permission of IOP Publishing.)

a vertical plane; a counterweight was fixed at the opposite end of
the slab so that the center of mass of the system lay on the axis of
the wheel. A motor, whose speed was controlled by a rheostat,
was placed in direct contact with the outer rim of the wheel. A
microphone, aligned along the axis of rotation, recorded the tones
at different speeds of rotation; the sound was amplified and then
its Fourier spectrum was analyzed by a computer. The rotational
frequency of the tube was determined by means of a stroboscope
and a counter/timer. The test set up used to measure the axial pres-
sure difference across the tube, the axial air speed at the fixed end,
and the tangential velocity at the rotating end is shown in
Fig. 12(c). With the help of experimental data, the authors [10]
successfully developed a theory (based on Bernoulli’s principle,
which is outlined in Sec. 2.3) to explain the singing of “Voice of
the Dragon”. Later, Serafin et al. [16] used this model and with
the inclusion of Doppler shift effects, they developed a virtual
acoustic corrugated singing tube for audio analysis. Hence, this
experimental set up can be used to understand the whistling mech-
anism while whirling or rotating a corrugated tube as well as
studying the virtual audio music productions.
that turbulence generated within the smooth inlet length L1 had
the effect of destroying the whistling. They carried out the experi-
ments with smooth and wrinkled wall tubes (Fig. 13) and found
that the wrinkled wall reduces the whistling amplitude consider-
ably. They also noted that with the introduction of smooth wall
upstream of the corrugated tube (L3 in Fig. 13), sound pressure
level reduced. The level of reduction varied depends upon the L3
value. Based on the experiments, it was concluded that the turbu-
lence inside the corrugation is responsible for tonal sounds and
introduction of wrinkling or smooth pipe at the upstream would
alter the turbulence structure which leads to reduced sound pres-
sure level at the pipe exit.
Kristiansen et al. [70] measured the sound pressure level (SPL),
sound intensity, and phase of the sound waves inside a corrugated
tube along its entire length. The test set up is shown in Fig. 14. The
arrangements is similar to the Petrie et al. [17], but used the two
microphones and ones placed on a guide rail, which measures axial
acoustic properties. By moving the guide rail, the required acoustic
data can be measured for the entire length of the tube. The more

3.3 Experimental Setup Used in Vacuum Cleaner Type

Application. To study the noise problem in vacuum cleaners
which has corrugated tubes, Petrie et al. [17] used a simple set up
which is shown in Fig. 13. The set up was constructed in which
the velocity could be varied from 8–60 m/s through a range of
ducts from 15–40 mm nominal internal diameter. They varied the
pitch and depth of the corrugation in the ranges 2.5–8.0 mm and
2.5–7.5 mm, respectively. The number of corrugations was varied
between 1 and 340, and several lengths of smooth duct were used
to increase the total length. The settling chamber, which was lined
with foam and had internal baffles, was used to smooth the flow
from the fan and also reduce the fan noise transmitted to the duct.
Sound measurements were taken by using a 1 in. microphone and
Br€uel and Kjær 2107 analyzer. A constant temperature hot wire
anemometer was used to measure the flow velocity. Initially the Fig. 13 Experimental set up to measure the noise level in vac-
air was blown through the duct and in later experiments, the air uum cleaners. (Reprinted from Ref. [17] with permission from
was sucked through the corrugated duct, after it had been found Elsevier.)

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 Fig. 14 Schematic of the experimental setup used to measure the sound pressure level inside the
corrugated pipe. (A: Pipe connecting box to vacuum cleaner; B: Pitot static tube and manometer; C:
settling box; D: corrugated pipe; E: stationary microphone; F: microphone supplied with probe tube;
H: measuring amplifiers; I: bandpass filters; J: voltage meter; K: phase meter; L: frequency counter).
(Adopted from Ref. [70] with permission from the Acoustic Society of America.)

Fig. 15 Measured sound pressure level, phase, and axial intensity for the third mode of the
615 mm corrugated pipe. (Adopted from Ref. [70] with permission from Acoustic Society of
America.)

details of tubes and instrumentation used for the measurement can
be found in Ref. [70]. The typical acoustical data obtained using
this set up for 615 mm corrugated tube is shown in Fig. 15. From
the figure, we could observe the presence of standing waves and
flow-acoustic lock-in mechanism. They also measured the input
impedance of smooth wall and corrugated wall using the well-
known two-microphone technique [132–134]. The experimental
set up used by Taylor et al. [28] for measuring the impedance of
corrugated tube is shown in Fig. 16, and the similar set up also
used by Kristiansen et al. [70]. The measured impedance curves of
corrugated pipe and smooth pipe by Kristiansen et al. [70] is shown
in Fig. 17. The data shows that for corrugated tube the impedance
curve is shifted eight to nine times on the left side of the smooth
tube. Kristiansen et al. [70] expressed that the shift in impedance
due to presence of corrugation is the reason for reduced resonant
frequency, which is the same order of eight to nine times that of
smooth pipe. Taylor et al. [28] also measured the Insertion Loss
(IL) of the corrugated tube and observed that the IL values are
lesser than the smooth tube. The test set up and the typical IL curve
measured is shown in Fig. 18.
Kristiansen et al. [70] noted that net acoustic energy stream in a
corrugated tube is always in the same direction for nearly the total
length of the pipe, which is against the direction of the flow. The
same observation also has been reported by Binnie [6] in an experi-
ment with water in an open horizontal channel with vertically cor-
rugated sides. However, it should be noted that an axial dipole is a
discontinuity in the acoustic pressure, which radiates equally in
both pipe directions and at low Mach numbers there is only a very
minor effect of convection. The observation of propagation of net
intensity in the upstream direction [70] in the experiment may not
be due to a source property, but rather is an effect of boundary con-
ditions at the pipe terminations or an error in the measurements. It
is very difficult to determine intensity because in a pure standing
wave, this intensity vanishes. The upstream energy transport
exactly cancels the downstream energy transport. A net intensity is
thus the difference between two almost equal large quantities. Kris-
tiansen et al. [70] experiment also reveals that the sound source is
present at the pressure node, which agrees with the observation
made by Hammache et al. [21] and a constant value of Strouhal
number of 0.3 is observed during the pipe resonances.

3.4 Experimental Set Up of Corrugated Tube as Side

Fig. 16 Experimental set up using two microphone method to
measure the input impedance of corrugated pipes [28,70]
Branch Resonator. Tonon et al. [23] and Nakiboglu et al. [24]
modeled the corrugated tube as multiple side branch resonators.
The test set up used by them is shown in Fig. 19. Based on the
experiments and the use of CAM, PWAM, and EBM models
[23,24], it was successfully demonstrated that the multiple side
branch system can indeed be used to explain the whistling
phenomenon in a corrugated tube. To summarize, the literature

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 Fig. 17 Input impedance of smooth (complete line), and corrugated (dashed line) pipes of
equal length in the no flow case. (Adopted from (a) Kristiansen et al. [70] with permission from
Acoustic Society of America, and (b) Taylor et al. [28].)

Fig. 18 Experimental set up used for IL measurement and the measured IL value of smooth
and corrugated pipes [28]

review reveals that different researchers used different experimen-
tal set ups to study the acoustics of corrugated pipes. Some experi-
ments are simple to set up [9] and some are complex and involve
a lot of instrumentation [23].
Fig. 19 Experimental setups for measuring the resonant fre-
quency and fluctuating acoustic pressure amplitude for (a) cor-
rugated pipes and (b) multiple side branch system. (Adopted
from Ref. [24] with permission from Elsevier.)
4 Acoustics of Corrugated Pipes: Computational and
Numerical Study
To understand the flow physics in acoustics of corrugated pipe,
some researchers used CFD as a tool to study the shear layer insta-
bility in different flow regime and to predict resonant frequency of
a pipe. As we could see from the study of Crawford [9], turbu-
lence of a Reynolds number of 2000 is required to force the pipe
to sing, but a later study by Cadwell [11] noted that flow with a
Reynolds number of 500 is sufficient to make the pipe to whistle.
To do an experiment on a wind tunnel for varying range of flow
velocities, it is often time consuming and expensive. Hence,
acoustic engineers used the computational techniques such as
CFD and other numerical techniques for the acoustics of a corru-
gated tube. In this section, we will briefly outline the computa-
tional techniques reported in literature for this type of analysis.
The earliest available paper which reported the application of
commercial CFD software (FLUENT) to predict the resonances
due to flow in corrugated tube is Taylor et al. [28], which used
the k  e steady flow model to solve the Navier–Stokes (N–S)
equation. Taylor et al. [28] simulated the model for a minimum
Reynolds number of 6000 to maximum Reynolds number of
26,000. For the simulation, Ref. [28] used a square and narrow
cavity profile and noticed a formation of vorticity inside the
tube closer to corrugations which was also noted by Hardin [135].
Taylor et al. [28] concluded that the location of the sound source
is at the leading edge of corrugations by observing the presence of
coherent vortices at the leading edge of the cavity.
Blackburn et al. [79,81] employed DNS, which solves the full
N–S equation, to carry out flow simulation in the circular pipe
with smoothly corrugated walls where the streamwise wavelength
of the corrugations is long (hundreds of wall units), and the corru-
gation amplitude is a variable parameter. It was observed that,

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 Table 3 Summary of wavy walled geometric parameters used
þ
for CFD–DNS (where, h10 4 is the peak to peak corrugation
height expressed in wall units at ReD 5 104. V/V0 is the domain
volume normalized by that for the smooth pipe. S/S0 is the do-
main surface area normalized by that for the smooth pipe) [79].

Label hþ
104 h/D Rmin/D V/V0 S/S0

A 0 0 0.5 1.00000 1.00000

B 5 0.00795 0.49602 1.00003 1.00794
C 10 0.0159 0.49205 1.00013 1.01533
D 20 0.03181 0.4841 1.00051 1.03186
E 30 0.04771 0.47615 1.00114 1.04788
F 40 0.06361 0.46819 1.00202 1.06397
G 50 0.07952 0.46024 1.00316 1.08013

Fig. 21 Streamlines and contours of pressure (dark gray repre-

sents low pressure) for laminar flow at ReD 5 2050, geometry
case G, CFD–DNS simulation [79], and FLUENT LES simulation
[83]

Fig. 20 Types of corrugated pipe used for DNS [79] and LES
[83] flow simulations
even in the laminar flow regime, the larger corrugation heights
produce flow separation and the proportion of pressure drop that
is attributable to pressure drag can be of order 50%, rising to
approximately 85% in a turbulent flow. In a turbulent flow, the
near-wall structure is heavily influenced by the effects of flow
separation and reattachment. When the corrugation height
increases, pressure drag makes an increasingly large contribution
to the total friction for both laminar as well as turbulent flow
cases. The geometry of the tubes used for the DNS simulation is
given in Table 3 and in Fig. 20(a). The simulated streamlines and
contours of pressure for laminar flow regime for larger corruga-
tion height are shown in Fig. 21. Although Blackburn et al. [79]
did not exactly simulate the acoustical aspect of corrugated pipe,
they showed that the DNS-unsteady model could be used for cor-
rugated pipes. For the simulation, Blackburn et al. [79] used their
own code and used the spectral element/Fourier discretization
scheme for the simulation (Fourier expansions are employed in
the azimuthal coordinate, spectral elements in the meridional
semiplane [80]). For the laminar flow simulations, Blackburn
et al. [79] used single corrugation and utilized the periodic bound-
ary conditions whereas in turbulent flow, the whole domain is
solved.
Recently, the application of unsteady-LES to corrugated pipes
has been reported by Popsecu et al. [82], Rajavel et al. [83], and
Brac et al. [84]. For LES simulation, they used ANSYS–FLUENT
software [82–84]. The simulation carried out was for single cav-
ity when the flow is laminar and for full corrugations when the
fluid flow is fully turbulent. The single cavity studies reveal that
the vortex shedding occurs closer to the corrugation and the full
corrugation study shows the presence of standing wave. For the
LES simulations, Rajavel et al. [83] adopted boundary layer type
mesh approach to meet the yþ and CFL conditions. The mesh
created using this approach is shown in Fig. 20(b). The stream-
lines of single corrugation simulated using DNS and LES is
shown in Fig. 21. It found that there is a closer agreement
between DNS and LES data. The pressure contours of a single
cavity unsteady-LES CFD result is shown in Fig. 22, and the
static pressure contour which shows the presence of a standing
wave is shown in Fig. 23. The authors of Ref. [82] also found in
their simulation that the sound source inside the corrugation is
dipole and the simulation results agree well with experimental
data (Kristiansen et al. [70]) and the theoretical model (CAM).
The experimental and predicted resonance frequencies of corru-
gated pipe using the CAM model and CFD–LES model is given
in Table 4. From Table 4, we could observe that predicted whis-
tling frequencies using the CFD–LES model agreeing quite well
(less than 4% error) with measured data, unlike the CAM model,
which overpredicts the frequency with more than 10% error.
Based on the LES simulations, the authors of Ref. [82] also
developed a one-dimensional nonlinear model of acoustics of
corrugated pipe based on the Van der Pol equation [128–130],
which has been explained in detail in Sec. 2.8. Brac et al. [84]
developed a 2D linear model based on the Orr–Sommerfeld for-
mulation [84,136–138]. Based on this formulation, Brac et al.
[84] calculated the wavelengths of the shear layer instability
waves inside the corrugated cavity of singing risers. Brac et al.
also obtained the location of the eigenfunction inside the cavity,
which is related to the magnitude of the instability waves.
4.1 Discussions and Applications of Various Numerical
Models to Corrugated Tubes. We can see that computational
and numerical techniques can also be employed apart from using
the traditional theoretical and experimental techniques. The CFD
techniques such as DNS, LES, and quasi-laminar model based
RANS approach can be used efficiently to predict the resonant

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 Fig. 22 CFD–LES results of Pressure (Pa) distribution around the cavity, u 5 18 m/s, t 5 0.005 s; (a) pitch 5 5.3 mm, (b)
pitch 5 8 mm (2D axisymetric, LES (Smagorinsky model), M < 0.01, time step of 1 ls, single cavity, mass flux periodic condition
is assumed for this analysis). (Reprinted from Ref. [82] with permission.)

Fig. 23 CFD–LES results of static pressure on the axis of the pipe; u 5 18 m/s, t 5 0.3047 s: (a) axial pressure, (b) pressure con-
tours (pitch 5 5.3 mm, length of the pipe 5 0.614 m, total number of corrugation 5 106). (Reprinted from Ref. [82] with permission.)

Table 4 Comparisons of measured [70], predicted (using CAM model [37]), and CFD–LES model [82] for calculating the resonant
frequencies of a corrugated pipe. (Data used from Ref. [82] with permission.)

Mode Measured Predicted frequency Computed frequency fM  fCAM fM fLES

100% Mean flow Strouhal
number frequency, fM (Hz) (CAM), fCAM (Hz) (CFD–LES), fLES (Hz) 100% fM
velocity Uðm=sÞ Number (St)
fM

3 740 815 767 10.135 3.648 5.5 0.71

4 990 1087 980 9.798 1.01 8 0.65
5 1230 1358 1275 10.407 3.659 9.5 0.71

whistling frequencies in corrugated pipes with flow. However,
similar to the various theoretical models such as EBM and
PWAM, the prediction of sound pressure level is not accurate.
Other numerical approaches such as unsteady RANs model [98]
and Lattice–Boltzman based CFD model [101] have also reported
this shortcoming and it is required to be improved upon before
applying to corrugated tubes. CFD–DES is another numerical
technique which has not yet been explored for corrugated tube
application. Another numerical approach which combines the
CFD–DNS or LES unsteady data with proper orthogonal decom-
position (POD) and Galarkin projections (GS) is promising. This
CFD–POD/GS technique is successfully applied for incompressi-
ble and compressible flow applications in open cavity acoustics
[41,42,139,140]. This POD technique not only captures the
dominant acoustic energy modes, but also the coherent vortex
structures that can be visualized very effectively during recon-
struction phase.
5 Acoustics of Corrugated Pipes: Noise Reduction
Study
The singing of a corrugated tube not only generates musical
tones as we observe in “Voice of the Dragon” or in “Magic
Whistle,” but could also have detrimental effects in some house-
hold appliances and offshore structures of oil and gas rigs. Petrie
et al. [17] tried to reduce the sound generation in a corrugated
pipe by introducing wrinkles closer to corrugation and they
observed a reduced sound pressure level compared to a smooth
corrugated pipe. The suppressed sound pressure level of a wrin-
kled tube wall and unsuppressed sound pressure level of the
smooth corrugated tube is shown in Fig. 24. The author’s explana-
tion for the lesser amplitude for wrinkled tube is that the wrinkling
of the wall would alter the vortex shedding mechanism which is
responsible for noise generation. They also noted that the intro-
duction of smooth pipe upstream of the corrugations would also

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 Fig. 26 Suppression of whistling amplitude in a corrugated
tube using active control technique [21]

(255 Hz), they observed the reduction in sound pressure level

Fig. 24 Comparison of sound pressure level (dB) versus spec-
tral frequency (Hz) for (a) smooth corrugated tube and (b) wrin-
kled corrugated tube. (Adopted from Ref. [17] with permission
from Elsevier.)
reduce the sound pressure level [17]. The comparison of the two
cases is shown in Fig. 25. The same observation is also reported
by Elliott [37] and it was observed that the singing could be elimi-
nated completely by introducing a certain length of(this length
varies for different cases of pipe geometry and flow condition)
smooth pipe upstream of the corrugations. However, this requires
further investigation because the study by Taylor et al. [28]
reveals the presence of smooth pipe at the upstream and down-
stream end of corrugated pipe is necessary to make the pipe sing;
if not, then the pipe would not whistle, which is contrary to
Elliott’s [37] observation. Taylor et al. [28] also noted that the
sound pressure level reduced considerably by the removal of
smooth pipes at upstream and downstream to corrugations when
they carried out the experiments on the “Magic Whistle.” Hamm-
ache et al. [21] found that cutting a narrow band along its length
of pipe, so as to break the continuity of the corrugations, was
effectively suppressing the sound. Hammache et al. [21] also used
an active control technique similar to Lang et al. [141] to reduce
the noise. For this, Hammache et al. [21] used 12 small speakers
positioned in a circumference around the first cavity of the corru-
gated tube. By forcing the cavity at an arbitrary frequency
substantially at a low velocity case and less or no reduction at
high velocity flow, which is shown in Fig. 26. The study of Dear
et al. [142] reveals that varying pitch in the corrugations instead
of constant pitch tube will completely eliminate the sound in the
corrugated pipe. Gans et al. [143] observed that whistling can be
reduced or eliminated in a corrugated tube used in a vacuum
cleaner by altering the depth and width of the two adjacent corru-
gations. In this design, all the odd number of cavities would have
longer depth and larger width compared to even number of cav-
ities or vice versa. Shelter et al. [144] and Romero [145] found
that roughening the interior surface of the uncorrugated segments
(referred to as wc in Fig. 1) of the corrugated tube by providing
protrusions or indentations or grooves prevents the formation of
audible harmonics in vacuum cleaner application. A similar obser-
vation was also reported by Ballone [146], in which a flexible
duct with a corrugated double wall with uneven thickness between
the outer and inner wall would reduce the noise significantly in
the exhaust pipe of an automobile. In this double wall corrugated
construction, Ballone observed that having a lesser thickness layer
at the outside and a larger thickness at the inside would give lesser
noise, increased fatigue resistance to stresses, thus increased rigid-
ity compared to the same thickness of double layer construction.
Diels et al. [147] reported that a corrugated flexible tube which
has a ratio Wc/lcof more than 2.2 would reduce the whistling pro-
vided the uncorrugated segment (Wc) should have substantial
smooth and flat face. Diels [148] also observed that designing a
corrugated flexible hose with a smooth inner and/or outer wall by
closing the cavity width segment would reduce the whistling and
at the same time retains the required flexibility and rigidity. How-
ever, designs of these types of corrugated tubes are complicated.
Parpart et al. [149] designed a nonwhistling corrugated tube,

Fig. 25 Sound pressure level (dB) versus Whistling frequency (Hz) for (a) “Single”
corrugation and different upstream lengths, and (b) “188” corrugations and differ-
ent upstream lengths. (a) for “Single” corrugation, pitch 6 mm, depth 5 mm; (b) for
188 corrugations, pitch 6 mm; L1 5 0.63 m, L2 5 1.33 m. (Adopted from Ref. [17]
with permission from Elsevier.)

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 which contains slanted cavities (lc,inner > lc,outer) like spur gear ge-
ometry, and found that this type of cavity design reduces whistling
significantly. In this design, other than having slanted cavities, the
volume ratio between uncorrugated segment to corrugated seg-
ment Wc;volume =lc;volume should be maintained between 0.1 to 0.2
to achieve the noise reduction. Angus et al. [150] observed that
corrugation tube of uniform height and thickness, wherein the cor-
rugations from successively repeating patterns comprising a first
segment of noncompressed corrugations and a second segment of
axially compressed corrugations, would eliminate or greatly
reduce the whistling noise. Kop’ev et al. [151] observed that
designing corrugated cavities with two sets of pitch and amplitude
(cavity depth dc) will reduce the noise and associated vibration in
corrugated pipes. The pitch ratio of 0.3 to 0.9 and amplitude ratio
of 0.8 to 1.2 are used for the design. The two sets of pitch and cor-
responding amplitudes can be arranged sequentially or alterna-
tively. Both the design features would give the required noise and
vibration reduction. However, these claims [142–151] are to be
researched further because Hammache et al. [21] showed that
even single corrugation is enough to cause the pipe to whistle.
6 Conclusions
A corrugated pipe open at both ends emits clear and loud tones
when air flows through it at sufficiently high velocities. This tone
generation, also called as whistling or singing, is an example of
aeroacoustic phenomenon. This is due to interaction of airflow
with the longitudinal acoustic modes of the pipe to give rise to
self-sustained oscillations due to impinging shear-layer-instabil-
ity. The instabilities are due to vortex shedding occurring at the
axisymmetric corrugation cavities. With the use of corrugated
pipes, we can create clear musical tones in toys such as
“Hummer” or “Magic Whistle”; however, the tone generation can
also lead to severe noise problem in certain engineering applica-
tions such as vacuum cleaners, ventilation system, flexible risers
in offshore natural gas and oil exploration systems and heat
exchangers [152]. In addition to severe environmental noise prob-
lem, flow-acoustic coupling observed in corrugated pipes can
cause a significant structural vibration due to flow-acoustic-struc-
ture interaction. Vibrations thus induced would result in severe
damage to machinery and offshore pipe lines that use corrugated
pipes.
In this paper, a literature review of acoustics of corrugated pipe
has been carried out. All the available theories in literature, which
are used to explain the singing phenomenon in corrugated pipes
and relevant equations, which the acoustic engineers can use read-
ily to calculate the resonant acoustic frequencies and sound pres-
sure amplitude, are presented. It is noted from the review that the
CAM model is more suitable for corrugated tube application and
Binnie’s model is more suitable for a side branch type system. It
is also observed that there is no single model available that will
predict accurately the sound pressure amplitude. The Van der Pol
oscillator type 1D phenomenological model looks promising in
this aspect compared to the EBM model proposed by Tonon et al.
[23] and Nakiboglu et al. [91]. In the case of musical applications
of corrugated tube, a rotating corrugation tube model, as described
by Serafin et al. [14] and modified model proposed by Nakiboglu
et al. [102], can be used. The recently reported work of Kistiansen
et al. [70] and Kop’ev et al. [100] which utilize the external source
(speaker) as a controlling factor, similar to active control tech-
nique by Hammache et al. [21], looks promising for noise control
applications. However, these models also require further investi-
gations for their efficacy in different types of corrugated pipes and
geometries.
The paper also reviews the experimental, numerical, and
computational work carried out by various researchers. It seems
that numerical techniques such as quasi-laminar, unsteady
CFD–RANS, and LES models predict the whistling frequencies
with reasonable success. It is noted that turbulence modeling such
as LES predicts [82,129] the resonance frequencies reasonably
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well compared to measurements. Also, U-RANS [91,98,102] can
be used to predict the velocity profile developed in a corrugated
pipe. This is important because, as was demonstrated [89], the
resulting whistling phenomenon depends on the velocity profile
developed at the inlet of the pipe. It is also noted in this review
that CFD–DES has not been attempted by any researchers yet, in
addition to POD and Dynamic POD [153], coupled with Galerkin
projection techniques [41,42,139,140], which are used in the area
of open cavity acoustics research. The researchers could use the
POD methods to study the coherent vortex structure formation in
corrugated pipes, shear layer mode formation in shallow cavities
and wake mode formation in deep cavities such as side branch
resonators.
It is observed that most recent and earlier works focused on
understating the whistling mechanism, prediction of resonant fre-
quency, and prediction of whistling pressure amplitude. Very lim-
ited numbers of papers [142–151] are available on noise reduction
studies. All the noise reduction mechanisms available in the litera-
ture such as active control techniques [21] and passive control
techniques, such as introduction of wrinkles at the leading and
trailing edges of the cavities [17], are explained. In this review,
we have excluded the flow-structure interaction problem which
would arise due to flow-acoustic-structure coupling; the primary
focus of this review paper is the aeroacoustic part of the corru-
gated pipe due to airflow. Readers interested in the fluid acous-
tic–structural coupling problem can refer to Refs. [154–159]. The
authors hope that the review given here is useful for the research-
ers on this subject and will help to address some of the issues
reported in the literature, such as why the fundamental tone of the
pipe is not excited, how to effectively predict the sound pressure
amplitude, singing frequencies on all mode numbers for different
types of corrugated pipe geometry and flow conditions, and the
effectiveness of noise reduction mechanisms.
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