What is a discipline

A discipline is a systematic body of knowledge that has its own founding fathers its own technical
vocabulary and its own subject matter

Western knowledge refuses to accept as knowledge forms of knowledge that do not have founding
fathers.

Comparative politics : competitive politics is master subfield because it is what makes political
science scientific

Political science is able to reach conclusions that are valid across space and time or universally valid

Disciplinary knowledge: A known and understood system of knowledge, an order of knowledge.

The universal body of knowledge that is comprehensible to everyone. Much universal what is
universal is modern consciousness what is universal is the capability of people to be able to decode
the knowledge.

Modern meaning totality is the universally understood language of political science.

modern meaning totality has a definition for all aspects of life it gives meaning to everything, it is all-
encompassing, it creates a universal mode of thinking. When morning meaning totality emerged it
transformed everything

It makes itself felt empirically through modern consciousness.

It emerges in the modern era, pre modern dinges were different from one another because they
defined everything differently before the modern era.

Before the modern era there was the mediaeval era

mediaeval period

Pre capitalist. Or Marxist. Or pre industrialist.

Governed by the church- theocracy

Governed by divine rulers who considered themselves gods.

They are representatives of God on earth.

the hierarchical organisation of the cosmos:

man then animals then plants then objects

The great chain of being was the meaning totality of mediaeval times

Man one man 2 whatever is below men is available foreman's use as well

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Existential questions will considered sacrilege, all answers were considered to be available in
scripture

Man was not allowed to think .

The great chain of being had to give way to today's modern meaning totalities.

Modern consciousness is not physical but is a way of thinking

Beyond men there is a transcendental God from womb flowed all kinds of authority

It was God's will for the hierarchy to exist.

The only thought that was permissible was Christian thoughts

It was the kind of thought that was in conformity with the chain of being.

Three shifts that happen in the mind of Europe.

1. the cartesian revolution led by Rene descartes

2. The scientific revolution also known as the corpenigan revolution led by corpenicus the
mathematician
3. The religious formation led by Martin Luther Lutheranism.

Lutheran thoughts: the ability to interpret scripture is not exclusive to priests of that time.
priesthood for all

Corpenicus: We can explain anything in the world with mathematical precision

Taxonomist (Linneaus): the object was to name and categorise every living being in the world
including plans and animals

European characteristic of knowledge is that all knowledge and ideas must have a proprietor a
founding father.

It was the collective force of these ideas that crippled old thoughts or order of knowledge and gave
way to modern meaning totality. that led to the dislocation of the mediaeval order of things. They
were trying to get out of the oppressive system which is the mediaeval order of things

The cartesian revolution.

Rene descartes sits at the foundation of modern disciplinary knowledge he gives us the concept of
rationality

He has the most profound impact on modern disciplinary knowledge

His question: what is the basis of man. He wanted to answer the question what is the essence of man

This question goes against the mediaeval order becausr it was not permissible and the answers were
supposedly in scripture

He embarked on what he called radical doubt or radical scepticism.

He put under doubt everything you had previously known until he arrived at that one thing he can't
doubt which is indubitable and this becomes the foundation of all knowledge.

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to Rene Descartes the indubitable is Cogito ego sum, I think therefore I am.

this then establishes the basis 4 knowledge.

This is also the basis for his own existence

This established his man as the basis for thought instead of the transcendental God

He substitutes God for men crippling the great chain of being .

The European man then thought of himself possessed of gods power over the world that they have
the rights to organise the world the way they wish.

The only attributes of being human was being a thinker.

The revolution is all work together in such a way that the great chain of being breaks, everyone is
allowed to interpret scripture, scientific precision is used to explain unexplained phenomena.

Rene descartes then says if you have reason it means you have reached the archimedian point of
knowledge where knowledge is without hindrance, the ability to explain everything based on reason
it is also called the apodictic point which means a clearly established point.

Consciousness is universal

Reason is universal.

Reason is unencumbered--meaning it is neither limited by time space or culture, you can explain
anything and everything.

Cartesian duality

Body --- soul

Object --- subject

Rest extensor --- res cogitans

Emotion --- reason

Rene descartes says that his mind/consciousness is contained in the rest cogitans.

And his body is just his carrier the res extensa.

He says man is it thinking being

man is also a rational animal

Man is also consciousness

There is a sense of men is entirely dependent on being a thinking being.

This was the basis of accepting anyone into the human fold.

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As the cartesian revolution was happening Europe was emerging into the modern industrial period.
The era of modern meaning totality is the era of the modern industrial period.

modernity is capitalism --modern industrial period is capitalism. This is all backed by power and the
market.

Authority today is to underwrite modern meaning totality.

Modernity seizes to recognise people as human beings you either become statistics or the average or
the standard(norm).

One of the things that happened as a result of the cartesian revolution is that we came about the
concept of human beings as we know it today

To be included or excluded from the boundaries of humanity depended on whether you possess
reason or not.

What have been the implications of cartesian reasoning on the black colonised.

Norms of human difference suggests that it is not right to hold another human being as a thing that
you own. But reason being white excluded black people, therefore blacks were excluded in the
boundaries of humanity.

Reason became justification for slavery under the guise of teaching black people to be human.

Yeah we understand that reason considers itself as a transhistorical and transcultural thing, meaning
you can, in the present, era project reason to an era where reason didn't exist and judge.

The western mode of life became the standard to which everything is done.

European man establishes the hierarchy of races.

This western way of thinking is inherently oppressive or non western people.

The discipline of political science

Has its own:

 founding fathers
 Subject matter
 Technical vocabulary
 Methods

there is a multidisciplinary perspective (working across disciplines)

dis aggregated into cell field

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subfields of political science

 Political theory
 Competitive politics --it is what enables political scientists to reach conclusions that are
universally valid.
 International relations
 Political dynamics/behaviour
 Public administration

Definitions of political science (how the discipline defines itself)

 Handled lesswell -- the determination of who gets what, when, and how.
 David Easton -- it is the authoritative allocation of value.
 Robert Dahl -- politics is ubiquitous... Meaning it is present everywhere.
 chairman Mao --- politics is nothing but a continuation of war by other means. With friends
you use reason, with enemies you use force.

Definitions are limited because they are backed by power even when they are wrong they are
continued to be taught this is only cause they are backed with power.

the first approved was the legal institutional approach (the study of the institution of government)

it is the formal discipline of political science which started in 1920 in America

It was only concerned with the institution or below or the institution of government it excluded all
institutions that weren't about law. what Karl Marx Cause this is Thomas Kuhn calls a dominant
paradigm’

Thomas Kuhn says that in any point in time in the life of any discipline there is a dominant paradigm
which gets challenged by another paradigm this is how discipline's or knowledge progress is

The development of the discipline progressed on the basis of one approach replacing the other.

The dialectic says there is a two way flow. The dominance paradigm is resisting giving in from the
push of a new paradigm. Then you better damn is pushing the old pattern time out in this way there
is a two way flow between the two. These better times tell us about the limitations of approaches
because as soon as a discipline or approach with unable to answer the question is that it's posed
upon it gets pushed back by new paradigm.

Side note --- institutional = thesis

Behavioural = anti thesis

the result is the synthesis.

an approach is nothing but a criteria of selection which is the criteria you use in order to select the
kind of questions or problems you want to study and the kind of data how you want to summon to
answer the questions.

It only looks at part of the reality.

 Institutions are regularised patterns of collective behaviour

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  with institutionsthe supposition was that people do exactly as the law provides
 It was assumed then people didn't have the human defect of using or manipulating the law
to their own advantage.
 The legal institutional approach left out there is the tuition of the family.
 when Hitler manipulated democracy, political scientists couldn't explain how we did it
becausr he had done everything according to the legal approach.
 Approaches or paradigms lose dominance when it cannot answer all the questions it is faced
with as with the case of Hitler.
 Political science had to rethink its categories therefore crumbling the legal approach
paradigm.
 Even though Hitler had done atrocities and had given political science something to think
about. there have been many atrocities done to the black colonised that political science had
ignored.

Behaviouralism/the behavioural approach (the antithesis of the institutional approach) human

motivation.

 1950 onwards the behavioural approach was on an ascendancy

 From here there is an importation of statistics
 Behavioural approach -- sociological (family)
historical
Psychological
Economical

Ideographic statements I statements there's a limited in valididty across space and time.

nomothetic statements statements that are a generalisation and true across space and time.

the Holocaust made political sciences see the political science tools of analysis were inadequate
because they weren't able to make them see that the Holocaust would happen irrespective of the
law and the law on its own is not enough to guarantee democracy.

Put exaggerating his categories and this ushered in the behavioural approach(dialectics).

Behaviouralism is the importation of the use of statistics into the social sciences.

The behavioural revolution gifted the social sciences true statistics the use of the method of
postulation by substitution .

Postulation by substitution substitutes a real political system with x to make it's a variable in order to
categorise it into systems that have the same variables political science is interested in studying
political systems not countries.

Behaviouralism wanted to be scientific cause it wanted to make nomothetic statements

Science wants to explain and predict

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The quest for knowledge begins with a hypothesis which is a theory with zero based validity and
ends with the hypothesis is that has either been verified or falsified.

David eastern's system analysis

he thinks of political systems as a biological system such as the human system.

Subsystems are integrated as if one subsystem and if one subsystem doesn't work properly it affects
the whole system it affects that you could liberal which was never calculated was their political
systems were constituted by people who have differences in races and social standing.

Race itself is a model to understand political systemsstop

Demands of white people come institutionalised.

Procedure of a scientific method.

 Step one --- Hypothesis/theory that has zero based validity. must be done through available
data.
 Step 2 --- operationalization of concepts (exclude contents that you are not interested in).
 Step 3 --- data gathering (methods of gathering data must be appropriate methods which
match the hypothesis.
 Step 4 --- data analysis (qualitative or quantitative data/determines the conclusion)
 Step 5 --- generalisation/conclusion. nomothetic statement.

Open-ended questions have an answer that has more feeling, qualitative.

Closed ended questions either have yes or no answers, quantitative(no grey areas).

Qualitative versus Quantitative methods.

Quantitative methods

quantitative studies I studies that measure and calculate with exactitude.

A quasi quantitative statement is an approximation (use of the word frequency/not exactly).

Close ended questions.

for it to be a quantitative study it has to use a quantitative method throughout, there are rules to
abide by such as determinant questions.

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Qualitative methods

Open-ended questions it can use numbers but the use of numbers doesn't qualify them to be
quantitative.

fact versus value dichotomy

value (normative truths)

 Normative
 Concerned with what ought to be.
 These are questions of value within the society --- how a society ought to be run.

Facts

 Refers to what is (White has been validated by empirical evidence)

 Uses empirical validation.

 Facts deal with descriptive statements

 Value looks at normative statements which means they depend on the subjective view of
people while the statements of facts are objective.

A political continuum by Austin Ranney

Radical left---------------------liberal(centre)-----------------------conservative right

 Quote systems looked at where two party dominant systems

 It is more of an economic ideology
 Both sides are distinguished by their orientation towards the economy
 None of the sides disputes capitalism
 The left I looked at as the people advocating for change against the status quo
 The right looked at the people who want the status quo to remain as it is

Political parties in the colonised world a nerd about the economy but about colonisation, the
restoration of the country and their humanity.

Nationalism is the driving point to fight colonisation.

In the colonial world political parties are organised based on:

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  Nationalism
 Race

The political continuum is unable to accommodate race.

The structure of a scientific explanation

 The deductive monological model by Karl Hempel

 The covering law of generalisations
 Deductive reasoning is the kind of reasoning that moves from the general to the particular
 Deductive reasoning helps us reach conclusions that are universal
 Inductive reasoning does not allow us to reach a low like statement
 The most important aspect in the model is the dependent variable
o The dependent variable is what you seek to explain
o You use the independent variable to explain the dependent version
o According to Karl hampel any scientific explanation should begin with a dependent
variable and then a relationship has to be established between the two.
o Relationships can be direct (casual)/indirect(cause)
o It may search the right environment for independent variable to occur.

EXPLANANS = INDEPENDENT VARIABLE.

EXPLANANDUM (singular)/EXPLICANDA (plural)= DEPENDANT VARIABLE.

The dependent variable is the logical conditions that facilitate the independent variable.

Law-like statements (L1L2L3L4) and Initial Conditions(C1C2C3C4) are the EXPLANANS.

Any good Thierry is categorised by parsimony (using as few available variables to explain something)

The Law like statements on their own and not sufficient, it is the initial conditions that make them
possible.

Describe---prescientific

Explain- predict----deep science.

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 Discipline based approaches

1. politics plus econonmics = Marxism and liberalism

2. Politics plus psychology = political behaviour
3. Politics plus sociology = political sociology
4. Politics plus philosophy = political philosophy. An inquiry into a Epistemology.
5. Politics and geography = political geography (human geography)

you don't appropriately and physically only but also cognitively

Cognitive appropriation example the change of names of land was to erase their meaning to the
original owners, removing it from the intellectual map of the owners.

Race/racism

The definition of race images from modern race science

Major disciplines that constituted modern race science:

 Comparative anatomy
 Physical anthropology (Phrenology)
 Taxonomy

Comparative anatomy

 All human beings are not of the same anatomical makeup

 Completely different sexual temperament
 The point was to prove superiority through evidence that the Europeans a measured and
cultured in the way they engage in sexual activity based on that their sexual organs you
weren't overdeveloped

Physical anthropology

 Concerned with the measuring of the skulls of different human races.

 The supposition was that intelligence can be determined by the shape of the head
 a certain shape of skull is determinate of ones intelligence
 It went to say that Europeans add epitome of intelligence
 Black people have to prove intelligence. a significant of lack

Taxonomy

 the interest was the categorisation of Human beings

 The three human categories:
o Caucasoids
o Mongloids moral order of categorisation
o Negroids

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Categories govern forms of interaction they are in order of relations caucasoids become the standard
of how the other categories can be judged or measured. the other categories had to endeavour to
become the Caucasoids.

Human beings are allocated in two types

Genetic vitality was preserved for caucasoids in order to preserve this genetic vitality or purity
interracial sex was prohibited

Eugenics discovered that within the race there are people with inferior genetic compositions
(disabled people)

If one was found with human defects at birth they were discardedwho stop

And then eugenics discovered another inferior genetic composition in the Jews

Hitler then took that to its logical conclusion by trying to annihilate the Jews

UNESCO had a review of the conclusions of modern race science

The first committee said there isn't race difference/ there wasn't any basis to categorise race.

Second committee said people can be of different genetic structure next time both committees were
only concluded based on the Holocaust

But there has been annihilation of the Congolese by the Belgian king Leopold but UNESCO didn't bat
and eye. This is why we see modern political science fails to see human suffering if it is suffered by
black people. Looks like prior to Holocaust the word genocide did not exist even though they were
many massacres done on black people. Hitler's act delegitimized the legal institutional approach.

identity is not the problem the problem is when society uses identity/biology as the basis of
allocation of value

Since conclusions can be changed by political intervention, politics can be ahead of science.

The world began to think about race as a social construct

Constructivist's began to view race as a social construct.

they said there is no empirical evidence of race

Race became thoughts of as akin to ethnicity/ a social identity

Clifford Geertz Distinguishes between the Givens of life and acquired identity

Features to identify social identities:

 Relative/relational --- distinguishes from one another. An identity in relation to another.

 Flux(state of flux) --- depending on the context, social identity changes (If you leave as a
coloured person in South Africa and go to America you become black
 Givens --- These are the Givens of life example being born black.
 All all identity's have two elements:
o Empirical/ objective markers:
 These are observable empirical markers

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  They are what we call phenotypical markers, they identify race and outside
observable features.

o Psychosocial/Subjective markers:
 Role identification /role socialisation
 Roll allocation
 This is an acquired identity

Weather white people say they are not racist they still enjoy raise allocation privileges. We say it is a
social construct becausr it is combined with the psychosocial element of social identity.

Social hierarchy of South Africa:

White ---- structural position of advantage

Asian/Indian

Coloured

Black ----- structural position of disadvantage

You are already located a role in society and society knew how to treat you.

Structural position enjoyed in relation to other people who don't have a good structural standing

Relative to white people it tells us how advantaged you are.

Relative to black people it tells us how disadvantaged

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 The impossibility of friendship between white people and black people

reason cannot be friends with unreason.

Reason is at the centre of the human categories so if man is reason and reason is white it is
justification for colonialism. Once man, European man, became possessed of reason the then
became modern subjects

Man became the subject of knowledge and no longer the object of knowledge(European man)

“The light of reason flows from the subject to the object”- descartes

white = The human category--also the primary category--subject--the source of authority and
knowledge the base is full legitimate authority has to be men and not God anymore.

Black= the non being category--also the secondary category--the object-have those who do not
possess reason reason doesn't radiate from them they are objects.

Social constructs theory say that's the sovereign is the people that they can only be one kind of
authority which is the authority of the people so the subject(white) is the subject of all authority and
knowledge leaving the object(black) the one which authority is imposed on.

Therefore objects are defined by subjects. The relationship between the subject and the object is
equal to the relationship between black and white Stop the basis of the category of “subject” is the
exclusion of black people. Therefore if the struggle to become human is to be white Then black
people will never win becausr the basis of the human categories is to exclude black people.
Independence never dismantled the structure.

The subject-----------the object

The light of reason shines from the subject to the object

People of colour have tried to return the gaze or the light of reason back to the subject, but this only
means that the acknowledge themselves as objects.

The relationship will always be from the primary to the secondary.

The nature of an asymmetrical relationship is that the object must lose its place or culture to
assimilate the culture of the subject.

The object must learn the ways of the subject

The asymmetry is already establish by the structure and is not dependent on the individual person.

Blackness is the orthopaedic support for whiteness. For white in order to claim superiority it must be
from the lacking off the black.

Black must go through social death, one must be an object in order for the other to be a subjectstop

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We can only aim to be civil

at its core there is a supposition that's the problem of racism is a problem of unequal economic
power.

Unequal economic power is not is sufficient aspect of ending racism it is a necessary topic or
component of the problem but not a sufficient one in order to undo this problem we must undo the
structure itself.

The problem the with racism

Reason is at the centre of human categories.

So if man is reason and reason being white it was justification for colonisation

once European men were possessed of reason they became modern subjects.

This then means they are the source of knowledge.

They ceased to become the object of knowledge.

The light of reason flows from the subjects to the object.

The white man becomes human and the subject of authourity and knowledgestop

The black man becomes a non being -An object. One who does not possess reason.

And logically objects are defined by subjects.

Fanon says if the struggle is to become human essentially the struggle is then to become white
because the category gains its meaning from the other if the category admitted black people then it
would collapse.

The relationship will always be from the primary to the secondary.

The relationship is asymmetrical as it dictates that the object lose its identity or culture to assimilate
the culture of the subject.

Blackness is then the orthopaedic support for whiteness 'cause it's props up the light man.

In order to claim superiority it must be from the lacking of the black, blacks must go through social
death.

Tabani mangani says the problem of raises A sociogeny

2 schemers:

 the personal schema---this is what you yourself as an individual determines for yourself the
sexual orientation.
 The social schema--this is the schema given to you by society society decides for you who
you are we can only experience the world through our bodies.
 Black people's personal schema is never In Sync with the social scheme for white people
both schemas are In Sync.

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Colonisation

15
1.understanding colonialism is always in flux.
2.But the known understanding is the domination of one country by another.
3.The effective termination of the continent comes into existence in 1884/85 with the Berlin
conference which was done to draw a map of who owns watch in the continent. But colonisation
was already there.
4.Organisation in the continent took two forms:
 colonies of domination
 colonies of settlement
colonies of domination
 these are found in the West of Africa and a little into central Africa.
 Colonies of domination where those colonies that the colonisers were content to
dominate politically in order to enable the extraction of economic resources
 Independence was marked by the disappearance of physical presence of the colonisers
 there were very few colonial administrators when independence came the pets the bags
and left.
 Independence came via peaceful means.
 There was a conference and that conference took the name of the city where it was held.
 It often had a very peaceful political culture
 many of the colonies of domination gained independence earlier relative to colonies of
settlement

colonies of settlement
 not only dominated politically but were turned into the colonisers homes.
 Settlers came in large numbers and preparation training had been done.
 Colonies of settlement were very late in gaining their independence.
 Do you graphically found in the South of Africa and sub-Saharan Africa.
 Examples are South Africa (1994), Mozambique (1975), Angola (1975), Kenya, Zimbabwe
(1980), Tanzania, Carpe Verde, Sub-Saharan Namibia (1989).
 The settlers resisted granting independence to colonies.
 Independence came via armed liberation struggle.
 Race was the determinant of everything.
 There is a generalised culture of violence, violence was legitimised and became the
accepted way of mediating political conflicts.

Settler colonies are faced with different problems than colonies of domination.
1. When independence came in colonies of domination the colonisers packed and left while in
colonies of settlement they slept as settlers and woke up as citizens.
2. This entitled them to rights as citizens and owning businesses we cause white settlers who are
deep in the ownership structures were now citizens.
3. Everything essentially remain the same.
4.Colonies of dominations are divided along ethnic lines
Settler colonies are mostly found in temperate zones while colonies of domination were found in
the savanna.
5. There was a supposition that independence found through armed liberation was thought to be
far more liberating than independence that came through peaceful means.

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6. One characteristic of settler colonies is the land question.

The Ibadan school of social history

Episodic School - Closely linked to Ade Ajaye.
1. For nationalist historians it was important to create in mass a class of indigenous African
intellectuals.
2. Ade Ajaye, who was a historian belonging to the first generation of post colonial African
intellectuals, who studied abroad and came back to inherit the universities. Created the idea of
historiography being used to study colonial history and this idea blossomed to become a school of
thought. They would be known as nationalist historians.
3. The intent was to debunk colonial knowledge or the history that was written about their
societies.
4. This school of thought would come to be known as the Ibadan school of social history.
5. The way of looking at colonialism by the Ibadan school of social history was:
 Historiography (a method of study)
 the study of history on the basis of events and
dates
6. The claim made was that colonialism (effective colonialization) began in 1884/85 (Berlin
conference) --to--1960.
7. Ade Ajaye, K. Dike, O. Ikime, A. Agot ---- PART OF THE EPISODIC SCHOOL.
8. The idea for the Ibadan historians was to write a different history of our countries and show
that colonialism only plays a small role in the history of the continent.
9. This was also true that there were many empires that predated colonialism, Because the
assumption was that history only began with colonialism.
10. The method of producing history and indigenous African scholars was:
 any Masters or PhD thesis emanating from the
Ibadan school of social history was immediately
published into a book to create African
literature.

11. Ade Ajaye Then said “In the long history of Africa, colonialism is just an episode”.
12. This is why the Ibadan School of social history would be known as the episodic school.
13. The Ibadan school of social history succeeded in showing that there were many empires that
existed in the continents prior to colonialism and that's the way linguistic formations was slavery
and other elements of normal societies of their time.

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 The Epochal School – Closely Linked to Peter Ekeh
1. Peter Ekeh in his inaugural lecture in 1980 Identified colonialism as an epoch, meaning he
said it is a social movement that has supra individual effects that far outlive the time and
space of their occurrence.
2. “Historiography has its uses but when it is overly valuarised, It suggests that historical
occurrences of significance have a beginning and an end.
3. He says historiography was wrong in characterising colonisation he says to distinguish
between colonisation and colonialism.
4. A much more useful way of in reaching the concept of colonisation is to think of it as the
activities of the colonisers of seeking to establish dominance over the colonised. The
activities of the colonisers triggering a response from the colonised.
5. G. Belandier Gave us the concept of the colonial situation as a result of the encounter of
the colonisers and the colonists. It is what happens inbetween.
6. The colonial situation No longer useful when colonialism has ended and independence is
granted because the colonisers have left but the effects of colonisation have outlived the
time and space of the occurrence of column a nation.
7. This is why he says colonialism must be understood as an epoch because colonialism is not
spatiotemporal.
8. Epochal movements do not have a definitive start and end which is why they have supra
individual effects that far outlive the time in space of their occurrence.
9. All epochal movements are social movements and have the same characteristics. From the
French Revolution, industrial revolution, modern meanings totality. All these movements
of ephocal dimensions have the following characteristics/features:
 They are supra individual. Meaning they do not
leave anyone a choice weather they want to
participate in it or not, they are totalizing.
 They defy spatiotemporal limitations. This is
against historiography because historiography
says events are episodic, They begin and end.
 They bring about fundamental change that is
total. Once and epochal movement has OK
nothing remains the same oh reverts back to its
pre epochal state. Epchs give me a new meaning
to life everything gains new meaning and
everything is not safe from the logic of the
market. Emotion and feeling is extended to be a
commodity.
 They result in new social structures. 3 categories:
1. Transformed indigenous social
structures(Formal): These are transformed by
colonialism in order to aid the process of
colonial rule even in societies where
indigenous social structures didn't exist
colonialists created them because of their
usefulness
2. Migrated social structures(Formal): These are
structures that were imported Wholesale
from Europe eg., bureaucracy, the army,
universities. These structures suffer from
fixation (cultural fixation/social fixation)
becauses they we're already undergoing
changes back in Europe, and they do not have
inherent resources to renew themselves in
Africa.
3. Emergent social structures(Informal): these
structures emerged in order to fill a gap in
18 terms of social roles that could neither be
performed by transformed indigenous
structures or migrated social structures,
example ethnicity.
 

Black consciousness - The ideology

1. in South Africa the black consciousness movement as an ideology was influenced by a
number of developments at the level of ideas outside of South Africa. The influences of
the development of black consciousness in South Africa was:
 The idea of negritude: at the time that PCM comes into being as an ideology in
South Africa there were several other movements going on the world over.
Negritude started by black people in Europe. French colonial rule Had a policy of
assimilation or association. Black people who showed enough desire to assimilate
to be white were given French citizenship, thus there was a strong urge for black
people to run away from their blackness but they still experienced racism so they
realised that their response had to be equal to that scale, that's the bird of the
negritude movement.
 The writings of Frantz Fanon: The two texts that he wrote that had major
influence on the development of black consciousness in South Africa where,
“Blackskin, White mask” and “The wretched of the earth”. He was a psychiatrist
who studied the psychoanalytic end psychosocial basis of racism.
 The idea is coming out of the struggles of black Americans in the 1960s namely
the black power movement

2. The other influence was a practical political development which means that most
countries in Africa we are gaining independence.
3. There were suddenly black statesman like Kwame Nkrumah who Had a pan African
outlook, could hold their own in international relations wild apartheid South Africa
preached that black people couldn't hold their own and needed white tutelage.

What was this idea of black consciousness movement?

 The point that BCM makes is that there is nothing called and unencumbered
consciousness that is not racialized. Every consciousness is a racialized consciousness.
They are very own ideology invariably said they were fighting against white consciousness.
 The original source of recent racism is modern consciousness then privileges being white.
 The world encounters you as a black person.

1. The idea of BCM began by saying that let us disabuse our minds from the supposition that
today is anything like a modern consciousness that is not coloured by race. It goes to the
source which is modern consciousness.
2. As its second point what BCM did was to deny white people the right to name them in a
sense BCM reappropriated the category of black and gave it a positive meaning. The
human category is not all inclusive and blackness is a category of lack so BCM went against
this. Being black no longer symbolised A inferiority complex.
3. Being black or being white was a normative judgement
4. Naming is an important expression of power
5. Naming displaces from one the history of the land

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6. Consciousness is always consciousness of something you see in the world
7. BCM says consciousness of a human being is always in relation to another human being so
being conscious as a white person is in relative to that of a black person
8. Human beings have to in order to fully gain their consciousness require another
consciousness to affirm their own consciousness example as a man you require a female
to affirm your consciousness just as when you are white you you require black people to
form your consciousness and vice versa.
9. But white people with health this affirmation from black people thus BCM said let us turn
our backs on the white world until the white world can recognise that it cannot exist
without us
10. BCM resymbolised the category of negation (the category black).
11. Black consciousness then becomes an active rather than a passive ideology.
12. Being black doesn't automatically make you have a black consciousness. Being black is not
just a phenotypical Marker, but it also comes with stereotypes.
13. Non whites do not have the consciousness of being black and a distinguished by wanting
to plead their case to white people. This is passively being black. This means you except
the definition given to black people by white people by saying you belong to the category
of negation/a category of lack/a zone of negation.
14. When you act in accordance and internalise the prescripts of black consciousness then you
are conscious of being black and living actively black.
15. Only those with an active realisation/consciousness that the world encounters them as
black Are considered black.

Empiricism
What is empiricism?
1. Empiricism is basically a theory of knowledge it helps us answer the question how
do we know what we know.
2. The empirical world is anything we can access via our five sensory states
3. It says knowledge begins outside and the primary source of knowledge is out
there in the empirical world, knowledge doesn't begin with us. Which is contrary
to Descartes’ believe that man is the source of knowledge.
4. When we encounter empirical objects, they trigger in us what is called sensory
data i.e., feelings, happiness, fear.

20
 5. Bond with the appropriate emotional response.
6. This suggests that the empirical world is the cause and the knowledge we get from
it is the effect.
7. The relationship between cause (empirical) and effect (knowledge) is governed by
the following principles:
 The cause must always be necessary and sufficient. Meaning that cause(A)
must be necessary and sufficient on its own to cause an effect(B). No
enhancements.
 A must always lead to B. Meaning that the cause must always lead to the
same effect.
 The relationship between a cause and an effect is invariable. B cannot
precede A. The relationship cannot be changed you cannot move the
effects such as that it proceeds the cause, because the empirical world is
the cause of knowledge.

Marxism
1. Marxism is a paradigm is a selection criteria which determines the questions you
asked to study Society and the kind of data you hope to summon to answer these
questions. It excludes certain questions.
2. Marxism is also a set of normative conclusions. (How ought a just society should
be organised)
3. Marxism also promoted colonialism.
4. Ideas that are fundamental to Marxism:
 1. Marx says that the basic unit of organisation in a society is class.
 All modern capitalist Societies are distinguishable Through class.
 2. Classes are determined by your relationship to the means of
production.
 Do you own the means of production – bourgeoisie
 Do you sell your labour -the working class
 petty bourgeoisie - These are classes That are interested with running
the affairs of the bourgeoisie.
 3. The economy is what constitute the base superstructure/base
 The economy is determinant of everything that is to be found in the
superstructure.
 The superstructural level consists of ideas religion culture and is the
logical consequence of the pace which is the economy
 In order to understand any Society you have to understand the nature
of its economy. Once you understand the nature of its economy then
everything else is a logical consequence of the economy think as the
economy as the cause for everything.
 The economy is determinant to the last instance (to the T). Meaning it
determines everything.
 Class unlike ethnicity is not a given of life you can work towards
Changing your class position. The boundaries between classes are
permeable.

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  4. Class in itself (passive)/Class For itself(active)
 class in itself is the passive way of understanding class. It categorises
you on the basis of your relationship through the means of
production.
 Class for itself is when the categorised people actively develop a
consciousness of being in a particular class and then act to defend or
advance their interests as that class.
 Looks at part of the reality, and he believes that classes must
transition from classes in themselves to being classes for themselves

5. The dominant ideas of society belong to the dominant class, they are referred to
as the bourgeois sciences.
6. The working class is the dominated class. Dominated by the bourgeoisie.
7. Marx’s equivalent to the BCM’s non whites category is what Marx calls a false
consciousness. This means when people belonging to the working class fail to
recognise that they belong to the working class and therefore are dominated, this
then means that the working class possess a false consciousness.
8. Marx is more concerned with the working class and he has an antagonistic
attitude towards their capitalistic class.
9. Marxism is the antithesis to the capitalistic organisation of society .
10. Marx Came about Marxism as a response to capitalist/liberal political economy.
11. Marxism only looks at part of reality because it is only interested in the working
class.
12. He says that the vanguard Will be the ones responsible for conscientizing the
working class and the vanguard must emerge from the working class so that the
working class doesn't end up having a false consciousness.
13. Since the base is the economy it is the mode of production therefore capitalism is
the mode of production In Marxist terms.
14. Marxist say you are poor because of your class as opposed to Fanon saying you
are rich because you are white and you are white because you are rich.
15. Max further distinguishes modes of production yes:
 Relations of production -- The kind of relations that are necessary in order
for the economy to function. (The way people relate to private property is
a set of relations that are involved by calling it private property)
 forces of production-- the material things that I used for production such
as machines and fixed capital.

16. It is difficult to argue with in Marxism is that any process of protection you need to
impose which is capital and labour and Marx says labour suffers in terms of getting
paid the right amount of payment. Inputs of production are: capital & labour.

Limitations of Marxism
1. Marxism supposes that all societies move in a union linear direction. Meaning that
it supposes SoC 's have moved from:
 ancient times(Pre industrial /pre capitalist/ pre Marxist)--------to
 Mediaeval times-------to
 Modern times.
2. Marx believed that this is the direction all society meant to move. It is
liberalism-----modern liberalism------post modern liberalism(communist socialist
society)

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 3. Marxism is as racist as liberalism, 'cause Marxism and liberalism shares the
supposition that there is a universal sense of time and this universal sense of time
gives us the trajectory of how all societies develop. This renders non western
societies Ahistorical and denies them historical agency because it imposes a
western trajectory of development
4. the problem with the trajectory is it's extracted from Europe, non western
societies do not automatically move in One Direction.
5. Marxism is tolerant towards colonialism justice liberalism.
6. More than that Marxism assumes that the basic units of analysing SoC is class
rather than race since it does not have place for race and therefore it is self
implicated in the race problem.
7. The colonies it is not class but race that is determinant.
8. Marx also believes that non western societies are unchanging he says that
anything prior to colonialism is pre history in history of successive intruders who
founded their empires on the passive basis of that and resisting an unchanging
society.
9. Economic reduction is the supposition that everything even colonialism is
trajectory.
10. Liberal historians say history in the continent began only at the moment of the
West entering the continent.
11. Marks praises the British for colonising India and says it brought the electric
Telegraph and the railway nods realising or acknowledging that it came with the
plundering of India.
12. This is how western thought things of colonisation, as if it was necessary for
development
13. Marxist ideas are not incidental but integral.
14. Further flaws of Marx:
 it assumes that non western countries we're aspiring to be like the West.
 It assumes that class is the basic unit of analysis or the basic structure of
society and not race.
 Assumes that injustice is suffered based on belonging to a dominated
class
 it assumes that the reason for colonisation was the desire for profit
Europe wanted to maximise its profits
 if so then why did Europe need to denigrate Africans.
 Fanon says that the superstructure is as determinant to the last instance
as the economy in the colonies, race is in the superstructure.
 In Marxist terms the position is that if you take away the means of
production you can end colonials which is false becaused while people
supposed their superiority emanates elsewhere, i.e., modern
consciousness, reason, rationality, and modern disciplinary knowledge.
15. Everything is determined by the market even leisure the leisure class means that
the leisure of women becomes the evidence of the leisure of men.

Liberalism

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 1. Liberalists speak of themselves as centrists.
2. The think of the individual as a moral entity and the primary meaning that rights are
indivisible from human beings on the basis of our identity therefore group rights don't
exist only individuals can have rights.
3. The liberals believe:
 The individual is the basic unit of analysis.
 Society is a collection of individuals and injustice is suffered by the
individual and whatever you want to explain can only be explained as
the individual level.
 Society only succeeds when the individual succeeds.
 The state has to be a minimalist state.
 The state should not have to overreach itself by getting involved in
things that it shouldn't be involved in.
 Its role is to regulate relations in society so that the individuals will be
able to prosper.
 The role of the state should be liaise fair and create an enabling
environment.
 Liberals are also overtly on the side of the bourgeoisie.
 The market Is better suited In distributing resources in Society equally and
fairly.
 Liberals think that the market possesses superior logic compared to
any institution in society. It is all knowing.
 The state shouldn't get involved in the market because the market is
capable of self correction.
 Is any distortion happens within the market it will self correct.
 It is bad test suited to allocate value of materialistic or symbolic
proportions.
 Political rights
 Size political rights so over social economic rights.
 They put emphasis on procedural Democracy rather than substantive
Democracy (Civil vs socioeconomic)
 They say that maybe the state does have a responsibility towards
certain individuals who are unable on their own to manage their own
needs.

 Merit Society.
 A merit Society is integral to liberalism, individuals provided with the
necessary support from the state should be able to make it and
because the state would have provided everyone with equal
opportunity then merit should be the basis for the organisation of
society particularly the allocation of resources. Here the market
operates on the basis of merit.
Limitations of liberalism
1. It is inherently racist since it is the ideology that drives modern consciousness
2. Liberalism emerges around the same time as the modern consciousness it drives europe's
transition from The mediaeval Period to the modern period.
3. Liberal democracy and liberal capitalism a products of the history of liberalism as an
ideology. Liberalism is the ideology of the modern consciousness it emerges at the same
time as the modern industrial age.
4. The liberal outlook is the same as the modern consciousness.

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5. The bourgeoisie is the precursor of capitalism and the bourgeoisie does not exist outside
the industrial age.
6. It is impossible to look at modern consciousness without looking at capitalism.
7. The sensibility of the three movements i.e., the cartesian revolution, Religious
reformation, Corpenican revolution, was the sensibility of the middle class.
8. Liberal democracy is touch of as an universal outlook, that every society should be a
liberal society
9. it has the same universalising impulse as the modern consciousness
10. it says every Society ought to be organised along the same lines.
11. It has an imperious character i.e., transcultural, trans historical, universal.
12. With its capitalist outlook is inherently racist so accepting the modern consciousness
(which excludes black people) we are accepting race and racism and the zone of non
being.
13. So liberalism is the ideology of modern consciousness it finds, itself implicated.
14. The modern consciousness makes it inescapable for us to be in the world either than
through our bodies and races. So if liberalism says the individual is more important than a
group in a SoC it forgets that black people we're not colonised as individuals but as a
group. How did do you redress an injustice suffered by a group if you say the individual is
the most important.
15. It is also unable to recognise black people because reason and rationality already excludes
by people, the category human excludes black people.

Nationalism
1. Before the modern age Europe was organised politically into empires, the breakdown of
European empires marked the transition into modern European states, which are the
nation states of today
2. Nationalism in Europe was to aid the process of europe's transition into the modern.
Instituting the basis of the modern imaginary(MDK, reason, rationality and progress)
3. the transition was precipitated by nationalism.
4. Nationalism is a philosophical ideology that broke down Europe into modern European
states
5. the assumptions that nationalism makes:
 To every nation must be given a state (these states demanded from

25
 empires).
 Nationalists began to think of themselves along national lines
 the demand was for self determination they Legitimately thought they
had to have their own state.
 They developed a ‘we' consciousness which demands the rights to self-
determination.
6. The idea was contrary to the old order which is the great chain of being
7. nationalists can be added to the three movements that top of the great chain of being,
and brought about a completely different configuration to the world.
8. Determination was thought of as a right exclusively belonging to nations.
9. At the core of nationalism is the nation.
10. A nation is a social cultural entity entitled to a state which is a political construct. It is also
a community that shares a language, a culture and a myth of common origin
11. What is called the nation in Europe is called ethnic groups in the colonies.
12. All nations are characterised by a myth of common origins.
13. Sometimes myths constructed to actual events.
14. Myths are never wrong in the sense that the truth is in its effect it is true because it
sustains the lie. The ‘we’ consciousness is sustained by the myth
15. the nation + the states= the construct of nation-state(The coming together of these two
entities brings about nation states)
16. nationalisms major achievement was to give the modern world the concept of nation-
state.
17. The supposition was that the nation state is the only legitimately accepted form of
political organisation in the modern world. (Every human must have citizenship)
18. Nation-state (Mono ethnic)---the dominant ethnic group builds the idea of the nation
around cultural symbols. It is assumed to be a uni ethnic and homogeneous society.
19. State-nation (plural) ---Builds the nation around common civic symbols That's agreed
upon. State nations are plural diverse and a state nation recognises the plurality of the
state(the presence of a multiplicity of ethnic groups). These are heterogeneous societies.
20. The name of nation building is is a melting pot.
Limitations of nationalism
1. It supposes that there is a congruence between the boundaries of the nation and the
boundaries of his state.
2. It supposes that in the boundaries of a modern state they is to be found one nation. So
then the era was the supposition that all states are uni ethnic.
3. The later on in the 1970s the light showed itself when ethnic groups from within seeking
self determination.
4. At the base of this melting pot where white Anglo-Saxon protestent values
5. nationalism emerges with the modern industrial capitalist movement
6. nationalism in other words shares the same moral order with capitalism
7. nationalism was and continues to be functional towards capitalism
8. nationalism aided the transition into the modern industrial. And it was also aided by the
relationship this is a dialectic relationship
9. Nationalism broke down empires and stated that each nation must have its own States
and its own economy giving us the GNP.
10. The problem was that nations begin to assume that any economic benefits that accrue
from the economy of rights that benefit belongs to the national.
 The modern media makes it possible to share commonality in commodities.
 Nationalism makes it appear natural for economies to have to be organised along national
lines

26
 capitalism enables nationalism by availing people of the same nationality to respond to
events in the same way.
 Capitalism and nationalism shared the same moral order which is a modern model order.
 this means that people who have accepted being nationalists invariably except being
capitalist.
 Three things that became universalized: reason
 Rationality
 in progress
 these three things are the core of the modern moral order.
 They are also
 this then means that nationalism prescribes to the modern disciplinary knowledge.
 When nationalism aided the emergence of the modern states it said that the modern
states is not just a unit of the economy it also said that the stage is a unit of modern
disciplinary knowledge production.
 So when nationalists and political activist in Africa agreed to nationalism they were
agreeing to the whole modern movement and its element of the modern Disciplinary
knowledge of excluding black people.
 Nationalism is an ideology is In Sync which the idea of modern consciousness.
 Nationalism is inseparable from capitalism, modern disciplinary knowledge, liberal
democracy.
 There is a contradictory nature of self understanding that is characteristic of nations, be
cause the written history of disciplinary knowledges
 the modern moment which is the birth of the modern nations is also the birth of
capitalism and modern discipline of knowledge
 nationalism invariably prescribes to MDK, capitalism, and liberal democracy.
 The foundations of the modern period are mythical
 nationalism had accepted the very epistemological order that was responsible for our
negation.
 Partha Chatterjee Says: “freedom deliverd through nationalism, constitutes a blocked
dialect.” There was a thesis and no antithesis -- A one way flow.
 A dialect is when meaning flows in both directions creating progress, So what chatterjee
means is that the flow of meaning is blocked because it comes from One Direction.

African nationalism
1. We think of African nationalism as an anti colonial ideology
2. Nationalism is all regionally directed at whoever denies you as a nation the right to self
determination
3. Nationalism comes into the continent under different circumstances(as an ideology it
takes the same principles of self-determination)
4. Nationalist said we also want self determination but not from the empires but from
colonialism
5. so then it becomes inseparable with the struggle against colonialism
6. the right to self-determination in Africa was to first defeat colonialism
7. the pitfall was the assumption that every nation had to be given a state the same pitfall

27
 that Characterised nationalism in Europe so did it's in Africa.
8. The supposition was still that all nations were unique ethnical
9. so this pitfall brought about two different forms of nationalism in the continent these are
the two different forms of nationalism in Africa:
 Civic nationalism or radical nationalism--This is the form of
nationalism that consciously in its organisation transcends ethnic
boundaries and tries to smooth over ethnic differences. These are
state nations that are heterogeneous, multiethnic, and have a
plurality of nations.
 Ethno Nationalism--this is a form of nationalism where the nation
is the basis for political organisations and tends to organise along
ethnic lines. In ethno nationalist countries immediately after
independence there was a contestation of citizenship, the ethnic
group became the mediator between the States and the citizen.
10. While in South Africa the ANC had said the limit 2 resistance was that people had resisted
in different clans.
11. Nationalism emerged with the logic of industrial capitalism, political liberation, modern
epistemology, (reason nationality and progress) = model of the model
12. when europe's modernising it was instituting the model of the modern.
13. These three things would determine how societies generally were organised as
organisations.
14. The model of the modern brings about all disciplines as a result of the modern industrial
capitalism.
15. The model of the modern then becomes the basis of all organisation of society.
16. When Africa decided to adopt nationalism as the banner of their struggle they invariably
accepted the model of the modern.
17. Nationalism comes to the continent under colonialism
18. the limitation is that African nationalist accepted the model of the modern.
19. African nationalism replaced colonialist at the driving seat of the project of modernisation.
This project is inherently the elaboration of the model of the modern.
20. All African nationalists sought to do was to replicate the model
21. The objects for nationalists in the continent was not to create a different kind of society
from the society Europe had organised, but to be the ones who are driving the seat of
modernisation.
22. With this chatterjee says: 1. how do you adopt the same force that was responsible for
your own operation. The adopted model of the modern is bound to fail.
2. You are going to be forever dependent on the owners of the model creating perpetual
dependence.
3. Suffer from the same pitfalls as Europe as it supposed that every state is the nation state.
 This then leads to the distinction in Africa of civic/ethnic nationalism.
 Ethno national movements: NCNC --the National Council for Nigeria(Igbo) Azikiwe(SE)
 AG--the Action Group (SW)Awolowo
 NPC --national people's Congress (Hausa-Fulani) T. Balewa
 Civic Nationality transcends ethnic boundaries.
 Its understanding of the nation is different
 Symbols must be neutral in civic national countries
 Countries who adopted civic nationalism did better at nation building
 these countries among them are South Africa, Tanzania, Zimbabwe, Ghana..
 Ethno national countries among them are Nigeria, Sudan, Kenya.
 One must look at the nationalist movements in order to see if it was fragmented along ethnic

28
 lines
 In ethno national countries ethnicity became the determinant of everything
 Because one of the things that nationalism does is to create the idea of the nation in relation
to the economy it makes the economy the basic units of the organisation of the country and
the nation the units of distribution of economic spoils
 makes the benefits of a particular nation appear to be as though they belong to a particular
nation
 the continent independence came to mean a redistribution of economic resources then the
citizens of that country touch of these things as entitled to them as nationals.

Comparative politics
1. comparative politics is the master subfield of political science becauses the thing we call
the technical vocabulary of politics that must be true universally can only be validated by
competitive.
2. It is what enables political science to be scientific.
3. It is the means to validate all conclusions because it is our laboratory.
4. It enables us to reach conclusions that are true across time and space.
5. Vocabulary is given to us by comparative politics, and it must be universally valid. Our only
way of establishing universal truths in political science Is through comparative politics
because it is our laboratory.
6. Comparative politics has two elements:

29
  The methodology part of comparative politics
 the substantive part of comparative politics
7. The methodology part of comparative politics is the most important 'cause it gives us the
method we used to compare, i.e., political systems.
8. There has to be a methodological bases for choosing to compare systems.
9. Classification is the first logical requirement of any comparative study.
10. So before you compare you must classify.
11. You must also certain logical requirements for a good classification.
12. Therefore classification is an integral part of comparative politics.
13. The law of exclusion is a logical requirement of classification.
14. The substantive part of comparative politics is when you then apply the methodological
part of competitive politics.
15. Before you do the substantive part you must first master the methodological parts.
16. Comparative politics uses a method that enables us to study all systems without going to
them, and this method is called the case study method. It uses a case as the
representative of the universe/category.
17. The case study method is the most important methodology of comparative politics.
18. It classifies points of study as a universe, i.e., university study, settler colonial societies.
19. There are four kinds of cases that's the case study method relies on:
 Archetypical case: this is a case that sets the standard for the
category/universe. It is the best of the universe. It encapsulates
All the features of the chosen universe. The advantage of a
archetypical case is that even with one case if it's an archetypical
case, you are already comparing. You can have a comparative
study that uses one case because it is archetypical and it's
representative for the rest of the universe.
 Prototypical case: this is a case study that is on its way to
becoming archetypical.
 Deviant case: this is a case that seems to bely everything you
have said about the chosen category. (Bely = It suggests that all
you have said about the category are not true). Deviate cases do
not invalidate conclusions. A controlled case in the natural
sciences is a deviant case in comparative politics.
 Representative case: this is a case that has a fair number of
features definitive of the category/universe. It has most of the
features but it is not yet prototypical or archetypical. It is a mirror
for which to look at categories/universes.
20. Comparative politics uses representative cases more than the others, it is the most used
because it allows you to add more knowledge.
21. There are other ways of comparing. Comparative politics uses:
 Variable based comparison: This is when you are comparing political
concepts that are not attached to political systems, i.e., democracy as a
political concept.
22. The comparative method (case study method, variable based comparison) enables us two
domesticate what at first appears like this large universe that we can't domesticate, or we
can’t make sense of. But through comparative methods we are able to. And particularly
through the case study method that we are able to bring that order in this large universe
not just of political systems but also of political concepts.
23. All cases are equally important. Therefore the deviant case is as equally important.

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

Weber’s schematization of authority

1. Max Weber is a sociologist who wrote amongst other things, The Protestant ethic and the
spirits of capitalism.
2. Max Weber’s Schematization of authority compels us to distinguish between power and
authority.
3. Power Is the ability to make/coerce the other party to do what they otherwise would not
have done. Therefore power is cohesion.
4. It works on the basic principle of who has more ability.
5. Authority is power that has been legitimised/Legitimated.
6. Those who hold office have power that has been legitimated by the elections. Power is
transformed to authority to wield military force.
7. Authority is then accepted by those upon whom it is exercised.
8. Weber says there are three kinds of authority and we are able to identify them on the
basis of which they have been legitimised.
9. 3 categories:
 Legal-rational authority: Authority that flow from legal prescripts. It is
legitimised by law and limited by law.
 Charismatic authority: able to command authority on the basis of their
charisma (therefore doesn't depend on the law). They are able to draw
large numbers of people who show allegiance to them. It is not formally
defined and has no boundaries. The leader sets his own boundaries and
limits as set by the extent of power and therefore demands are In Sync
with power.
 Traditional authority: this is inherited authority. People who exercise
authority on the basis of hereditary. It is not dependent on other kinds of
authority.
10. What the schematization doesn't account for is modern political authority. Politicians hold
authority based on elections. (Legitimised by elections).
11. They do not hold power based on charismatic authority.

Political culture/political socialisation

1. political systems have different political cultures.
2. Societies have a political temperament which is called a zeit geist (a spirit of the age)
3. a political culture is simply a regularised pattern that is identifiable with a particular
political system.
4. It permeates society.
5. It is not something that a society emerges with. A political something culture is something
that is learned and occurs over time.
6. Therefore, if it can be learned it can be unlearned.
7. Political socialisation is the process through which a political culture is either established
or when already in existence it permeates to the rest of society.

31
8. In simple terms, the process of acquiring a political culture is what is called political
socialisation.
9. The limitation of western thought, Is that western thoughts says that they are institutions
that are responsible for political socialisation, i.e., Family, School, Church, Civil Society
Organisations.
10. Institutions of political socialisation are considered to be those institutions where you
spend more time interacting with other people.
11. In South Africa the streets I will most people interact with other people.
12. Therefore, western thoughts is unable to comprehend the lived experience of the black
people.

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