Survey

SURVEYING

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Survey
General Principal of Surveying
1. To work from the whole to the part:

2. To locate a new station by at least two measurements (linear or angular) from a fixed reference point.

Fundamentals of Surveying

 With Plane Surveying:

 Error in Plan due to not considering curvature: Error of 1 cm in each 12000 m.

 Error in elevation due to not considering curvature:

Scales and Error

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Types of Scale
i. Plane Scale: Measures up to 2 different units

ii. Diagonal Scale: Measures up to 3 different units for example 1 metre, 1 decimetre and 1 centimetre.

iii. Vernier Scale:

a. Direct Vernier:

Here,

S = Smallest division on main scale.

v = Smallest division on Vernier scale.

b. Retrograde Vernier:

iv. Shrunk Scale:

Correction and Errors

 L = Designated true length of the scale or chain.

 L’ = Wrong Length of chain or scale.

 l = Actual length of line.

 l' = Length of line measured (wrong length)

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Limiting Length of offset

Case 1: If the error is only in direction such that

Case 2: If error is in direction as well as in length measurement.

Correction in Tapes
i. Correction due to Standardization:

Here,

l = Actual length of tape

l’ = Nominal length of tape

ii. Correction for Slope (Always Negative):

Where,

D = Horizontal Equivalent,

L = Slope Distance

θ = angle of slope

Alternatively,

Approximately,

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iii. Correction due to Pull applied:

Here,

P = pull applied during measurement.

Po = Standard pull

L = Measured length

A = Cross sectional area of the tape

E = Young s modulus of material of tape

iv. Correction for Temperature:

Here,

α = coefficient of linear expansion,

Tm = Mean temperature of the tape,

To = Standard temperature.

v. Tape Correction for Sag (Always negative):

Here,

W = Weight of tape per unit length,

P = applied pull

l1 = length of the tape suspended between the supports.

Normal Tension (Pn):

vi. Reduction in Length due to mean see level:

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The value of h is very small as compared to R and hence can be neglected and the formula becomes as
follows:

Chain Surveying
French cross Staff: It is used to take offsets at 45°, 90° and135° from the survey line.

Types of chains used in Chain Surveying

i. Metric Chain: Metric chains are made in lengths 20 m and 30 m.

ii. Gunter s Chain: Length = 66 feet (22 yards), No of links = 100, each link = 66 feet

iii. Engineer s Chain: Length = 100 feet, Number of links = 100, each link = 1 feet.

iv. Revenue Chain: Length = 33 feet, Number of links = 16.

Compass Surveying
Systems Used in Angular Measurement
i. Degree System:

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ii. Centesimal System:

iii. Hour System:

Bearing
i. True Bearing: Angle made with true meridian.

ii. Magnetic Bearing: Angle made with magnetic meridian.

iii. Grid Bearing: Angle made with grid meridian.

iv. Arbitrary bearing: Angle made with the arbitrary meridian.

Fore Bearing and Back Bearing

 Fore-Bearing: Fore Bearing of a line is Horizontal angle in the direction of progress of survey.

 Back-Bearing: Back Bearing of a line is the horizontal angle in the direction opposite of the progress of
survey.

 Included Angles: Included angle is the angle measured in clockwise direction from previous line to the
next line.

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 The vertical angle between the magnetic needle and Earth surface is called as Angle of dip.

Theodolite Traversing
 Permissible error in Linear measurement equipment:

Latitude and Departure

i. Loop Traverse:

ii. Link Traverse:

Closing Error/ Error of Closure

 If the traverse has an error, it will not close as shown in the figure.

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Bowditch Method
 when angular measurement and linear measurement both are nearly of same precision.

 Correction in latitudes of line:

 Correction in departure of line:

Here,

li = Length of ith line in the traverse (only magnitude).

ΣL = Total error in latitude.

ΣD = Total error in departure.

Transit Method
 When angular measurements are more precise than linear measurements correction in Latitude:

 Correction in Departure:

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Here,

LT = Sum of Latitudes (magnitude only)

DT = Sum of Departure (magnitude only)

ΣL = Total error in latitude.

ΣD = Total error in departure.

Adjustment of Angular Error or Bearing

 In a Closed Traverse, the sum of measured interior angles should be equal to as given:

Here,

N = Number of sides of the traverse.

 Angular Error should not exceed (Least Count *√N). Angular error is equally adjusted. Bearing is adjusted
in a cumulative way.

Formula to remember for the sensitivity of the bubble tube

Here,

S = Difference between two staff readings

n = Number of divisions of bubble

α = Sensitivity of bubble tube

L = Length of one division

D = distance from the instrument

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Levelling
 Height of Instrument (HI):

 (Differential Levelling) Exact difference between the levels:

Errors in Levelling
i. Curvature of Earth:

Here,

d = distance between level instrument and the staff in kilometre

R = Radius of earth in kilometre

Cc = Correction due to curvature in meters

 On putting the value of radius of earth,

ii. Refraction:

 Combined Refraction and Curvature Correction:

 Distance of Visible Horizon.

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i. When effect of refraction is neglected and only effect of curvature is considered:

ii. When effect of refraction is considered along with the effect of curvature:

Here,

d = Distance of visible horizon in kilometre

h = Height of the viewing platform

Tacheometric Survey
Case 1: Horizontal Distance is known and angle of Elevation or
Depression is measured

 In such case elevation of the point and RL of it can be found as follows:

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Case 2: In case when horizontal distance D can’t be measured

 We will have,

 Calculation for RL for F:

Tacheometry
 Tacheometer is a special type of theodolite that can take 3 different staff readings along with the
measurements of horizontal and vertical angles.

 Horizontal Distance:

Here,

k = Multiplying constant of the instrument

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C = Additive constant of the instrument

S1 = Lower Staff Reading

S2 = Intermediate Staff Reading

S3 = Upper Staff Reading

 Multiplying constant

 Additive constant

Further in case of Analytic Lens:

Analysis using Tacheometry

Case 1 : Angle of Elevation (staff held vertical):

Case 2 : Angle of Depression (staff held vertical):

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Case 3 : Angle of Elevation, staff held normal to the visual axis of telescope (staff perpendicular to line of
sight):

Case 4 : Angle of Depression, staff held normal to the visual axis of telescope (staff perpendicular to line of
sight):

Errors & their Adjustments

Residual Error:
Residual error = Observed value – Most probable value

Indices of precision of equal weight observation

1. Standard deviation

σ = standard deviation

v = Residual variation

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ν = measured value – most probable value

n = number of observation

2. Variance (V):

3. Standard error of mean (σm):

4. Standard error of single observation:

5. Most probable error:

6. Most probable error of mean

7. Maximum error:
emax = ± 3.29σ

Weight
Weights are assigned as an inverse proportion to variance or square of standard deviation.

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Indices of precision of Observations of different weights

 Standard deviation of weighted observations

 Standard error of mean of weighted observations

 Standard error of single observation of weight (wi)

 Most probable error of single observation of weight (wi)

Law of propagation of error

Case 1: A = x + y + z

Case 2: A = xyz

Case 3: A = Kxn

Case 4: A = x ± K

eA = ± e x

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Curves
 Tangent Length:

 Length of the curve:

 Apex Distance:

 Mid-Ordinate Distance:

 Long Chord:

 Chainage of Point of Curvature:

 Degree of Curve:

 For 30 metres chain:

 For 20 metres chain:

Here,

R = Radius of curve in meter.

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Setting Out a Curve

Radial Offset Method
 In this method, radial offsets are taken at regular intervals as shown below:

Offset from Chord Produced Method

And

Here,

l = Total number of chords formed and hence, l denotes the last chord formed.

Rankine’s Method (Deflection angle method)

Here also, Cn ≯ R/20.

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Photogrametry & Remote Sensing

 Isocenter (I): - It is point where angle bisector of angle of fill intersect the photograph.

 Angle of swing: - It is a clockwise Angle measured from +ve y-axis up to Nadir point.

Angle of Rotation = Angle of swing – 180°

 Scale of vertical photograph: -

Case 1 - On Flat Ground:

Case 2 - On Variable Terrain:

Case 3 - Datum Scale:

 Ground coordinates:

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Relief Displacement
d = r – r0

r → distance of top of image from principle point.

Photographic Overlap
Number of Photographs:
N = N1 × N2

Where,

N1 = Number of photographs in the direction of height line.

N2 = number of height lines.

Time interval between exposure: -

 Global Positioning System

 24 satellites is required to cover the entire Earth.

 For stationary objects minimum, 3 satellites are required.

 For moving objects minimum, 4 satellites are required.

 Electro-Magnetic Radiation Spectrum (EMR):

Type of Radiation Frequency Range (Hz) Wavelength Range

Gamma-rays 1020 - 1024 < 10 - 12 m

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x-rays 1017- 1020 1 nm - 1 pm

ultraviolet 1015 - 1017 400 nm - 1 nm

visible 4 × 1014 - 7.5 ×1014 750 nm - 400 nm

near-infrared 1 × 1014 - 4 × 1014 2.5 μm - 750 nm

infrared 1013 - 1014 25 μm - 2.5 μm

microwaves 3 × 1011- 1013 1 mm - 25 μm

radio waves < 3 × 1011 > 1 mm

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