SURVEY-II

(Trigonometric levelling – Curvature and Refraction)

• What is Levelling
• Various techniques of levelling
 Trigonometric Leveling
• When trying to go to the tops of mountains, standard leveling does not work
well. (Imagine trying to do this to the summit of Mt. Everest).
• For high peaks we use the method of trigonometric leveling.
• This is not as accurate as spirit/ normal leveling because of the curvature and
refraction effects.
• In ideal cases, elevation angles at both ends are measured at the same time.
• Distance is determined either by triangulation or by electronic distance
measurement (EDM) .
V = S Sin a = H Tan a
ZB = ZA + hi + S Sin a – r

ZB = ZA + hi + H Tan a – r
 Trigonometric Leveling - Terms
Vertical line. A line that follows the local direction of gravity as
indicated by a plumb line
Level surface. A curved surface that at every point is
perpendicular to the local plumb line (the direction in which
gravity acts). Level surfaces are approximately spheroidal in
shape. A body of still water is the closest example of a level
surface. Within local areas, level surfaces at different heights are
considered to be concentric. Level surfaces are also known as
equipotential surfaces since, for a particular surface, the
potential of gravity is equal at every point on the surface
Level line. A line in a level surface—therefore, a curved line
Horizontal plane. A plane perpendicular to the local direction of
gravity. In plane surveying, it is a plane perpendicular to the local
vertical line.
 Trigonometric Leveling - Terms
Horizontal line. A line in a horizontal plane. In plane surveying, it is
a line perpendicular to the local vertical.
Vertical datum. Any level surface to which elevations are
referenced. This is the surface that is arbitrarily assigned an
elevation of zero. This level surface is also known as a reference
datum since points using this datum have heights relative to this
surface.
Geoid. A particular level surface that serves as a datum for all
elevations and astronomical observations. The geoid is the shape
that the ocean surface would take under the influence of
the gravity and rotation of Earth alone, if other influences such as
winds and tides were absent. This surface is extended through the
continents (such as with very narrow hypothetical canals)
 Curvature and Refraction
Curvature. From the definitions of a level surface and a horizontal line,
it is evident that the horizontal plane departs from a level surface
because of curvature of the Earth. In Figure, the deviation DB from a
horizontal line through point A is expressed approximately by the
formulas

Radius of earth = 6370 km

where the departure of a level surface from a horizontal line is ‘Cf‘ in feet or ‘Cm’ in meters, M is the distance AB in miles, F the
distance in thousands of feet, and K the distance in kilometers.
Since points A and B are on a level line, they have the same elevation. If a graduated rod was held vertically at B and a reading
was taken on it by means of a telescope with its line of sight AD horizontal, the Earth’s curvature would cause the reading to
be read too high by length BD (so correction subtractive). Effect of curvature is to make the objects appear lower than they
really are.
 Curvature and Refraction
Refraction. Light rays passing through the Earth’s atmosphere are bent
or refracted toward the Earth’s surface, as shown in Figure.
• Thus a theoretically horizontal line of sight, like AH in Figure, is bent
to the curved form AR.
• Hence, the reading on a rod held at R is diminished by length RH. The
effects of refraction in making objects appear higher than they really
are (and therefore rod readings too small).
• Displacement resulting from refraction is variable. It depends on
atmospheric conditions, length of line, and the angle a sight line
makes with the vertical. For a horizontal sight, refraction in feet or in
meters is expressed approximately by the formulas;
• This is about one seventh the effect of curvature of the Earth, but in
the opposite direction
 Curvature and Refraction
The combined effect of curvature and refraction, h in Figure, is
approximately

Where hf is in feet and hm is in meters.

For sights of 100, 200, and 300 ft, hf = 0.00082, and 0.0019 ft, respectively, or 0.00068 m for a 100 m length. Although the
combined effects of curvature and refraction produce rod readings that are slightly too large, proper field procedures in
differential leveling can practically eliminate the error due to these causes. However, this is not true for trigonometric leveling
where this uncompensated systematic error can result in erroneous elevation determinations. This is one of several reasons why
trigonometric leveling has never been used in geodetic surveys.
 Curvature and Refraction
The combined effect of curvature and refraction, h in Figure, is
approximately

The combined correction can be application two ways:

• By decreasing each staff reading by the amount 0.0675K2 and then finding, the reduced levels and
• By first finding the reduced levels of the points in the usual way and then increasing them by the amount
0.0675K2
 Trigonometric Leveling
• The difference in elevation between two points can be
determined by measuring;-
• The inclined or horizontal distance between them
• The zenith angle or the altitude angle to one point from the
other. (Zenith and altitude angles are measured in vertical
planes. Zenith angles are observed downward from vertical,
and altitude angles are observed up or down from
horizontal).
• Thus, in Figure, if slope distance S and zenith angle z or altitude
angle between C and D are observed, then V, the elevation
difference between C and D, is

or Alternatively, if horizontal distance H

or
between C and D is measured, then V is

Then
 Trigonometric Leveling - Example
A theodolite is set up at point A whose elevation is
100.00m. A level rod is put at point B whose horizontal
distance from A is 120.00 m. If rod reading is 2.29m,
zenith angle is 65◦, height of instrument is 1.50m, find
ElevB?
Solution:
V = 120.00 cot (65◦) = 55.96 m
ElevB = 100.00 + 1.50 + 55.96 - 2.29 = 155.17m
Solution:
V = 120.00 tan (25◦) = 55.96 m
ElevB = 100.00 + 1.50 + 55.96 - 2.29 = 155.17m
 Curvature and Refraction in Trigonometric Leveling
For long horizontal distances, the effect of curvature and refraction should be taken into account.
Here an instrument is set up at C over point A. Sight D is made on a rod
held at point B, and zenith angle zm or altitude angle αm is observed.
The true difference in elevation between A and B is vertical distance HB
between level lines through A and B, which is equal to

HG + GF + V - ED - r

The value of V is obtained using any one of above Equations depending

on what quantities are observed
Note that angle F in triangle CFE was assumed to be 90°. Of course as
lines become extremely long, this assumption does not hold. However, for
lengths within a practical range, errors caused by this assumption are
negligible.

ElevB= ElevA + hi + V – r +.0675 H²

 Trigonometric Leveling – Long Distances Example
A theodolite is set up at point A whose elevation is 100.00m. A level rod is put at point B whose
horizontal distance from A is 500.00m. If rod reading is 2.29m, zenith angle is 65˚, height of
instrument is 1.50m, find ElevB?

Solution:
V= 500.00 cot (65˚) = 233.15m
Combined curvature and refraction effect
CR = 0.0675(0.5)² = 0.017m
ElevB = 100.00 + 1.50 + 233.15 - 2.29 + 0.017= 332.377m
 Trigonometric Leveling With Unknown Distance
If the horizontal distance is unknown, we can use stadia method or we have to take two level rod
readings and two zenith angles

𝐻=𝑟1−𝑟2 / tan(𝑎1)−tan(𝑎2)

ElevB = ElevA + hi + V1 – r1
ElevB = ElevA + hi + V2 – r2
 Trigonometric Leveling With Unknown Distance
A theodolite is setup at point A whose elevation is 50.00m. A level rod is
put at point B. A rod reading of 1.78m is taken at a zenith angle of 82˚. A
second rod reading of 0.45m is taken at zenith angle equals 83˚.
Compute horizontal distance AB and elevation of B. Height of instrument
is 1.50m.
Solution:
a1=90-82=8˚ a2=90-83=7˚
𝐻=(1.78−0.45) / tan(8)−tan(7)= 74.90m
V1= 74.90 x tan (8) = 10.53 m
ElevB= ElevA+ hi + V1–r1
ElevB= 50+ 1.50 + 10.53 –1.78 = 60.25 m
 Trigonometric Leveling
Advantages and disadvantages of trigonometric
heighting compared to leveling:
• large elevation difference can be measured over short
distances
• elev. difference of remote points can be measured in
one step
• elev. difference of obstructed points can be measured

• usually less accurate than spirit levelling

• the distance (either slope or horizontal) between the
two points must be known
???