Physics Textbook - 053628

Fundamentals of
Mechanics, Heat and

Waves
For Sciences and Engineering Technology
CONTRIBUTORS
A. J. ILOZOBIE J. A. OBU
E. P. INYANG A. M. GEORGE
E. D. EBONG J. C. OBULEZIE
E.B ULEM J. AMAJAMA
W. E. AZOGOR P. C. IWUJI
S. E. EKWORK E. A. AWAK
T. A. EDET B. C UBONG
B. J. EKAH C. E. THOMSON
P. OKAYIM C. A. ULEM
i
Copyright © A. J ILOZOBHIE et al. 2022
Fundamentals of Mechanics, Heat and Waves:

For Sciences and Engineering Technology
ISBN: 978-978-007-394-7
Published by:
University of Calabar Press
Calabar – Nigeria.
Email: unicalpress@unical.edu.ng
mathiassunday440@gmail.com
Website: www.unicalpress.unical.edu.ng
Telephone: +234 8061587467, +234 8062556950
All Rights Reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system
or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior permission of the
copyright owner.
ii
Preface
The book “Fundamentals of Mechanics, Heat and Waves for Sciences and
Engineering Technology” is basically written for first year students in the
University. Students studying physics as a course in pre-degree, Diploma,
Colleges of Education and polytechnics will found this book very useful. This
book covers materials in Mechanics, Thermal Physics, Geometrical Optics,
Waves and Sound.
The edition is made very comprehensive and simple. The language used is
simplified, direct and all obstacles that would have hindered the effectiveness of
this book have been carefully removed. Solved numerical examples have been
assimilated to enrich the subject matter and expose the readers to simple physics
related calculations and practical problems that build their confidence in physics.
Additionally, many numerical exercises have been provided at the end of every
chapter including tutorial questions.
The book structured into four sections, is written to cover the course content in
the respective subject matter and particularly for students who are engaged in the
study of physics in tertiary institutions. Section one and two deals with mechanics
and thermal physics while section three elucidate geometrical optics. Section four
deals with waves and sound in physics. There is treatment of the basic elements
of hydromechanics in physics and this will provide the rudiments for both
students and teachers alike.
Above all we give all glory to the Almighty God for his love and wisdom to put
together this book together. We are very grateful to our colleagues and students
of the faculty of physical sciences for their constructive comments towards the
completion of this book. The authors are academic scholars who have used their
wealth of knowledge and teaching experience to write this book.
iii
CONTENTS
Title Cover ii
Preface iii
Table of Content iv
SECTION ONE 1
CHAPTER ONE: MECHANICS 2
1.1 Introduction 2
1.2 Fundamental Physical Quantities 2
1.3 Derivative Physical Quantities 3
1.4 System of Units 3
1.5 The Concept of Dimensional Analysis and S.I units 8
1.6 Classification of Physical Quantities 9
1.7 Dimensional Formulae and Dimensional equations 9
1.8 Application of the Method of Dimensional Equations 10
1.9 Limitations of Dimensional Analysis 12
1.10 Illustrative Examples 13
1.11 Tutorial Exercises 16
CHAPTER TWO: SCALAR AND VECTOR PROPERTIES

OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES 17
2.1 Introduction 17
2.2 Scalar physical Quantity 17
2.3 Vector Physical Quantity 17
2.4 Types of Vectors 18
2.5 Algebra of Vectors 20
2.5.1 Algebra of vector in one dimension 21
2.5.2 Algebra of vectors in two dimensions 23
2.6 Resolution of Vectors 24
2.7 Special theorems in Vectors 27
CHAPTER THREE: FORCE AND MOTION 34

3.1 The Concept of Force 34
3.1.1 Addition of Forces 35
3.1.2 Triangle Law of Forces 36
3.1.3 Lami’s Theory 37
3.1.4 Parallelogram Law of Forces 37
3.1.5 Polygon Law of Forces 38
iv
3.1.6 Resolution of Forces 39
3.2 The Concept of motion 41
3.3 Newton’s Laws of Motion 42
3.3.1 Newton's first law of motion 42
3.3.2 Newton’s Second Law of Motion 43
3.3.3 Newton’s Third Law of Motion 44
3.4 Speed, Velocity and Acceleration 44
3.5 Equation of uniformly Accelerated Motion 45
3.6: Parabolic Motion 46
3.7 Solved Numerical Problems 49
3.8 Exercises 50
CHAPTER FOUR: WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 53

4.1 Introduction 53
4.2 The Concept of Work 53
4.2.1 Special cases of work done 55
4.2.2 Work Done by a Variable Force 55
4.2.3 Work done by a Spring 57
4.2.4 Work done by Gravitational Force 58
4.2.5 Work Energy Theorem 60
4.2.6 Conservative forces 61
4.3 The concept of Energy 61
4.3.1 Types of Energy 61
4.3.2 Potential Energy 62
4.3.3 Kinetic Energy 63
4.3.3 Conservation of Energy 64
4.3.4 Conservation of mechanical energy during the free fall of a bod 64
4.4 The Concept of Power 66
CHAPTER FIVE: GRAVITATIONAL FORCE AND SATELLITES 74

5.1 Universal Gravitation 74
5.2 Universal Law of Gravitation 74
5.2.1 Importance of the Universal Law of Gravitation 74
5.3 Gravitational Force on Masses, Relationship between G and g 75
5.3.1 To calculate the value of g 76
5.4 Local Variations Of g 76
5.5 Gravitation Field Strength Equation 77
5.6 Gravitational Potential 78
5.6.1 Potential Charges 78
v
5.7 Relationship Between Field Strength and Potential Gradient 78
5.7 Planetary Motion 79
5.8 Motion of Moon Round the Earth 80
5.9 Earth Satellites 81
5.10 Parking Orbits 81
5.11 Velocity of Escape 82
5.12 Potential and Kinetic Energy of Satellite 83
5.13 Mass and Density of Earth 83
CHAPTER SIX: ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF MATTER 85

6.1 Introduction 85
6.2 Molecular Theory of Matter (Intermolecular Forces) 85
6.3 Elasticity 86
6.3.1 Elastic and Plastic Bodies 86
6.3.2 Molecular Theory of Elasticity 87
6.4 The Concept of Stress 87
6.4.1 Longitudinal Stress 88
6.4.2 Normal Stress 88
6.4.3 Shearing Stress 89
6.5 The Concept of Strain 89
6.5.1 Linear Strain 89
6.5.2 Volume Strain 90
6.5.3 Shearing strain 90
6.6 Stress-strain Relationship 90
6.7 Hook’s Law 92
6.7.1 Moduli of Elasticity 92
6.7.2 Poisson’s Ratio 94
6.8 Elastic Energy 96
6.9 Relationship between the three moduli of Elasticity 97
6.10 Applications of Elastic Behaviour of Materials 98
6.11 Solved Numerical problems 100
CHAPTER SEVEN: HYDROMECHANICS 104

7.1 Introduction 104
7.2 Hydrostatics 105
7.2.1 Hydrostatic pressure for fluids 106
7.3. Hydrodynamics 107
7.3.1 Real and Ideal Fluids 108
7.3.1 Steady Continuity Equation 110
vi
7.3.2 Bernoulli’s equation 111
7.4 Properties of Fluids 113
7.4.1 Surface Tension 113
7.4 2 Molecular theory of surface tension 114
7.4.3 Viscosity 120
7.4.4 Density and Relative Density 122
7.4.5 Compressibility and pressure 125
CHAPTER EIGHT: LINEAR MOMENTUM AND EQUILIBRIUM

OF FORCES 131
8.1 Linear Momentum 131
8.2 Impulse 131
8.3 Conservation of Momentum 135
8.4 Types of collision 137
8.4 Equilibrium 139
8.4.1 Types of equilibrium 140
8.5 Resultant force 140
8.6 Equilibrant 140
8.7 Turning Force 141
8.7.1 Moment of turning force 141
8.7.2 Principle of moment 142
8.8.2 Under the action of non-parallel coplanar forces 142
8.9.1 Moment of a couple or Torque 144
8.10 Centre of Mass 145
8.11 Centre of Gravity 145
8.11.1 The position of Centre of mass and centre of gravity 146
8.12 Stability and centre of gravity 146
8.12.1 Stable equilibrium/stability 147
8.12.2 Unstable stability 147
8.12.3 Neutral stability 147
8.13 Introduction to Rocket Propulsion 148
vii
SECTION TWO: THERMAL PHYSICS 150
CHAPTER ONE: TEMPERATURE AND STATES OF MATTER 151
1.1 Temperature and states of matter 151
1.2 Zeroth Law 152
1.3 Measurement of Temperature 152
1.3.1 Thermometer and Their Thermometric Substances 152
1.3.2 Fixed Properties of Thermometers 153
1.3.3 Scales of Temperature 153
1.3.4 Why is Water not used in a Liquid-In-Gas-Thermometer? 154
1.3.5 Comparison of Mercury and Alcohol as Thermometric Liquids 155
CHAPTER TWO: THERMAL EXPANSION OF SOLIDS

LIQUIDS AND GASSES 156
2.1 Linear Expansivity (∝) 156
2.2 Area Expansivity 157
2.3 Volume Expansivity 158
2.4 Thermal Expansion of Water 159
CHAPTER THREE:KINETIC THEORY OF GASES 160

3.2 Microscopic Origin of Pressure 160
3.3 Microscopic Origin of Temperature 161
3.4.1 Thermal Energy 162
3.5 RSM Speed 162
3.6 Internal Energy of an Ideal Gas 163
3.7 The Van-der Waals Equation 164
CHAPTER FOUR: HAET TRANSFER AND THERMODYNAMICS 168

4.1 The Concept of Heat 168
4.2 Specific Heat Capacity of a Material 168
4.3 Calorimetry and Phase Changes 169
4.4 Latent Heat 172
4.5 Mechanism of Heat Transfer 172
4.5.1 Conduction 173
4.5.2 Convection 174
4.5.3 Radiation 174
4.6 Global Warming and Greenhouse 176
2.6.1 The Greenhouse Effect 176
4.6.2 Greenhouse Gases 177
4.6.3 Effect of Global Warming 177
4.6.4 How to address Global Warming 177
viii
4.7 Laws of Thermodynamics 177
4.7.1 First Law 177
4.7.2 Second Law 178
SECTION THREE: GEOMETRICAL OPTICS 183

CHAPTER ONE: REFLECTION AND REFRACTION 184
1.1 Reflection of Light 184
1.1.1 Types of Reflection of Light 184
1.1.3 Reflection at Curve Surfaces 186
1.1.4 Image Formation by Plane Mirror 187
1.1.5 Characteristics of images formed by plane mirror 188
1.1.6 Images Formed by Curved Mirrors 188
1.1.7 Magnification 190
1.1.8 Basic Terms for spherical mirrors 191
1.1.9 Mirror Formula 192
1.2 Refraction at Plane Surfaces 194
1.2.1 Laws of Refraction 195
1.2.2 Critical Angle and Total Internal Reflection 196
1.2.3 Applications of Total Internal Reflection 197
CHAPTER TWO: REFRACTION AT SPHERICAL SURFACES

AND DISPERSION OF LIGHT 199
2.1 Refraction at Spherical surfaces 199
2.1.1 Refraction at concave spherical surface 200
2.1.2 Refraction at convex spherical surface 201
2.2 Dispersion of Light 203
2.2.1 Refraction of Light Through Prism 203
2.2.2 Recombination of white light 205
2.2.3 Rainbow 205
CHAPTER THREE: THIN LENS AND ABERATIONS 207

3.2 Terminologies in Thin Lenses 207
3.3 Lens Maker’s Formula and Magnification 208
3.4 Formation of Images by Thin Lenses 210
3.5 Rules to draw ray diagrams for image formation by lenses 211
3.6 Lens Formula 213
3.7 Power of a Lens 215
3.8 Defects in image formation 215
3.9 Spherical Aberration 216
ix
3.10 Chromatic Aberration in Lenses 216
3.11 Combination of Lens 217
CHAPTER FOUR: OPTICAL INSTRUMENT

AND THE HUMAN EYE 222
4.2 The Simple Camera 222
4.3 The simple magnifier 223
4.4 The Compound Microscope 226
4.5 The Telescope 228
4.6 The Human Eye 231
4.6.1 Optical Structure of the Eye 231
4.6.2 Chambers of the Eye 233
4.6.3 Principle of the Eye as an Optical System 233
4.6.4 Optical Power of the Eye 293
4.7 Eye Defects and their Corrections 234
4.7.1 Myopia 234
4.7.2 Hypermyopia 234
4.7.3 Astigmatism 235
4.7.4 Presbyopia 235
4.8 Biophysics of Vision 235
4.9 Photoreceptors 236
4.10 Stereopsis 236
CHAPTER FIVE: WAVE THEORY OF LIGHT 238

1.2 Huygens’s wave theory 238
1.3 Wave front 238
1.4 Huygens, principle of propagation of wave front 239
1.5 Reflection 240
1.6 Speed of Light (c) 240
1.7 Refraction 241
CHAPTER SIX: INTERFERENCE, DIFFRACTION

AND POLARIZATION OF LIGHT 245
6.1 Interference of light waves, constructive interference 245
6.2 Diffractions of light waves 246
6.3 Polarization of light 247
6.4 Applications of Polarized Light 248
x
SECTION FOUR: SOUND AND WAVES 250
CHAPTER ONE: CIRCULAR MOTION 251
1.2 Uniform Circular Motion 252
1.2.1: Angular Velocity 252
1.3 Non-uniform circular motion 253
CHAPTER TWO: SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION 258

2.1 Fundamental concepts 259
2.2: Simple pendulum and Mass on a spring 253
2.2.1 Mass on a spring 261
2.2.2 Characteristics of SHM 262
2.2.3 Illustrative Examples 262
2.3 Velocity and energy of Simple harmonic oscillation 262
2.4 Amplitude, period and frequency of simple harmonic motion 263
2.5 Energy in a Simple Harmonic Oscillator 263
2.6 Summary of formulae for simple harmonic motion 265
2.7 Illustrative examples 265
2.8 Energy of a simple harmonic motion 266
2.9 Illustrative example 266
2.10 Damped Oscillations 268
2.10.1 Expression for the decay of the amplitude in damped oscillation 269
2.10.2 Types of damped oscillation 270
2.10.3 Damping ratio 271
2.11 Force vibration 271
2.12 Resonance 274
2.13 Types of resonance 275
CHAPTER THREE: WAVES AND WAVE MOTION 278

3.2 Classification of waves 278
3.3 General representing of a wave 280
3.4 Terms used in wave motion 281
3.5 Stationary waves 282
3.6: Equation of wave motion 284
3.7 Illustrative examples 284
3.8 Properties of a wave 286
xi
CHAPTER FOUR: ACOUSTIC SOUND AND
MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS 295
4.1 Acoustics 295
4.2 Reflection of Sound 295
4.3 Applications of Echoes 295
4.4 Applications of Reverberation 296
4.5 Application of Sound Waves in Musical Instruments 296
Module Questions section I and II 297
Module Questions section III and IV 298
Suggestions for further Reading 299
xii
SECTION 1
MECHANICS
1
CHAPTER ONE
MEASUREMENT AND UNITS IN SCIENCES AND ENGINEERING
TECHNOLOGY
1.1 Introduction
Physics is a quantitative experimental science. Therefore, measurement of all physical
parameters in physics are defined based on exact measurement. One of the utmost
significant stages in applying scientific method is experiment. Measurement is the
technique of involving figures with physical quantities and phenomena. Dimensionally,
measurement is essential to the sciences, engineering, construction, and other applied
areas in practically all daily activities. The theoretical foundation of measurement in
terms of reasoning, mechanisms, circumstances and precincts have been considerably
studied. Measurements could be unaided by human senses and these are generally called
approximations. Furthermore, universally the usage of instruments in measurements may
vary insignificantly from simple rules for quantifying lengths to very sophisticated
methods designed to identify and measure quantities absolutely beyond the capabilities
of the human senses. Such measurements may include; the detection of radio waves
from a distant star or the magnetic moment of a subatomic particle. Generally, measuring
systems involve a number of practical elements. One element is necessary to distinguish
the object and its dimensions. Such data are often transmitted throughout the system
either by physical observations or detection of signals. Absolutely, measuring systems
includes practically elements of recording and thus technically displaying digitally
figures and signals on the screen or by physical observations. Several factors such as
distortions, linearity, resolution, precision and accuracy characteristically affect
measurement and measuring systems both internally and externally. This give rise to
errors and their representation in measurement and measuring systems.
1.2 Fundamental Physical Quantities

A physical quantity is significant by declaring how it is measured or by stating how it is
calculated from other measurements. Measurement of physical quantities are expressed
in terms of units which are standardized. Fundamental quantity is an independent
physical quantity that is not imaginable to be express in terms of other physical
quantities. Fundamental quantities are the mainstay of other physical quantities called
derived quantities. They have a great accuracy and precision in measurement and
measuring system. In mechanics, all other physical quantities are expressed in terms of
the three fundamental quantities of length (L), mass (M) and time (T). They are called
most fundamental physical quantities because they can only be defined by the procedure
used to measure them. Other fundamental physical quantities include; electric current,
2
luminous intensity, thermodynamic temperature and amount of substance. The units for
which these quantities are measured are called fundamental units.
1.3 Derivative Physical Quantities

Derived physical quantities are quantities that are calculated from two or more
measurements. The most important derived physical quantities include area, volume, and
density. The area of a rectangular surface is calculated as its length multiplied by its
width. The volume of a rectangular solid is calculated as the product of its length, width,
and height, and the density of a substance is calculated as the ratio of mass per unit
volume. Basically, they are obtained by means of the mathematical symbols of
multiplication and division.
1.4 System of Units

In all measurements and measuring systems, anything quantifiable must have a unit of
measurement. Anything measurable is term physical quantity. Therefore, units are means
of measurement. Unit of measurement is a defined as a definite amount of a quantity or a
standardized quantity of a physical property defined and adopted by convention or by
law that is used as a standard for measurement of the same kind of quantity. It is also
used as a standard to expressed a physical quantity. A system of units is a set of
interrelated units, comprising both the fundamental and derived units, which are used for
calculations. Virtually, units exist in more than one system of units. Basically, there are
different systems of units used for measurement of physical quantities. These are; the
French system (C.G.S) called centimeters grams second, the British system (F.P.S)
called foot pound second or (M.K.S) called mass kilogram second system and the S.I.
system called international system of units.
THE C.G.S SYSTEM OF UNITS: Systematically, this deals with only three
fundamental units of centimeter, gram and the second for fundamental units of length,
mass and time respectively. It is a French system of units.
The centimeter (cm): This is a metric unit generally used to express the length of small
objects. It is also used in measuring the height of objects.
The gram (g): This is a metric unit that is the base unit for mass. It is universally used to
express the mass of small objects such as orange, egg, and tomato.
The second (s): This is the base unit for time. One second is equivalent to a tick of a
clock’s second hand. It is the 1/86400th part of a mean solar day. One solar day is the
time between two consecutive noons or the average time that elapses during a year
3
between two successive passages of the sun across any one straight line drawn from pole
to pole on the earth’s surface. In 1964, in terms of physical measurement the second has
been defined as 9192631770 time periods of radiation corresponding to the unperturbed
transition between the hyperfine levels of the ground state of the atom of Cesium (C133)
atom.
THE F.P.S SYSTEM OF UNITS: The Foot, Pound, Seconds system of units is a
British system of units that deals with only three fundamental units of the Foot, Pound
and the Second for the fundamental quantities of length, mass and time respectively.
The foot (ft.): This is an English unit corresponding to 12 inches. It is commonly used to
express short distances, and height of all objects like trees and buildings. The foot is one-
third of the distance between two lines on platinum-iridium bar at a temperature of 650F
kept at the standard office of the board of Trade, London.
The pound (Ib): This is an English unit commonly used for measuring short distances,
and height of tall objects like trees and buildings. Pound is the mass of the platinum-
iridium cylinder kept at the standard office of the board of trade, London.
The second (s): Same as defined in the C.G.S system of unit above.
THE M.K.S SYSTEM OF UNITS: The mass, kilogram and second system of units
also deals with three fundamental units the meter, kilogram and second for the
fundamental physical quantity of length, mass and time respectively. This system is also
called the metric system of units and is closely related to C.G.S system of units. In this
system, the unit of mass is the kilogram (kg), length the meter (m) and time the second
(s).
SYSTEM INTERNATIONAL (S.I) UNITS: The S.I unit is the modern type of metric
system and it is the universally accepted metric system. The metric measurement system
that is internationally accepted now is the one suggested by the Eleventh general
conference of weights and Measures held in 1960 in France, and is known as System
Internationale d’ Unites or System International Units abbreviated as SI units of
measurement. According to this system, there are seven basic or fundamental units and
three supplementary units. The basic units are:
v the meter (m) for length,
v the kilogram (kg) for mass,
v the second (s) for time,
v the Kelvin (K) for temperature,
4
v the ampere (A) for electric current,
v the candela (cd) for luminous intensity and
v the mole (mol.) for the amount of substance.
The seven basic fundamental units provides the basis of deriving units for all other
possible quantities of science and engineering. Additionally, three more units are
included and they serve as a link between science, engineering and technical units. The
supplementary units are:
v the radian (rad) for plane angle,
v the steradian (sr) for solid angle,
v the becquerel (Bq) for radioactivity.
In this system, seven base units covers all disciplines. Therefore, S.I units’ system is a
distinctive, comprehensive, rational and coherent system. Table 1.1, displays the seven
S.I base units along with the three dimensionless supplementary units.
TABLE 1.1: Seven base S.I units and three dimensionless supplementary units
S/N PHYSICAL QUANTITY UNIT SYMBOL
1. Length Metre m
2. Mass Kilogram kg
3. Time Second s
4. Electric current Ampere A
5. Luminous intensity Candela cd
6. Thermodynamic temperature kelvin K
7. Amount of substance mole mol.
SUPPLEMENTAYR UNITS
1. Plane angle radian rad
2. Solid angle steradian sr
3. Radioactivity Becquerel Bq
The metre (m): This is the unit of length. The metre is defined as a length equal to
1,650,763.73 wavelengths of the orange-red light emitted by the Krypton-86 atom in
electric discharge. Since 1983, a standard metre is defined as the length of the path
1
travelled by light in a vacuum in of a second.
299,792,458
5
The kilogram (kg): It is the unit of mass. The kilogram is defined as the mass of a
cylinder of platinum-iridium preserved at the International Bureau of Weights and
Measure at Sevres in France.
The second (s): It is the unit of time. The second is defined as the time required for
9,192,631,770 cycles of radiations that cause the transition of cesium (133C) atoms
between two specified lower energy bands.
The Ampere (A): It is the unit of electric current. The ampere is that constant current
which if maintained between two straight parallel conductors of infinite length and of
negligible cross-sectional area, placed one metre apart in a vacuum will produce a force
of 2 x 10-7 N/m between them.
The candela (cd): It is the unit of luminous intensity. The candela is defined as the
1
luminous intensity in a direction perpendicular to a surface area of m2 of a
600,000
black body kept at a freezing temperature of platinum under a pressure of 101,325 N/m2.
1
The kelvin (K): It is the unit of temperature. The Kelvin is defined as of the
273.16
thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water. The triple point of water is the
temperature at which the three states of water (ice, water and water vapour) co-exist.
The mole (mol.): It is the unit of amount of substance. The mole is the amount of
substance which contains as many elementary units as there are in carbon atoms and
exactly 0.012 kg of carbon-12.
The radians (rad): It is the unit of plane angle. The radian is the angle subtended at the
x
centre of a circle by an arc whose length is equal to the radius θ = .
r
The steradian (sr): It is the unit of solid angle. The steradian is the solid angle
subtended at the centre of a sphere by a surface area equal to the area of a square whose
sides are equal to the radius of the sphere.
The Becquerel (Bq): It is the unit of radioactivity. The Becquerel is defined as the
quantity of a radioactive substance that undergoes a disintegration per second.
Derived units: The physical quantities that depends upon fundamental quantities are
called derived quantities and the units for which they are measured are called derived
6
units. The S.I derived units are units of measurement derived from the seven base
units specified by the System International of Units (S.I). They are
either dimensionless or can be expressed as a product or division of one or more of the
fundamental units and perhaps scaled by an appropriate exponential power. They are
often written in lower case except for derived units named after persons that written in
upper case. The system international (S.I) derived units for some derived physical
quantities in mechanics, heat, waves and sound, electricity and magnetism and other
fields are shown in Table 1.2.
TABLE 1.2: System international Derived units

S/N PHYSICAL UNIT SYMBOL DERIVATION
QUANTITY
1. Force, weight Newton N Kg.m/s2
2. Work Joule J Nm
3. Energy Joule J Nm/s-1
4. Power Watt W J/s
5. Pressure Pascal pa N/m2 or kg.m-1.s-2
6. Speed, velocity Metre per second m/s ms-1
7. Acceleration Metre per second m/s2 m/s-2
square
8. Area Square metre m2 m2
9. Momentum, impulse Newton second N.s m.kg.s-1
10. Surface tension Newton per metre N.m kg.s-2
11 Electrical Siemen per metre S/m m-3.kg-1.s3.A2
conductivity
12. Permittivity Farad per metre F/m m-3.kg-1.s4.A2
13. Permeability Henry per metre H/m m.kg.s-2.A-2
14. Electric current Ampere per square A/m2 A.m-2
density metre
15. Heat capacity Joule per kelvin J/k m2.kg.s-2.k-1
16. Specific heat Joule per kilogram J/kg.k m2.s-2.k-1
capacity kelvin
17. Thermal conductivity Watt per metre W/m.k m⋅kg⋅s-3⋅K−1
kelvin
18. Magnetic Metre per henry m/H m-2.kg-1⋅s2⋅A2
susceptibility
19. Compressibility Per Pascal Pa-1 m.kg-1.s2
20. Magnetic induction Tesla T Wb/m2 or kg.s-2.A-
1
Note that the special name (s) and symbols given to some system international (S.I)
derived units is for simplicity of comprehension and convenience.
7
1.5 The Concept of Dimensional Analysis and S.I units
Dimensional analysis is the application of a set of units to establish the form of an
equations or often at times to check the correctness of an equation. The dimension of any
physical quantity also expresses its dependence on the fundamental physical quantities of
length, mass and time or as product of symbols, power of symbols representing the
fundamental physical quantities. Dimensional analysis offers a simple approach for
reducing the complexity of any physical equations in order to obtained a quantitative
solution. In science and engineering the method of dimension is practice to check the
correctness or otherwise of any mathematical relationship and physical equations.
Therefore, the study of the dimensions of physical quantities is used to obtain

information about large complex systems, and as a means of checking mathematical
relationships and physics equations. The knowledge of dimensions and units is very
important in solving mathematical problems of physical quantities. The basic idea is that
only physical quantities with the same dimensions can be added and subtracted and this
concept could be useful in deriving relationships between physical quantities. In
mechanics, the three base fundamental physical quantities of length, mass and time are
expressed dimensionally by the letters as [L], [M] and [T] respectively. A quantity is said
to have zero dimension if it does depend upon any of the base units. Hence, the number
of base unit present in a quantity determine its dimension. For instance, the derived
quantity area is express as a product of length and breadth. Both length and breadth have
the dimensions of length, therefore the dimensions of area become; [L1] × [L1] = [L2].
Thus, area is the product of two lengths and so has dimension L2 or length squared.
Similarly, volume does not depend on the dimensions of mass and time, hence the
dimensions of mass and time will be zero. In general, the dimensions of volume are
given as; V = [M0 L3 T0] = [L3]. This implies that volume is given as length L, (m) ×
breadth B, (m) × height H, (m) = [L1] × [L1] × [L1] = [L1+1+1] = [L3]. Volume is the
product of three lengths and has dimension L3, or length cubed. Speed has dimension
length over time, L/T or LT–1. Volumetric mass density has dimension M/L3 or ML–3, or
mass over length cubed on the other hand, the powers to which the fundamentals units of
mass, length and time must be raised to represent the dimensions of a derived unit. Let a,
b and c be the powers of mass, length and time respectively. Then the dimensions of any
derived quantity say Z is represented by the following equation. Z = [Ma] × [Lb] × [Tc] or
[MaLbTc]. Thus, like unit dimensions obey the rules of algebra. In general,
the dimension of any physical quantity can be written as;
L aM b T cI d J eK fQ g 1.1
8
For some powers a, b, c, d, e, f, and g. We can write the dimensions of a length in this
form with a = 1 and the remaining six powers all set equal to zero:
[L1] = [L1M0T0I0J0K0Q0] 1.2

1.6 Classification of Physical Quantities
Physical quantities are those quantities that can be measured in terms of which the laws
of physics are described. In physics all physical quantities can be classified into;
1. Dimensional Variable: It is a type of physical quantity that has its specific dimension
but its magnitude can vary with respect to certain conditions. For example, Work done,
Force, power, momentum etc.
2. Dimensionless variable: It is a type of physical quantity that doesn’t have dimension

but it is variable. For example, angle, specific gravity, relative density. This is due to the
fact that they are expressed as the ratio of two identical units.
3. Dimensional Constant: It is a type of physical quantity that has its own dimension and
constant magnitude. For example, Universal gravitational constant (G), velocity of light
(c).
4. Dimensionless constant: It is a type of physical quantity that neither has its dimension
nor is variable i.e. constant. For example, pure numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, …, numeric
constant such as π, etc.
1.7 Dimensional Formulae and Dimensional equations

The expressions or formulae which tell us how and which of the fundamental quantities
are present in a physical quantity are known as the dimensional formula of the physical
quantity. The dimensional formula of any quantity is the expression showing the powers
to which the fundamental units are to be raised to obtain one unit of a derived quantity.
Dimensional formulae also help in deriving units from one system to another. It has
many real-life applications and is a basic aspect of units and measurements. Suppose
there is a physical quantity X which depends on base dimensions M (Mass), L (Length)
and T (Time) with respective powers a, b and c, then its dimensional formula is
represented as:
[MaLbTc] (1.3)
A dimensional formula is always closed in a square bracket [ ]. Also, dimensional
formulae of trigonometric, plane angle and solid angle are not defined as these quantities
are dimensionless in nature. The equation obtained by equating a physical quantity with
9
its dimensional formula is called a dimensional equation. A dimensional equation is also
an equation that relates fundamental units and derived units in terms of dimensions.
TABLE 1.3: Dimensional formulae of some physical quantities
1.8 Application of the Method of Dimensional Equations

An equation that gives the relationship amongst fundamental units and derived units in
terms of dimensions is called dimensional equation. In mechanics the length, mass and
time are taken as three base dimensions and are represented by letters L, M, T
respectively. The derived unit of all physical quantities can be represented in terms of the
base fundamental unit of length, mass and time raised to some power (exponent). We
have, Area = length ⋅ breadth = length ⋅ length = [L] ⋅ [L] = [L2]. Therefore, dimensional
equation for area, A = [L2 M0 T0]. Thus, [L2 M0 T0] is called dimensional equation. The
numerical values [ 2, 0, 0] are called dimensions. Thus, dimensions of area are 2 in
10
length, 0 in mass and 0 in time. These types of equation are very useful and can be used
in the following ways;
1. To check the correctness of any physical equation

According to the principle of homogeneity, the dimensions of each term on the two side
of correct physical relation must be the same. we can check the correctness of the given
relation by finding out the dimensional formula of every term on either side of the
relation. If the dimensions are identical, the relation is correct. For example; check the
correctness of the equation below;
1 2
S = ut + at
2 1.3
Dimensional formula of S = [L]
Dimensional formula of ut = [LT-1] × [T] = [L]
1 2
2
[ ][ ]
at = LT −2 × T 2 = L
Dimensional formula of
Here, ½ is a constant and has no dimensions; since all the dimensions in the three terms
are the same, the equation is correct.
2. To derive a relationship among various physical quantities

When one physical quantity depends on several physical quantities, then the relationship
between the quantities can be derived using the method of dimension. The concept of
homogeneity of dimensions is also applicable. The expression for the time period (T) of
a simple pendulum can be deduced based on certain factors. Let the factors on which the
time period depends on be (a) mass of the pendulum bob (b) length of the pendulum (c)
acceleration due to gravity and (d) the angle of displacement of the pendulum bob.
Therefore, the time period (T) directly proportional to the mass m, length l, acceleration
due to gravity g, and the angle of displacement θ.
T ∝ Km al b g cθ d 1.4
a b c d
T = Km l g θ 1.5
Where K is dimensionless constant of proportionality. Taking dimensional formula for
each quantity, we have that;
[M0L0T1] = [ML0T0]a [M0LT1]b [M0LT-2]c 1.6
Since angle θ is a dimensionless quantity, d = 0
[M0L0T1] = [MaLb+c T –2c] 1.7
11
Equating the indices of the corresponding dimensions on both sides of the equation, we
have that; a = 0, b+c = 0, c = -b. Hence, 1 = 2c, c – ½ and b = ½. Substituting in equation
(1.5) for T, we have that;
1 1
− l
T = Kl 2 g 2
=K
g 1.8
Experimentally, K is found to be 2π Therefore;
l
T = 2π
g 1.9
3. To convert the value of a physical quantity from one system of unit to another
A physical quantity is measured by expressing a number and a unit. Changing the unit of
measurement result in changing the associated number. Often at times it is desired to
change the value of a physical quantity from one system to another system of unit and
this can only be made possible by dimensional formulae. We can convert the value of a
physical quantity from one system to another by using dimensional analysis and by
applying the principle of homogeneity. Let a physical quantity as represented in system
[ x y z
]
one having n1 M 1 L1 T1 , where x, y and z are the dimensions of the given physical
quantity. Similarly, in system two let the physical quantity be represented by
[ ]
n2 M 2x L2yT2z . Where n1 and n2 are the numerical values in the two systems. Since the
quantity does not change its absolute value remain same in both systems.
[ ]
n1 M 1x L1yT1z = n2 M 2x L2yT2z [ ] 1.10
x y z
⎡M ⎤ ⎡ L1 ⎤ ⎡ T1 ⎤
n2 = n1 ⎢ 1 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣M2 ⎦ ⎣ L2 ⎦ ⎣T2 ⎦ 1.11
If we know the base unit of both systems and the value in one system, then equation
(1.11) can be used to calculate its value in another system.
1.10 Limitations of Dimensional Analysis

The idea of dimensional analysis can be applied successfully in simple cases but cannot
be successfully applied in some systems. In general, the following are the major
drawbacks of dimensional analysis and are listed as follows;
1. It does not provide any information about dimensionless constants.
12
2. It is not possible to derive relationships that contain more than one term such as
1
S = ut + at 2
2 .
3. This method cannot be used if the relation contains more than three unknown
quantities.
4. This method cannot be applicable if the relationship involves trigonometric functions
or logarithmic functions or exponential functions.
5. Since there are many physical quantities with the same dimensions, it is very difficult
to identify them by knowing their dimensions alone.
1.10 Illustrative Examples

Q1. Why do we need standard unit for measurement?
Solution
We need standard unit for measurement to make our judgment more reliable and accurate. For
proper dealing, measurement should be same for everybody. Thus, there should be uniformity in
measurement. For the sake of uniformity, we need a common set of units of measurement, which
are called standard units. Nowadays SI units in science and technology are almost accepted
universally.
Q2. What do you mean by fundamental & derived quantities? Give the derived unit of Force.
Solution
Fundamental quantity: These are quantities which are independent of other physical quantity.
Example are length, mass, time, current, amount of substance, luminous intensity,
thermodynamic temperature,
Derived quantity: These are quantities which depend on fundamental quantities. Example: Area,
volume, density, speed, acceleration, force, velocity.
Force is a derived unit if the mass has been declared a fundamental unit. It is the force which
imparts to the unit of mass the unit of acceleration. The derived unit of force is kg.m/s2
Q3. A force of 40 N acts on a body. If the units of mass and length are doubled and the unit of
time is tripled, then the force in the new system becomes
13
Solution
New unit is given by,
1 1
×
40 × 2 22 = 90 new units
⎛1⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝2⎠
Q4. Why is the mass of an object on Earth be same as that on Mars but the weight on both
planets are different?
Solution
This is because the weight (W) of an object at a place depends on the acceleration due to gravity
of that place i.e. W=mg or W α g and since the values of acceleration due to gravity on both
planets differ, thus the weight of the object will be different for both planets.
Q5. An object placed on the ground has a gravitational force of 160 N acting on it. What is the
weight of the object? (g=10m/s2)
A 1.6N
B 16N
C 1600N
D 160N
Solution
(The correct option is D)
The weight of an object on the ground is defined as a force by which the earth pulls this object. In
this given question, the gravitational force on an object is 160 N, which mean that the earth is
pulling this object towards the centre by a force of 160 N. Hence the weight of object on the
ground will be 160 N.
Q6. Deduce the dimensional formulae of the following physical quantities (a) force (b)
acceleration (c) velocity (d) work (e) pressure
Solution
(a)
force = mass × acceleration = ma = m ×

v [L] [ ] [
= [M ]× 2 = [M ]× LT − 2 = MLT − 2 ]
t T [ ]
(b) acceleration = =
[
velocity LT −1 ] [ ] [
= LT − 2 = M 0 LT − 2 ]
time [T ]
14
dis tan ce m L
(c) velocity = = = = LT −1 = M 0 LT −1
time s T
[
][] [
(d) work = focre × dis tan ce = MLT −2 × L = ML2T −2 ]
force [MLT ] −2
[L ] = [ML T ]
−1 −2
(e) pressure = = 2
area
Q7. Use the method of dimension to check the correctness of the following equations (a)
1 l
s = ut + at 2 (b) v = u + at (c) v 2 = u 2 + 2as (d) T = 2π
2 g
Solution
1 2
(a) s = ut + at
2
Dimension on the L.H.S = [L]

[ ]
[ut ] = LT −1 × [T ] = [L ]
Dimension on the R.H.S = 1 2
[
[ at ] = LT − 2 × T 2 = [L ]
2
] [ ]
Since the dimension of ½ is zero and the dimensions in the three terms are the same,
hence the equation is dimensionally verified to be correct.
(b) v = u + at
[ ]
Dimension on the L.H.S = [v] = LT −1
[u ] = [LT ] −1
Dimension on the R.H.S =

[at ] = [LT ]× [T ] = [LT ]
−2 −1
Therefore, it implies that the dimensions in the three terms are the same. The equation is
dimensionally correct.
(c) v 2 = u 2 + 2as
Dimension on the L.H.S = [v 2 ] = LT −1[ ] = [L T ]
2 2 −2

[
] [ ] 2
[u 2 ] = LT −1 = L2T −2
[2as ] = [LT ]× [L] = [L T ]
−2 2 −2
15
Since the dimensions in the three terms are the same, therefore, the equation is
dimensionally correct.
l
(d) T = 2π
g
Dimension on the L.H.S = [ M 0 L0T −1 ]
1
2 1

[L] =
[L]2 = [ 1
= M 0 L0T −1 ]
1
[g ]2 [LT
1
−2 2
] [ ] T −1
Since the dimension on the L.H.S quantity is equivalent to the dimension on the R.H.S
quantity, the equation is dimensionally correct.
1.11 Tutorial Exercises

Q1. On the basis of dimensional analysis obtain and expression for the following
(a) distance travelled by a body in time t, if the initial velocity is u and acceleration, a.
(b) the acceleration of a particle moving with a uniform speed around a circle of radius,
r.
(c) time period of small drop of liquid vibrating under surface tension S, if its depends
upon the density D, radius r and surface tension.
Q2. A gas bubble from an explosion under water, oscillates with a period T, proportional
to Pa Db E c where P, is the static pressure, D is the density of water and E is the total
energy of the explosion. On the basis of dimensional analysis calculate the values of a, b
and c.
Q3. State what you understand by the following? (a) fundamental quantities and units (b)
dimensions of physical quantity.
Q4. Derive dimensional formulae for the following physical quantities (i) specific
gravity (ii) velocity (iii) impulse (iv) angular momentum (v) angular velocity.
Q5. Show on the basis of dimensional analysis that the following relations are correct (a)
1 2 3g
v 2 − u 2 = 2as (b) s − ut = at (c) ρ = . Where all symbols have their usual
2 4 RG
meaning.
Q6. Consider that the frequency f, of a stretched string depends upon the length of the
string, tension in the string and the mass per unit length of the string. On the basis of the
concept of dimension formulate a relationship for the frequency f.
16
CHAPTER TWO
SCALAR AND VECTOR PROPERTIES OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES
2.1 Introduction
Some physical quantities such as length, area, volume and mass can be completely
described by a single real number. Because these quantities are describable by giving
only a magnitude, they are called scalars. The word scalar means representable by
position on a line; having only magnitude. On the other hand, physical quantities such as
displacement, velocity, force and acceleration require both a magnitude and a direction
to completely describe them. Such quantities are called vectors. If you say that a car is
traveling at 90 km/hr., you are using a scalar quantity, namely the number 90 with no
direction attached, to describe the speed of the car. On the other hand, if you say that the
car is traveling due north at 90 km/hr., your description of the car's velocity is a vector
quantity since it includes both magnitude and direction. It is customary to leave scalars
as regular hand written script and modify the symbols used to represent vectors by either
underlining, such as u or v, or by placing an arrow above the symbol, such as u or v .
2.2 Scalar physical Quantity

Scalar physical quantities are those that can be completely described by magnitude or
numerical value unaided. The term scalar means representable by position on a line
having only magnitude or simply numerical value. Therefore, a scalar quantity is a
physical quantity that has magnitude but no particular direction and it is described by a
numerical value. Scalars quantity can only change when their magnitude changes. Scalar
quantities that have the identical physical units can be added or subtracted according to
the standard rules of algebra for numbers. Two scalar quantities can also be multiplied or
divided by each other to form a derived scalar quantity. Examples of scalars are;
distance, speed, time, power, energy etc. When a scalar quantity is multiplied by a
number, the same scalar quantity is obtained however with a greater or lesser value.
2.3 Vector Physical Quantity

Several physical quantities, however, cannot be defined absolutely by just a single
number of physical units. Such physical quantities are called vector quantities. A vector
quantity is that physical quantity, having both magnitude and direction. Thus, physical
quantities specified completely by giving a number of units (magnitude) and a direction
(path) are called vector quantities. The addition of two vectors does not follow ordinary
algebra. A vector quantity on paper is represented with an arrow over a letter A while in
print it is represented by a boldface letter A. Geometrically, it is represented by a line
segment, having an arrow at one end. The arrow describes the direction and the length of
17
the segment gives the magnitude. Important vectors are displacement, velocity,
acceleration, force, impulse, momentum etc. On the contrary, it is not all the physical
quantity that have both magnitude and direction that are vector quantities. For instance,
electric current has both magnitude and direction and yet it is not a vector quantity as it
does not obey the parallelogram law of addition. Similarly, the rotation of a rigid body
about an axis has both magnitude and direction however it is not a vector quantity due to
the fact that the sum of two such rotations cannot be described by the parallelogram law
of addition. Therefore, a vector quantity is that physical quantity that have both
magnitude and direction and satisfy the parallelogram law of vector addition.
Geometrically, since vectors are determined by both a magnitude and a direction, they
are represented in 2 or 3-dimensional space as directed line segments or arrows. The
length of the arrow corresponds on the magnitude of the vector while the direction of the
arrow corresponds to the direction of the vector. Therefore, tail of the arrow is called the
initial point of the vector while the tip of the arrow is called the terminal point of the
vector. If the vector Q has the point A as its initial point and the point B as its terminal
point, it is written as Q = AB.
Fig. 2.1: Geometric representation of a vector

2.4 Types of Vectors
They are different kinds of vector quantities. These are;
1. Equal vectors: Two or more vectors are said to be equal when their magnitude is
equal and also their direction is the same. Example; two vectors A and B that have the
same magnitude and same direction, are said to be equal vectors even though they have
different initial points and different terminal points. If A and B are equal vectors, we
write A = B.
A
A
-A
B
Fig. 2.2 Equal vectors Fig. 2.3 Negative of a vectors
18
2. Negative vectors: If A is a non-zero vector, we define the negative of A, denoted –A,
to be the vector whose magnitude (or length) is the same as the magnitude (or length) of
the vector A, but whose direction is opposite to that of A. It is also a vector having the
same magnitude but directed in opposite direction (Fig. 2.2).
3. Zero vector or null vector: The zero vector, denoted by 0, is the vector whose length
is 0. Since a vector of length 0 does not have any associated direction, thus the direction
is taken to be arbitrary; that is to say it can be assigned any direction. The zero vector
satisfies the property: A + 0 = 0 + A = A for every vector A. If the modulus is also zero it
is called zero or null vector; that is A = 0
4. Proper vector: This is a vector in which its modulus is not zero and it is not a null
vector is called proper vector. Thus, A ≠ 0
5. Unit vector: This is a vector in whose magnitude is a unit (Fig. 2.4). Thus, a unit
∧ A
vector in the direction of A is written as A-cap denoted by the symbol A =
A
Y
P
˄ ˄ A
j i
X
0 -A
˄
k
O
Z O
P
(Object)
O (Origin)
Fig. 1.4: Unit vector Fig. 2.5: Collinear vector Fig. 2.6:
Position vector
19
6. Like and Unlike Vectors: Vectors having the same directions are said to be like
vectors whereas vectors having opposite directions are said to be unlike vectors. These
are vectors directed in the same or opposite direction irrespective of their magnitudes.
7. Collinear vectors: These are two or more vectors parallel or anti-parallel to each
other. They lie along the same line or parallel lines. Thus, two vectors are said to be
collinear if they are parallel to the same line irrespective of their magnitudes and
direction. Two vectors are said to be collinear if and only if these two vectors are either
along the same line or these vectors are parallel to each other in the same direction or
opposite direction. The condition parallelism is that one of the vectors should be a scalar
multiple of another vector (Fig. 2.5).
8. Coplanar vectors: These are vectors, whose lines of action lies in the same plane and
the plane in which they lie is called plane of vectors.
9. Position vectors: These are vectors used to specify the position of a point P with
respect to a fixed point say O is given by OP (Fig. 2.6).
→
10. Co-initial Vectors: Two or more vectors are said to be co-initial vectors when they
have the same starting point (Fig.2.7). Thus, vectors AB and AC are called co-initial
vectors because they have the same starting point A.
B
Fig. 2.7: Co-initial vectors

11. Displacement Vector: The vector AB represents a displacement vector if a point is
displaced from the position A to B.
2.5 Algebra of Vectors

Vectors can be added together and multiplied by scalars. Vector addition is associative
and commutative while vector multiplication by a sum of scalars is distributive.
Similarly, scalar multiplication by a sum of vectors is distributive. All the above
algebraic processes can be carried out in one dimension and two dimensions.
20
2.5.1 Algebra of vector in one dimension
Vectors can be multiplied by scalars, added to other vectors, or subtracted from other
vectors when there is two successive displacement of a point. Resolution of vectors into
their scalar components and expressing them analytically in vector component form
enable us to use vector algebra to calculate sums or differences of many
vectors analytically. For example, to find the resultant of two vectors, we simply add
them component by component.
In general, when a vector A is multiplied by a positive scalar quantity β, this will result
in a new vector B that is parallel to A
B=βA 2.1
The magnitude B of this new vector is obtained by multiplying the magnitude A of
the original vector, as expressed by the scalar equation.

B= β A 2.2
The scalar equation (2.2), shows that both sides of the equation are numbers. Equation
(2.2) is a scalar equation because the magnitudes of vectors are scalar quantities and are
positive numbers. If the scalar β is negative in the vector equation (2.1), then the
magnitude B of the new vector is given by equation (2.2). Note that the direction of the
new vector B is antiparallel to the direction of A . These principles are illustrated

in (Fig. 1.8a-c). Consider two vectors A and B with the length of vector A = 1.5 when β
= 2.0, then the new vector B = 2 A units. Therefore, the new length now becomes B = 2A
= 2 × 1.5 = 3.0 units twice as long as the original vector and the new vector is parallel to
the original vector. When β = - 2, the new vector C = −2 A = C = − 2 A = 3.0 units
twice as long as the original vector and the new vector is antiparallel to the original
vector.
21
𝑨 𝑩= 2𝑨 𝑪 = −𝟐 𝑨
(a)
A = 1.5 B = 2A = 3.0 C = 2A = 3.0
𝑨 𝑨 𝑩
A = 1.5
(b)
𝑩 𝑷= 𝑨 +𝑩
B = 2.0 R = A + B = 3.5
𝑨 𝑨 −𝑩
A = 1.5
(c)
𝑩 𝑸 = 𝑨 +𝑩
B = 3.2 Q = 𝑨 − 𝑩 = 3.2 – 1.5 = 1.7
Fig. 2.8: Algebra of vectors in one-dimension (a) multiplication of a vector by a

scalar (b) addition of two vectors (c) subtraction of two vectors
The vector sum of two or more vectors is called the resultant vector or, for short,
the resultant. When the magnitude of two vectors are known, we can calculate the
resultant vector. Consider two vectors A and B that lie along a line in one dimension.
The resultant of the two vectors is given as P = A + B and their difference Q = A - B if
both lie along the same direction. We can demonstrate addition and subtraction of two or
more vectors by drawing the corresponding vectors to scale in one dimension (Fig. 2.8a).
To exemplify the resultant two vectors when A and B are two parallel vectors, we draw
them along one line by placing the origin of one vector at the end of the other vector in
head-to-tail technique (Fig. 2.8b). The magnitude of the resultant vector is the sum of
their magnitudes P = A + B. The direction of the resultant is parallel to both vectors.
When vector A is antiparallel to vector B , we can draw them along one line in either
head-to-head technique or tail-to-tail technique (Fig. 2.8c). The magnitude of the vector
difference, then, is the absolute value Q = A − B of the difference of their magnitudes.
The direction of the difference vector Q is parallel to the direction of the longer vector.
Generally, in one-dimension and other higher dimensions, such as in a plane or in space,

any two or more vectors can undergo addition in any order format because the addition
of vectors is commutative equation (2.3)
A+ B = B+ A 2.3
22
Similarly, addition of vectors is associative equation (2.4) and multiplication by a scalar
is distributive equation (2.5).
( A + B ) + C = A+ ( B +C ) 2.4
β1 A + β2 A = (β1 + β2) A 2.5
In addition of several vectors in one dimension, it is appropriate to use the concept of

∧
a unit vector. A unit vector denoted by a has a magnitude of 1 without any physical unit
∧
a = a =1
such that . The only role of a unit vector is to specify direction. For instance,
the alternative way of saying vector A has a magnitude of 10.0 km in the direction of
∧
northeast (10 km NE), a unit vector a can be introduce that point in the northeast
∧
direction by describing the vector A = (10.0 km) a . Then the southwestern direction is
∧
simply given by the unit vector - a . Therefore, the displacement of 10.0 km in the
∧
southwestern direction is expressed by the vector A = (- 10.0 km) a .
2.5.2 Algebra of vectors in two dimensions

When vectors are in two dimensions or lie in a plane, they can be multiplied by scalars,
added to other vectors, or subtracted from other vectors in accordance with the triangle
and parallelogram laws. Nevertheless, the addition rule for two vectors in two
dimensions becomes complex than in one dimension. In this case, the laws of geometry
used to construct the resultant vectors in conjunction with trigonometry to calculate the
magnitudes and directions of vectors in two dimensions. The geometric approach is in
general used in navigation. In terms of the geometric construction of the sum of two
vectors in two dimensions or in a plane we apply the triangle and parallelogram laws.
Consider two vectors A and B showing two successive displacements of a points P and
Q. The sum of the two vectors C is obtained graphically by using head-to-tail technique
(Fig. 2.9a). The line joining the tail of vector A to the head of vector B is equal to the
vector sum of A and B represented by C . The direction of the displacement is from the
tail of vector A to the head of vector B (Fig. 2.9b). This law of vector addition is called
23
triangle law of vector addition. If the parallelogram is completed as shown in Fig. 2.9c, it
is called the parallelogram law of vector addition.
𝑩 𝑨
𝑪=𝑨 + 𝑩
𝑪 =𝑨 + 𝑩
𝑨 𝑩
𝑨 𝑩
𝑨 𝑩
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 2.9: Triangle and parallelogram laws of vectors addition
Triangle law of vectors addition:

Parallelogram law of vector addition:
2.6 Resolution of Vectors

In resolution of vectors the analytical techniques of calculating the resultant and, in
general, for solving vector equations are very important in physics because many
physical quantities are vectors. In kinematics, this technique is used to calculate the
resultant displacement of vectors and resultant velocity of vectors whereas, in mechanics
the technique is used to calculate the resultant force of vectors and the resultants of many
derived vector quantities. In electricity and magnetism, it is used to find resultant electric
or magnetic vector fields. In studying physical phenomena, such as current flow in a
conductor, we need to state the direction of a magnetic field vector at some point or the
direction of the motion of an object. The analytical techniques of vector algebra permit
us to calculate the resultants of sums or differences of vectors without having to
construct them. Analytical procedures of vector addition are precise, contrary to the
graphical techniques, which are approximation. These methods of vector algebra are
used regularly in mechanics, electricity, and magnetism. They are important
mathematical tools in the study of natural phenomena in physics. This technique is
applicable in both one dimensions and three dimensions coordinates systems. Vectors in
a plane can be represented as the sum of two vectors along two co-ordinate (x and y)
axes and as the sum of three mutually perpendicular vectors along three coordinate (x, y
and z) axes.
CASE I: Consider a vector 𝐴 having its tail at a point O and head at point P (𝑂𝑃). Let
Ax be its component along the x-axes and Ay be its component along the y-axis (Fig.
24
2.10). The vector 𝐴 can be resolve into vertical component (Ax) and horizontal
component (Ay) respectively.
A = Ay + Ax 2.6
Where Ax and Ay are called the vertical and horizontal vector components of vector A.
Let I and j be the unit vectors along x and y axes respectively. If Ax and Ay are the
scalar magnitude of the vector components Ax and Ay, it implies that;
Ax = Axi and Ay = Ayj 2.7

Thus;
A = Ax + Ay or A = Axi + Ayj 2.8
If θ is the angle with which the vector A makes with the positive x-axis, then we have
that (Fig. 2.10);
Ax = A cos θ and Ay = A cos θ
𝐴= 𝐴𝑥 ) + 𝐴𝑦 ) 2.9
12
𝑇𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = 2.10
13
Similarly, these results can be applied in adding vectors. Consider two vectors A and B,
their sum becomes;
C=A+B 2.11
Expressing them in terms x and y components, we have that;
𝐴 = 𝐴4 𝑖 + 𝐴6 𝑗, 𝐵 = 𝐵4 𝑖 + 𝐵6 𝑗 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 = 𝐶4 𝑖 + 𝐶6 𝑗 2.12
Adding the x and y components, we have that;
𝐶4 𝑖 + 𝐶6 𝑗 = 𝐴4 + 𝐵6 𝑖 + (𝐴6 + 𝐵6 )𝑗 2.13
Re-arranging equation (2.13), we have that;
𝐶4 = 𝐴4 + 𝐵4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶6 = 𝐶6 + 𝐶6 2.14
Equation (2.14), shows that the component of the resultant along any axis is the algebraic
sum of the individual components in the direction as shown in Fig. 2.10. That is A = B +
C.
25
Y
𝒚 𝒚
P P
𝑪𝒚
𝒋
𝑨
𝑨𝒚 𝑨𝒚 𝑨𝒚
𝑩𝒚 O X
𝒊
θ θ
𝒙 O
𝒙 𝒌 𝑨𝒛
O 𝑨𝒙 𝑨𝒙 𝑨𝒙
𝑨𝒙 𝑨𝒙
Fig. 2.5 Fig. 2.6 Fig. 2.7
Z
CASE II: Consider a vector A represented as the sum of three mutually perpendicular
along the three coordinate axes (Fig. 2.7). Let the origin of the coordinate system
coincide with the tail of the vector A and Ay, Ax and Az be the vectors that intercepts
the X, Y and Z axes respectively. We have that;
A = Ax + Ay + Az 2.15
If we consider Ax, Ay and Az as the magnitude of the component vectors, thus;

𝐴4 = 𝐴4= , 𝐴6 = 𝐴6 𝑗 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴> = 𝐴> 𝑘
Alternatively,
𝐴 = 𝐴4 𝑖 + 𝐴6 𝑗 + 𝐴> 𝑘 2.16
Geometrically, according to Fig. 2.6, we have that,
𝐴) = 𝐴𝑥 ) + 𝐴𝑦 ) + 𝐴𝑧 ) 2.17
𝐴= 𝐴𝑥 ) + 𝐴𝑦 ) + 𝐴𝑧 ) 2.18
Let α, β and γ be the angles which vector A makes with X, Y and Z axes with the unit
vectors I, j and k respectively. Therefore;
𝐴4 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼
𝐴6 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 2.19
𝐴> = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛾
26
Therefore,
12
𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝛼 = 2.20
1G 14 H I16 H I1> H
13
𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝛽 = 2.21
1G 14 H I16 H I1> H
1J
𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝛾 = 2.22
1G 14 H I16 H I1> H
Hence, if the components of a vector are given, the scalar magnitude 𝐴 of the vector A
and its direction 𝛼 , 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝛽 and 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝛾 can be obtained by the equations (2.20), (2.21) and
(2.22). Their directional property is given as;
𝑐𝑜𝑠 ) 𝛼 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ) 𝛽 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ) 𝛾 = 1 2.23
2.7 Special theorems in Vectors

Theorem 1: If c is a scalar and v is a vector in R2 or R3, then 𝑐𝑣 = 𝑐 𝑣
Proof: The following proof is for v in R2.
𝑐𝑣 = 𝑐𝑣M − 𝑐𝑣) = (𝑐𝑣M )) + (𝑐𝑣) )) = 𝑐 ) (𝑣M) + 𝑣)) ) = 𝑐) 𝑣M) + 𝑣)) =
𝑐 𝑣
Note that the proof for v in R3 is similar.
Theorem 2: Let u, v and w be vectors in R2 or R3, and let c be a scalar. Then

(a) u · v = v ·u
(b) c (u · v) = (cu)· v = u· (cv)
(c) u· (v + w) = u· v + u· w
(d) u· 0 = 0.
Proof: (a) Let u = (u1, u2) and v = (v1, v2) be any two vectors in R2. Then u · v = u1v1 +
u2v2 = v1u1 + v2u2 = v· u. The proof for R3 is similar while the proofs for parts (b), (c) and
(d) are similar straight forward computations.
Theorem 3: Let u and v be two vectors in R2 or R3. Let θ be the angle between u and v.
Then, u.v = 𝑢 𝑣 cos 𝜃
Proof: Let u and v to be a pair of adjacent sides of a triangle whose third side is u – v.
Using the cosine law for triangles we get;
𝑢. 𝑣 ) = 𝑢 ) 𝑣 ) − 2 𝑢 𝑣 cos 𝜃
𝑢. 𝑣 . 𝑢. 𝑣 = 𝑢. 𝑢 + 𝑣. 𝑣 − 2 𝑢 𝑣 cos 𝜃
27
𝑢. 𝑢 − 𝑢. 𝑣 − 𝑣. 𝑢 + 𝑣. 𝑣 = 𝑢. 𝑢 + 𝑣. 𝑣 − 2 𝑢 𝑣 cos 𝜃
−2𝑢. 𝑣 = −2 𝑢 𝑣 cos 𝜃
𝑢. 𝑣 = 𝑢 𝑣 cos 𝜃
The preceding theorem provides a method for calculating the cosine angle between two
vectors. Solving for θ, we have that;
V.W
∴ cos 𝜃 =
V W
Theorem 4: If u = (u1, u2, u3) and v = (v1, v2, v3) are two vectors in R3, the cross-product
u × v is the vector in R3 defined as follows; u × v = (u2v3-u3v2, u3v1-u1v3, u1v2-u2v1).
Applying the concept of 2 × 2 determinant matrices, we have that;
𝑢) 𝑢Y 𝑢M 𝑢Y 𝑢M 𝑢)
𝑢×𝑣 = 𝑣 𝑣Y , − 𝑣M 𝑣Y , − 𝑣M 𝑣) or a 2 × 3 rectangular arrays
)
𝑢M 𝑢) 𝑢Y
𝑣M 𝑣) 𝑣Y
Theorem 5: u × v = – v × u
Proof:
u×v = (u2v3 – u3v2, u3v1 – u1v3, u1v2 – u2v1)
u×v = – (u3v2 u2v3, u1v3 u3v1, u2v1 u1v2)
u×v = – (v2u3 – v3u2, v3u1 – v1u3, v1u2 – v2u1)
u×v = – v × u
Theorem 6: 𝑢×𝑣 = 𝑢 𝑣 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 . where θ is the angle between u and v.

Proof:
Step 1: 𝑢×𝑣 ) = 𝑢 ) 𝑣 ) − (𝑢. 𝑣)) . Computing the left- and right-hand sides
separately and showing that they are equal to each other, we have that;
𝑢×𝑣 ) = 𝑢) 𝑣Y − 𝑢Y 𝑣) ) + 𝑢Y 𝑣M − 𝑢M 𝑣Y ) + 𝑢M 𝑣) − 𝑢) 𝑣M )
(i)
𝑢 𝑣 − 𝑢. 𝑣 ) = 𝑢M ) + 𝑢) ) + 𝑢Y ) 𝑣M ) + 𝑣) ) + 𝑣Y ) − 𝑢M 𝑣M + 𝑢) 𝑣) + 𝑢Y 𝑣Y )
) )
(ii)
A lengthy computation shows that the equations (i) and (ii) and equal.
Therefore; 𝑢×𝑣 ) = 𝑢 ) 𝑣 ) − 𝑢. 𝑣 )
Step 2: consider 𝑢×𝑣 ) = 𝑢 )

𝑣 )
− 𝑢. 𝑣 ) , expanding the dot product on the right-
hand side, we have that;
) ) ) ) ) )
𝑢 𝑣 − 𝑢. 𝑣 = 𝑢 𝑣 − 𝑢 𝑣 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
= 𝑢 ) 𝑣 ) 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ) 𝜃
= 𝑢 ) 𝑣 ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛) 𝜃
Taking square roots gives the desire results: 𝑢×𝑣 = 𝑢 𝑣 sin 𝜃
28
The following are the properties of the cross product. Let u, v and w be vectors in R3.
Then u, v and w satisfy the following properties.
(a) u × (v + w) = u × v + u × w
(b) (u + v) × w = u × w + v × w
(c) u × 0 = 0 × u = 0
(d) u × u = 0

Q1. A tourist walks 53.1 degrees north of east for 2.5km then due east for 2.0km. What
is her total displacement from her starting point if you measure the distance along a
straight line?
Solution
The displacement is measured in distance and angle so we will compute both. First, we
draw a diagram of the tourist's path.
𝑨𝒚 A+B
A
𝜽𝟐
𝜽𝟏
𝑨𝒙 𝑩𝒙
Let A be the first part of the journey and B be the second part. The total displacement is
given by A + B. This implies that;
𝐴4 = 𝐴 cos 𝜃M = 3 cos 53.1^ = 1.80 𝑘𝑚
𝐴6 = 𝐴 sin 𝜃M = 3 sin 53.1^ = 2.40 𝑘𝑚
Similarly,
𝐵4 = 𝐴 cos 0^ = 1.80 𝑘𝑚
𝐵4 = 𝐴 sin 0^ = 0 𝑘𝑚
𝐴 + 𝐵 = 𝐴4 + 𝐵4 , 𝐴6 + 𝐵6 = (4.20, 2.40)
Therefore, the distance from the starting point is given by the Pythagorean theorem:
Taking C to be the resultant vector;
𝐶 = 𝐶4) + 𝐶6)
𝐶 = 4.20) + 2.40) = 17.64 + +5.76 = 23.4 = 4.84 𝑘𝑚
29
The angle of the resultant vector is given by
e3 ).f^
𝑇𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = = = 0.57^
e2 f.)^
hM ^
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 0.57 =
Q2. A telephone pole support cable is in the way of some construction workers. In order
for the work to proceed, the cable must be moved 2 meters closer to the pole. If the pole
is 10 meters tall and the cable is currently fastened to the ground 8 meters from the pole,
how much length will the workers need to cut off from the cable when they move it?
Solution
B
10m
A D C
2m
6m
8m
Using Pythagoras’s theorem

𝐵𝐶 ) = 𝐴𝐵 ) + 𝐴𝐶 )
𝐵𝐶 = 𝐴𝐵 ) + 𝐴𝐶 ) = 10) + 8) = 100 + 64 = 164 = 12.81𝑚
By moving the cable 2 meters closer to the pole, we shorten the overall length of the
cable to
𝐵𝐷 ) = 𝐴𝐵 ) + 𝐴𝐷 )
𝐵𝐷 = 𝐴𝐵 ) + 𝐴𝐷 ) = 6) + 10) = 36 + 100 = 136 = 11.66𝑚
The length that must be cut off = BC – BD = 12.81 – 11. 66 = 1.15m
Therefore, 1.15m must be cut off the cable.
Q3. Given the components of a vector 𝑂𝑃 as 𝐴 = 𝑖 + 𝑗 + 2𝑘, 𝐵 = 2𝑖 + 𝑗 + 𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 =

𝑖 − 2𝑗 − 2𝑘. Calculate the magnitude and direction cosines of (A+B+C) and (A-B+C).
Solution
Let OP = A + B + C
= (𝑖 + 𝑗 + 2𝑘) + (2𝑖 + 𝑗 + 𝑘) + (𝑖 − 2𝑗 − 2𝑘)
= 𝑖 + 2𝑖 + 𝑖 + 𝑗 + 𝑗 − 2𝑗 + (2𝑘 + 𝑘 − 2𝑘)
30
= 4𝑖 + 0 + 3𝑘 − 2𝑘
= 4𝑖 + 𝑘
Therefore,
OP = 𝑃𝑥 ) + 𝑃𝑦 ) + 𝑃𝑧 ) = 4) + 0) + 1) = 16 + 1 = 17
The direction cosines are given by 𝛼 , 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝛽 and 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝛾
j2 f j3 ^ jJ M
𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝛼 = = , 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝛽 = = = 0 , 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝛾 = =
kj Ml kj Ml kj Ml
Similarly, for the second vector OQ = (A – B + C)
OQ = (𝑖 + 𝑗 + 2𝑘) - (2𝑖 + 𝑗 + 𝑘) + (𝑖 − 2𝑗 − 2𝑘)
= (𝑖 − 2𝑖 + 𝑖) - (𝑗 − 𝑗 − 2𝑗) + (2𝑘 − 𝑘 − 2𝑘)
= (0 − 2𝑗 − 𝑘 = −2𝑘 − 𝑘
Hence,
OQ = 𝑄𝑥 ) + 𝑄𝑦 ) + 𝑄𝑧 ) = 0) + (−2)) + (−1)) = 5
The directional cosines are given as
n2 ^ 6 h) nJ hM
𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝛼 = = = 0 , 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝛽 = = , 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝛾 = =
kn o kn o kn o
Q4. Find the angle between the two vectors A = 3i + 4j + 5k, B = 3i + 4j – 5k
Solution
Recall that the scalar product of two vectors A and B having angle between their
directions as θ is given by;
A.B = AB cos θ
1.p
cos 𝜃 =
1 p
Recall that; 𝐴. 𝐵 = 𝐴4 𝐵4 + 𝐴6 𝐵6 + 𝐴> 𝐵>
= 3×3 + 4×4 − 5×5 = 0
𝐴 = 𝐴4 𝐵4 + 𝐴6 𝐵6 + 𝐴> 𝐵> = 3×3 + 4×4 + [5×5] = 9 + 16 + 25 = 50
𝐵 = 𝐴4 𝐵4 + 𝐴6 𝐵6 + 𝐴> 𝐵> = [3×3] + [4×4] − [5×5] = 9 + 16 + 25 = 50
1.p ^
∴ cos 𝜃 = = = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝜃 = 90^
1 p o^ × o^
Q5. Deduce the condition that vectors A = 5i + 7j + - 3k and B = 2i – bj + ck may be

parallel.
Solution
If the two vectors are parallel, then their direction cosines should be the same. This
implies that;
31
12 p2 13 p3 1J pJ
= , = , =
1 p 1 p 1 p
12 13 1J
= = . substituting the values, we have that;
p2 p3 pJ
o l hY
= =
) hu v
Solving for b and c, we have that;
o l Mf
= = −5𝑏 = 14, 𝑏 =
) hu ho
o hY hx
= = 5𝑐 = −6, 𝑐 =
) v o
Q6. If u = (3, 1, 2), then what is 5u?
Solution
5u = (5×3, 5×1, 5×2) = (15, 5,10).
Q7. If u = (4,5, 2) and v = (2, -1,3) then find the difference of the two vectors, u - v
Solution
The vector u – v is defined to be equal to the vector sum u + (-1) v.
If u = (u1, u2) and v = (v1, v2) are two vectors in R2, then
u – v = (u1, u2) + (-1) (v1, v2) = (u1, u2) + (-v1, -v2) = (u1 - v1, u2 - v2).
Similarly, in R3 we have u – v = (u1 - v1, u2 - v2, u3 - v3).
Then u - v = (4 - 2, 5 - (-1), 2 - 3) = (2,6, -1).
Q8. Let u = (1, 2, 3) and v = (4, 5, 6). Then find their dot product.
Solution
Recall that; If u = (u1, u2) and v = (v1, v2) are two vectors in R2, we define their dot
product, denoted by
u · v, as follows: u · v = u1v1 + u2v2.
Therefore,
u · v = (1)(4) + (2)(5) + (3)(6) = 4 + 10 + 18 = 32.
The following theorem relates the length of a vector to the dot product of the vector with
itself.

Let u = (2, 1, 3), v = (3, 1, -2) and w = (4, -1, 1).
Q1. Find the following vectors. (a). u + v (b). u - v (c). 2w (d). 2u - 3v (e). u + 2v - 3w
(f). 2u + 3v – w
32
Q2. Find components of the vector equal to the directed line segment PQ. (a). P = (1, 2,
3) Q = (2, 4, 7) (b). P = (3, 1, 4) Q = (5, 7, 1) (c). P = (-2, 5, 1) Q = (4, -3, 2) (d). P = (0,
3, 2) Q = (2, 0, 5)
Q3. Let v = AB. If v and A are as given below, find the coordinates of B. (a). v = (3, 5,
4) A = (1, 3, 2) (b). v = (2, 5, 4) A = (1, -2, 2)
Q4. Let v = AB. If v and B are as given below, find the coordinates of A. (a). v = (3, 5,
4) B = (2, 5, 6) (b). v = (2, 5, 4) B = (4, 1, 7).
Q5. If u = (u1, u2, u3) and v = (v1, v2, v3) are two vectors in R3, define their dot product
given as u · v = u1v1 + u2v2 + u3v3.
Q6. Using the cross-product theorem, compute the area of a triangle whose vertices are
A = (1, 2, 2), B = 3, 4, 5) and C = (5, 6, 4).
Q7. Find the area of the triangle whose vertices are given. (a). (1, 2, 3), (2, 4, 5), (4, 5, 8)
(b). (2, 2, 1), (4, 3, 5), (5, 6, 7).
Q8. If three vectors are A = 2i + 4j -6k, B = 8i - 3j + 2k and C = 10i + j – 8k. calculate

the magnitude and the direction cosines of (a). A + B + C (b). A + B – C and (c). A – B +
C
CHAPTER THREE
33
FORCE AND MOTION
3.1 The Concept of Force

The term force is commonly used in our daily activities. Force is that which is applied to
move a body from its rest position or increase the speed of a moving body. The
application of force produces a number of effects. Force is therefore, defined as that
which changes or tends to change the state of rest or of uniform motion of a body in a
straight line. It has both magnitude and direction and therefore, it is a vector quantity. In
mechanics, force is any action that tends to maintain or alters the state of rest or of
uniform motion of a body. Whenever there is an interaction among objects or between
objects and its surroundings force is said to be observed.
The representation of forces by vectors implies that they are concentrated either at a
single point or along a single line. This is, however, physically impossible. On a loaded
component of a structure, for example, the applied force produces an internal force,
or stress, that is distributed over the cross section of the component. The force
of gravity is invariably distributed throughout the volume of a body. Nonetheless, when
the equilibrium of a body is the primary consideration, it is generally valid as well as
convenient to assume that the forces are concentrated at a single point. In the case of
gravitational force, the total weight of a body may be assumed to be concentrated at
its centre of gravity. A force with known properties can be represented as a straight line.
The length of the line is always proportional to the magnitude of the force and the
direction of the line is drawn parallel to the direction of the force. The magnitude of the
force is proportional to the length of the line and the sense of the force is indicated by an
arrow shown on the line (Fig. 3.1).
B N
20 N E
Fig. 3.1: Representation of Force
This a force of magnitude 20 N acting on a body at a point in the north east direction
represented by line AB.
3.1.1 Addition of Forces
34
Forces are one of a group of quantities known as vectors, which are distinguished from
regular numbers known as scalars by the fact that a vector is defined by a magnitude and
a direction (related to a coordinate axes of the system you are dealing with). These
properties completely characterize force as a vector quantity. Consider two forces acting
at point 0, the 20 N force pulling towards the right and the 40 N force pulling toward the
left (Fig. 3.2). The effect of these two forces will be the same as that of as that of a single
force pulling toward the left. Similarly consider two forces F1 and F2 acting at a point 0,
both in the positive x and y directions (Fig. 3.3). the single force which produces the
same effect as the forces together is called the resultant. Therefore, the resultant of a
number of forces is that single force that will produce the same effect.
+𝒚 +𝒚
𝑭𝟐 𝑭𝟏 Ʃ𝑭
20 N 40 N 𝑭𝟐𝒚 𝑭𝟏𝒚
+𝒙 𝜽 +𝒙
𝑭𝟐𝒙 𝑭𝟏𝒙
0
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 3: Addition of forces
In Fig. 3a the effect of the force would that of a single 20 N force pulling toward the
right. Thus;
FR = F1 – F2 = 40 N – 20 N = 20 N 3.1
In Fig. 3b, we have that;
∑F = F + F 1 2 3.2
∑F x = F1x + F2 x and 3.3
∑F y = F1 y + F2 y 3.4
In Fig. 3c, we have that;

2 2
∑ F = (∑ F ) + (∑ F ) x y
3.5
35
Tanθ =
∑F y
3.6
∑F x
3.1.2 Triangle Law of Forces

The resultant of two forces acting at a point can also be found by using triangle law of
forces. If two forces acting at a point are represented in magnitude and direction by the two
adjacent sides of a triangle taken in order, then the closing side of the triangle taken in the
reversed order represents the resultant of the forces in magnitude and direction. Forces
Vector P and Vector Q act at an angle θ. In order to find the resultant of Vector P and
Vector Q, one can apply the head to tail method, to construct the triangle (Fig. 3.4).
𝑸 𝑹
𝑸
θ
α β θ
O
𝑷 O
𝑷 A
Fig. 3.4: Triangle Law of forces
In (Fig. 3.4), OA and AB represent Vector P and Vector Q in magnitude and direction. The
closing side OB of the triangle taken in the reversed order represents the resultant Vector R
of the forces Vector P and Vector Q. The magnitude and the direction of Vector R can be
found by using sine and cosine laws of triangles. The triangle law of forces can also be
stated as, if a body is in equilibrium under the action of three forces acting at a point, then
the three forces can be completely represented by the three sides of a triangle taken in order.
If Vector P, Vector Q and Vector R are the three forces acting at a point and they are
represented by the three sides of a triangle given by;
P Q R
= = 3.7
QA AB OB
P Q R
= =
sin (θ − α ) sin α sin (180 − θ )
P Q R
= = 3.8
sin (θ − α ) sin α sin θ
The resultant R and the direction α are given by;
36
R = P2 + Q2 − 2PQ cos β 3.9
⎡Q ⎤
α = sin −1 ⎢ sin β ⎥ 3.10
⎣R ⎦
3.1.3 Lami’s Theory

if a body is in equilibrium under the action of three forces, the resultant of two forces
must be equal and opposite to the third force. Thus, the line of action of the third force
must pass through the point of intersection of the lines of action of the other two forces.
Similarly, the system of of three coplanar forces in equilibrium must obey the
parallelogram law, triangle law of forces and Lami’s theorem. This condition ensures the
absence of translational motion.
Consider three force F1, F2 and F3 acting at a point O (Fig. 3.5). Let the angles between F1,
F2 and F3 corresponds to θ1, θ2 and θ3 respectively.
𝑭𝟏
𝜽𝟐
𝜽𝟑
𝑭𝟑
𝑭𝟐 𝜽𝟏
Fig. 3.5: Lami’s theorem
If the three forces are in equilibrium, then according to Lami’s theorem, we have that;
F1 F2 F3
= = 3.11
sin θ1 sin θ 2 sin θ 3
Therefore, if a body is in equilibrium under the action of three coplanar and concurrent
forces, each of the forces is proportional to the sine of the angle between the other two.
3.1.4 Parallelogram Law of Forces

Consider two forces Vector P and Vector Q acting at a point O inclined at an angle θ
(Fig.3.6). The forces Vector P and Vector Q are represented in magnitude and direction by
the sides OA and OB of a parallelogram OACB (Fig3.6). The resultant Vector R of the
forces; Vector P and Vector Q is the diagonal OC of the parallelogram. The parallelogram
law of forces states that if two forces acting at a point are represented in magnitude and
37
direction by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram, then their resultant is represented in
magnitude and direction by the diagonal passing through the point.
B C
𝑸 𝑸 𝑹
θ
θ α θ
O O
𝑷 𝑷 A D
Fig. 3.6: Parallelogram law of forces
The magnitude of the resultant 𝑅of the forces 𝑃and 𝑄 is the diagonal OC of the
parallelogram the magnitude of the resultant is given by;
R = P 2 + Q2 + 2PQ cosθ 3.12
And the direction of the resultant is given by;
⎡ Q sin θ ⎤
α = tan −1 ⎢ ⎥ 3.13
⎣ p + Q cosθ ⎦
3.1.5 Polygon Law of Forces

It states that if number of coplanar concurrent forces acting simultaneously on a body be
represented in magnitude and direction by the sides of a polygon taken in order, then the
closing side of the polygon will represent force in magnitude and direction, taken in
opposite order. Let us consider a body in which four coplanar forces are acting as sown
in (Fig.3.7). The resultant can be found both graphically and analytically.
B 𝑭𝟑 +𝒚
C
𝑭𝟐 𝑭𝟒 𝑭𝟏
𝑭𝟒 𝜽𝟒 𝜽𝟏 𝑹
A +𝒙 Ʃ𝑭𝒀
𝜽𝟑 𝜽𝟐
𝜽𝑹
D
𝑭𝟏 𝑭𝟑 𝑭𝟐 Ʃ𝑭𝑿
𝑭𝑹
D’
Fig. 3.7: Polygon law of forces
38
Graphically, draw vectors DA, AB, BC and CD to some scale to represent forces F1,
F2, F3 and F4 simultaneously. The vectors are drawn parallel to the forces starting from
a point. Then close the polygon by joining DD’. Measure DD’ and convert it into the
force unit using the same scale. This gives the value of Resultant. If the forces F1, F2,
F3 and F4 acting concurrently on a particle be represented in magnitude and direction by
the sides DA, AB, BC and CD of a polygon respectively, their resultant, FR is
represented by the closing side DD’ taken in opposite order.
Analytically, let four force F1, F2, F3 and F4 acting at a point O, making angles θ1, θ2,
θ3 and θ4 with the x-axis respectively. Let R be the resultant force acting at angle θ with
the X-axis. Resolving the forces along the x-axis or the horizontal direction, we have
that;
∑ Fx = F1 cosθ1 − F2 cosθ2 − F3 cosθ3 + F4 cosθ4 3.14
Resolving the forces along the y-axis or vertically, we have that;

∑F y = F1 sin θ1 + F2 sin θ 2 − F3 sin θ3 − F4 sin θ 4 3.15
There are only two forces acting at right angles to each other. They are ƩFx and ƩFy.
Therefore, the resultant force R is given by;
2
R= (∑ F ) + (∑ F )
x y
3.16
Similarly, the direction of the resultant is given by;
Tanθ =
∑F X
3.17
∑ FY
Consequently, the value of R gives the magnitude and that of θ gives the direction.
3.1.6 Resolution of Forces

A given force can be resolved into two forces, which together will produce the same
effects as that single force F. The resolved forces are called the components of the force
F. This process of resolving a force into its components is known as resolution of forces
into components. A force can be resolved into two components that are perpendicular to
each other or inclined to each other. If the components are perpendicular to each other
then they are called rectangular components. Similarly, if the two components are
inclined or oblique to one another, they are called inclined components. Consider a F
acting on a particle O inclined at an angle θ. Let x and y be the two axes passing through
O perpendicular to each other. The two axes are called rectangular coordinates. They two
axes perhaps, are either horizontal and vertical or inclined (Fig. 3.8).
39
𝒚
𝑩
𝑪
𝑭
𝑭𝒚
𝜽
𝒙
𝑶 𝑭𝒙 𝑨
(𝒃)
𝒂
Fig. 3.8: Resolution of forces
The force F can be resolved into two components Fx and Fy along the x and y axes
respectively. Consequently, the components are called rectangular components. Consider
∆OAB and applying trigonometric functions, we can resolve the force F into horizontal and
vertical components.
adj OA
cosθ = =
hyp OB
OA
cosθ = ⇒ OA = OB cosθ
OB
OA = Fx and OB = F
Fx = F cosθ 3.18
Similarly,
AB
sin θ = ⇒ AB = OB sin θ
OB
OC = Fy and OB = F
Fy = F sin θ 3.19
Fy
θ = tan −1 3.20
Fx
40
3.2 The Concept of motion
The study of motion is termed kinematics and kinematics only defines the way objects
move, their velocity as well as their acceleration. Dynamics is the study of how forces
affect the motion of objects and systems. It considers the causes of motion of objects and
systems of interest, where a system is anything being analyzed. The foundation of
dynamics are the laws of motion stated by Isaac Newton (1642–1727). These laws
provide an illustration of the scale and simplicity of principles under which nature
functions. They are also universal laws in that they apply to situations on Earth and in
space
Motion, in physics is change with time of the position or orientation of a body. In both
cases all points in the body have the same velocity and the same acceleration. The most
general kind of motion combines both translation and rotation. Motion along a line or a
curve is called translation. Motion that changes the orientation of a body is
called rotation. In both cases all points in the body have the same velocity (directed
speed) and the same acceleration (time rate of change of velocity). The most general kind
of motion combines both translation and rotational motion.
All motions are relative to some frame of reference. Saying that a body is at rest, which
means that it is not in motion, merely means that it is being described with respect to a
frame of reference that is moving together with the body. For example, a body on the
surface of the Earth may appear to be at rest, but that is only because the observer is also
on the surface of the Earth. The Earth itself, together with both the body and the
observer, is moving in its orbit around the Sun and rotating on its own axis at all times.
As a rule, the motions of bodies obey Newton’s laws of motion. However, motion at
speeds close to the speed of light must be treated by using the theory of relativity, and
the motion of very small bodies (such as electrons) must be treated by using quantum
mechanics.
Motion can also be defined as the free movement of a body with respect to time. For
instance, the turning of a fan, the dust falling from the carpet, the water that flows from
the tap, a ball rolling around, a moving car etc. Even the universe is in continual motion.
All these motions are not the same. There various types of motions that are happening
around us and they can be basically distinguished on the basis of, time, speed, distance
and path. Generally, in mechanics, there are mainly three types of motion.
i. Rotational Motion: A special type of motion in which the object is on rotation around
a fixed axis like, a figure skater rotating on an ice rink. Rotational motion can also be
defined as when an object moves along its axis and all the parts of it move for a different
distance in a given period of time. Thus, if an object is under rotational motion all of its
parts will move different distances in the same interval of time.
ii. Oscillatory Motion: A repeating motion in which an object continuously repeats in

the same motion again and again like a swing. Oscillatory motion is simply elaborated as
the repeated motion that an object does by repeating the same movement again and
41
again. The oscillatory motion would keep on moving forever when there is an absence of
friction but in our real world, the motion eventually stops by coming to equilibrium
iii. Linear Motion: A one-dimensional motion on a straight line, like an athlete running
on a straight track.
Note that the state of motion could be uniform or non-uniform. Motion could also
be in one dimension, two dimension and three dimensions.
3.3 Newton’s Laws of Motion

The motion of a particle in space can be described quantitatively. Uniform motion
depends greatly on the concept of velocity only while non-uniform motion needs both
velocity and acceleration. Force is that physical agent that causes motion or is
responsible for the motion of objects.
This shows that external agencies such as gravitational, magnetic and electric forces can
exert force on a body even from a distance. Thus, force is required to put a stationary
body in motion or stop a moving body, and some external agency is needed to provide
this force. The external agency may or may not be in contact with the body.
3.3.1 Newton's first law of motion

Newton’s first law of motion is often stated as an object at rest tends to stay at rest and
an object in motion tends to stay in motion with the same speed and in the same direction
unless acted upon by an unbalanced force. There is a natural tendency by objects to resist
changes in their state of motion. This tendency is described as inertia. A more massive
body has a greater tendency to resist changes in its state of motion.
Inertia is the resistance an object has to a change in its state of motion. Forces are said to
be balanced when the net force on the object are zero. That is when all the forces are
added up the result is zero. For instance, when you are standing the force of gravity is
balanced by the force of the floor holding you up. Forces are unbalanced when the net
force is not zero. In a tug-of-war both teams apply forces. For a team to win the forces
must be unequal or unbalanced. You want the net force to be in your direction.
Therefore, a body at rest remains at rest or, if in motion, remains in motion at constant
velocity unless acted on by a net external force.
Newton’s first law tells us about the equilibrium of a system, which is the state in which
the forces on the system are balanced. Note that the forces F1 and F2 combine to form a
resultant force, or the net external force: FR = Fnet = F1 + F2. To create equilibrium, we
require a balancing force that will produce a net force of zero. This force must be equal
in magnitude but opposite in direction to FR, which means the vector must be − FR.
Therefore, a body remains at rest or in uniform motion unless acted upon by a net force.
3.3.2 Newton’s Second Law of Motion
42
As indicated in the first law of motion, the existence of an unbalanced force will
accelerate an object. A change in speed or direction, or both changed in speed and
direction. Newton's second law of motion relates to the behavior of objects for which all
existing forces are not balanced. These qualitative observations lead to the second law of
motion expressed by Newton. It states that rate of change of momentum of a body is
directly proportional to the applied force and takes place in the direction in which the
force acts. The second law also states that the acceleration of an object is dependent upon
two variables, the net force acting upon the object and the mass of the object. The
acceleration is always in the same direction as the net force.
Consequently, if under the action of a force F for time interval ∆t, the velocity of a body
of mass m changes from v to v + ∆v. therefore, its initial momentum P = m v changes by
∆P = m∆v. According to Newton’s Second Law,
ΔP
F∝
Δt
ΔP
F =k 3.21
Δt
Where k is a constant of proportionality. Taking the limit ∆t → 0, the term ∆P/∆t
becomes the derivative or differential co-efficient of P with respect to t, denoted by
ΔP
dP/dt. Therefore, F = k for a body of fixed mass becomes;
Δt
dP d dv
= (mv ) = m = ma
dt dt dt
F = ma 3.22
Equation (3.22), shows that force is proportional to the product of mass m and
acceleration a. The quantity dv/dt is called the acceleration of the body. The second law
then is given by the expression;
dP
F= = ma 3.23
dt
In SI unit force is one that causes an acceleration of 1 m s-2 to a mass of 1 kg. This unit is
known as newton: 1 N = 1 kg m s-2. Some important points about the second law:
1. In the second law, F = 0 implies a = 0. The second law is obviously consistent with the
first law.
2. The second law of motion is a vector law. It is equivalent to three equations, one for
each component of the vectors:
dPx
Fx = = ma x 3.24
dt
43
dPy
Fy = = ma y 3.25
dt
dP
Fz = z = ma z 3.26
dt
3.3.3 Newton’s Third Law of Motion

The second law relates the external force on a body to its acceleration. If two bodies
constitute an ideal, isolated system, then the accelerations of these bodies are always in
opposite direction, and the ratio of the magnitudes of the accelerations is constant. This
constant ratio is the inverse ratio of the masses of the bodies. If we have two isolated
bodies, 1 and 2, then the Third Law states that;
F1 = −F2 3.27
From the Second Law we have that,
dP1 dP2
=
dt dt
m1a1 = m2a2 3.28
m1 a2
= 3.29
m2 a2
Forces always occur in pairs. Force on a body A by B is equal and opposite to the force
on the body B by A. Therefore, for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
3.4 Speed, Velocity and Acceleration

For any object in motion speed is defined as the rate of change of distance with time. If
the object covers a distance S in meters and the time taken is t seconds. Consequently,
the speed travelled by the object in seconds is given by;
}=~•€•v‚ }
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑆 =
•=ƒ‚ •
}
𝑆= 3.30
•
Equation (3.30), shows that speed depends on distance and the time taken. It is a scalar
quantity since it has only magnitude but no direction.
Velocity is defined as the rate of change of distance with time in a specified direction. If
an object is moving due north covers a distance S in t seconds, then the velocity of the
object will be S/t due north. Therefore, velocity is the distance travelled in one second in
44
a particular direction. A body is said to move with uniform velocity if its rate of change
of distance with time in a specify direction is constant.
}=~•€v‚ …
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑣 =
•=ƒ‚ •
…
𝑣= 3.31
•
Velocity has both magnitude and direction; therefore, it is a vector quantity.
Acceleration is a body is defined as the rate of change of velocity with time. If the
velocity changes by equal amounts in equal time interval, then the acceleration of the
body is said to be constant or uniform. Consider a particle moving with initial velocity u
and its velocity changes to final velocity v in t seconds, thus the acceleration is of the
particle is defined by the relation;
†=•€‡ W‚‡ˆv=•6h=•=•=€‡ W‚‡ˆv=•6 ∆W
𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = =
•=ƒ‚ •
∆W WhV
𝑎= = 3.32
• •
3.5 Equation of uniformly Accelerated Motion

Consider a particle moving with a velocity u in m/s at an instant of t = 0. For t = t s its
velocity becomes v in m/s. thus;
}W
=𝑎
}•
𝑑𝑣 = 𝑎𝑑𝑡 . Integrating, we have that;
W •
V
𝑑𝑣 = ^
𝑎𝑑𝑡
Integrating between the limit t = 0 t to t = t, thus;
𝑣 WV = 𝑎 𝑡 •^
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 3.33
Rewriting equation (3.33), we have that;
}~
= 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
}•
𝑑𝑠 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑡
~ •
^
𝑑𝑠 = ^
𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝑡
At t = 0, s = 0 and t = t, and s = s, integrating we have that;
~ • •
𝑠 ^ = ^
𝑢𝑑𝑡 + 𝑛 ^
𝑎𝑡𝑑𝑡
M •
~ •
𝑠 ^ = 𝑢𝑡 ^ + 𝑎𝑡 )
) ^
M
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 ) 3.34
)
From equation (3.33), we have that;
45
𝑣 ) = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 )
= 𝑢 ) + 2𝑢𝑎𝑡 + 𝑎 ) 𝑡 )
M
𝑣 ) = 𝑢 ) + 2𝑎 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 ) = 𝑢 ) + 2𝑎𝑠
)
) )
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 2𝑎𝑠 3.35
For a falling body the equations become;

𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑔𝑡 3.36
M )
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑔𝑡 3.37
)
) )
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 2𝑔𝑠 3.38
For a body moving against gravity;
𝑣 = 𝑢 − 𝑔𝑡 3.39
M )
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 − 𝑔𝑡 3.40
)
𝑣 ) = 𝑢 ) − 2𝑔𝑠 3.41
Example: A car accelerates uniformly from rest with a speed of 36mkm/h in 10 s. Find
(a) the acceleration (b) total distance travelled
Solution
(a) Using 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
10 = 0 + 𝑎×10
10𝑎 = 10
M^
𝑎= = 1.0 𝑚/𝑠 )
M^
M
(b) using 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 )
)
M
𝑠 = 0 + ×1×10) = 50 𝑚
)
3.6: Parabolic Motion

If a body is thrown in a direction other than the vertical direction falls down after
sometime. If the path of the motion is observed, it is notice that it takes a parabolic path.
Such a motion is known as a parabolic motion and the path followed is called a trajectory
(Fig. 3.9).
46
𝒚
𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒏θ 𝒚
𝒚
𝒙
𝒖
𝒙 𝒙
𝒙
𝟎 𝒖𝒄𝒐𝒔θ
Fig. 3.9: Projectile motion
The body under projectile motion is moving with velocities in x-direction and y-
directions such that the resultant of the velocities is u.
𝑦 = 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 3.42
𝑥 = 𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 3.43
Time of Flight of a Projectile

It is the time taken by the projectile to reach the ground from the time it was projected.
The total time of flight is twice the time of flight. The vertical component of the velocity
is given by;
𝑣6 = 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑔𝑡 3.44
At maximum point the vertical component is zero, we have that;
0 = 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑔𝑡
𝑔𝑡 = 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
V~=•Œ
𝑡=
•
But the total time of flight T = 2t, therefore;
)V~=•Œ
𝑇= 3.45
•
47
Maximum Hight of the Projectile
The is the height which the projectile can reach along the vertical component before its
start falling to the projection plane. At maximum height the vertical component of the
velocity become zero. At maximum height;
𝑢 = 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑣=0
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 = ℎ
𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎 = −𝑔
Using the third equation of motion, 𝑣 ) = 𝑢 ) + 2𝑎𝑠 , we have that;
0) = (𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)) − 2𝑔ℎ
2𝑔ℎ = 𝑢 ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛) 𝜃
VH ~=•H Œ
ℎ= 3.46
)•
The Horizontal Range of the Projectile

The total horizontal distance covered by the projectile is called the horizontal range and
it is the horizontal distance from the point of projection to the point where the projectile
hit the projection plane again along the x-direction. If it is the distance along the
horizontal plane, therefore,
𝑅 = 𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠θ×T 3.47
)V~=•Œ VH ()vˆ~Œ~=•Œ)
𝑅 = 𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠θ× =
• •
VH ~=•)Œ
𝑅= 3.48
•
Maximum Angle of Projection

The range of a projectile depends on the angle of projection. Therefore, the maximum
range for a given velocity is 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 = 1 𝑜𝑟 2𝜃 = 90^ ∴ 𝜃 = 45^ . Thus, for maximum
range the projectile must be fired at an angle of 𝜃 = 45^ with the horizontal for a given
velocity of projection. The velocity of the projectile at any instant is given by;
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑣4 = 𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑦 − 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑣6 = 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑔𝑡
𝑣= 𝑣4 + 𝑣6 3.49
The direction of the velocity is given by;
W3 V~=•Œh••
tan 𝜃 = =
W2 Vvˆ~Œ
48
V~=•Œh••
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛hM 3.50
Vvˆ~Œ
3.5 Solved Numerical Problems

Q1. A box is pulled with a force of 25 N to produce a displacement of 15 m. If the angle
between the force and displacement is 30o, find the work done by the force.
Solution
Force, F = 25 N
Displacement, dr = 15 m
Angle between F and dr, θ = 300
Work done, W = F× dr cos θ
W = 25 × 15 × cos 30
3
W = 25 × 15
2
W = 324.76 J
Q2. A 75.0 kg man stands on a platform scale in an elevator. Starting from rest, the
elevator ascends, attaining its maximum speed of 1.20 m/s in 1.00 s. It travels with this
constant speed for the next 10.00 s. The elevator then undergoes a uniform acceleration
in the negative y direction for 1.70 s and comes to rest. What does the scale register?
(a) before the elevator starts to move?
(b) during the first 1.00 s?
(c) while the elevator is traveling at constant speed?
(d) during the time it is slowing down? Take g = 10 ms-2.
Solution
The scale registers the force applied by it on the man i.e. the normal force.
(a) Before the elevator starts to move, the man is in equilibrium. Hence the sum of all
forces on him must be zero.
Therefore, N = 750 N
Hence, the scale registers 750 N before the elevator starts to move.
(b) The man accelerates with the elevator at the same acceleration.
Applying Newton’s second law in the vertical direction, we get
∑Fy = 750 – N = 75a = 75 X 1.2
N = 660 N
Hence, the spring scale registers 660 N for the first 1 s.
(c) While the elevator is travelling at constant speed, the acceleration of the man is zero.
Therefore, the forces applied on him must add up to zero.
which implies N = 750 N
49
(d) The maximum speed of the elevator, v = u + at
u = 0 (as the elevator starts from rest)
Therefore, v = 1.2 × 1 = 1.2 m/s
It then comes to rest in 1.7 s after decelerating uniformly.
i.e. 0 = 1.2 + at = 1.2 + a × 1.7
which gives a = -0.7 ms-2
Now, applying Newton’s second law in the vertical plane, we get,
∑Fy = 750 – N = 75a = 75 X (-0.7)
which gives N = 802.5 N
Q3. Block 1 of mass m1 = 2.0 kg and block 2 of mass m2 = 1.0 kg are connected by a
string of negligible mass. Block 2 is pushed by force of magnitude 25 N and angle θ =
35°. The coefficient of kinetic friction between each block and the horizontal surface is
0.25. What is the tension in the string? Take g = 10 ms-2.
Solution
Let the acceleration of the two blocks be ‘a’ and the tension in the string be ‘T’.
Applying Newton’s second law on mass m2, we get
F × cos θ – µk × N – T = m2a x-axis
m2g + F × sin θ = N y-axis
Solving the two equations, we get

m2a = F × cos θ - µk (m2g + F × sin θ) – T
a = 0.82F – 2.5 – 0.14F - T (1)
Similarly, applying Newton’s second law on mass m1, we get

T - µ k × N = m 1a x-axis
N = m 1g y-axis
Solving the two equations, we get
m 1a = T - µ k m 1g
2a = T – 5 (2)
Solving (1) and (2), we get;

T = 11.33 N
a =3.17 ms-2
3.8 EXERCISES
Take g = 10 m s-2 in numerical calculations.
Q1. Given the magnitude and direction of the net force acting on (a) a drop of rain falling
down with a constant speed, (b) a cork of mass 10 g floating on water, (c) a kite skillfully
held stationary in the sky, (d) a car moving with a constant velocity of 30 km/h on a
rough road, (e) a high-speed electron in space far from all material objects, and free of
electric and magnetic fields.
50
Q2. A pebble of mass 0.05 kg is thrown vertically upwards. Give the direction and
magnitude of the net force on the pebble, (a) during its upward motion, (b) during its
downward motion, (c) at the highest point where it is momentarily at rest. Do your
answers change if the pebble was thrown at an angle of 45° with the horizontal
direction? Ignore air resistance.
Q3. Given the magnitude and direction of the net force acting on a stone of mass 0.1 kg,
(a) just after it is dropped from the window of a stationary train, (b) just after it is
dropped from the window of a train running at a constant velocity of 36 km/h, (c) just
after it is dropped from the window of a train accelerating with1 m s-2, (d) lying on the
floor of a train which is accelerating with 1 m s-2, the stone being at rest relative to the
train. Neglect air resistance throughout.
Q4. A constant retarding force of 50 N is applied to a body of mass 20 kg moving

initially with a speed of 15 m s-1. How long does the body take to stop? 5.6 A constant
force acting on a body of mass 3.0 kg changes its speed from 2.0 m s-1 to 3.5 m s-1 in 25
s. The direction of the motion of the body remains unchanged. What is the magnitude
and direction of the force?
Q5. A body of mass 5 kg is acted upon by two perpendicular forces 8 N and 6 N. Given
the magnitude and direction of the acceleration of the body.
Q6. The driver of a three-wheeler moving with a speed of 36 km/h sees a child standing
in the middle of the road and brings his vehicle to rest in 4.0 s just in time to save the
child. What is the average retarding force on the vehicle? The mass of the three-wheeler
is 400 kg and the mass of the driver is 65 kg.
Q7. A rocket with a lift-off mass 20,000 kg is blasted upwards with an initial
acceleration of 5.0 m s-2. Calculate the initial thrust (force) of the blast.
Q8. A body of mass 0.40 kg moving initially with a constant speed of 10 m s-1 to the
north is subject to a constant force of 8.0 N directed towards the south for 30 s. Take the
instant the force is applied to be t = 0, the position of the body at that time to be x = 0,
and predict its position at t = –5 s, 25 s, 100 s.
Q9. A truck starts from rest and accelerates uniformly at 2.0 m s-2. At t = 10 s, a stone is
dropped by a person standing on the top of the truck (6 m high from the ground). What
are the (a) velocity, and (b) acceleration of the stone at t = 11s? (Neglect air resistance.).
Q10. A bob of mass 0.1 kg hung from the ceiling of a room by a string 2 m long is set
into oscillation. The speed of the bob at its mean position is 1 m s-1. What is the
trajectory of the bob if the string is cut when the bob is (a) at one of its extreme
positions, (b) at its mean position?
51
Q11. A man of mass 70 kg stands on a weighing scale in a lift which is moving (a)
upwards with a uniform speed of 10 m s-1, (b) downwards with a uniform acceleration of
5 m s-2, (c) upwards with a uniform acceleration of 5 m s-2. What would be the readings
on the scale in each case? (d) What would be the reading if the lift mechanism failed and
it hurtled down freely under gravity?
52
CHAPTER FOUR
WORK, ENERGY AND POWER
4.1 Introduction
Work, Energy and Power are fundamental concepts of Physics and are one of the greatest
significant relationships utilized in applied Physics that students learn in school early on.
Work and energy are the two sides of a coin as both are interrelated to each other. In
most cases, work and energy are identical entity. At any time, a force changes the
position of a body or an object along any distance, therefore, work is said to be done and
energy has been transferred (energy has been transformed from one form to another
form). The modern society today cannot function without energy and the growing needs
for self-sufficiency requires large amounts of energy to do various kinds of work. In the
Primitive society, man used muscular energy to do work. Preceding this era, animal
energy was harnessed to aid people do many kinds of tasks. With the invention of several
types of machines in the post civilization era, the ability to do work amplified
momentously. The advancement of our civilization now critically hinges on the
availability and accessibility of large amount of usable energy. Energy and work are,
therefore, closely related. Work is referred to as the displacement of an object when a
force (push or pull) is applied to it or it is the product of the applied force on an object
and the displacement in the direction of the force. while energy is defined as the capacity
to do the work. It exists in many forms such as potential, kinetic, chemical, thermal,
nuclear, electrical energy and so on. Power is the work done per unit of time.
4.2 The Concept of Work

The term ‘work’ takes diverse meaning for different individuals depending on the
application of the word. When you are studying, mental work is done. For a worker that
transports bricks and cement to higher floors of a building, he is doing physical work
against the force of gravity. In sciences and engineering, work has a definite meaning.
Technically, the meaning of work and its application is not continually similar as the
common meaning of work. Work takes many definitions and it is defined in the
following way: Work can be defined as transfer of energy. Work is also defined as the
application of a force over a distance. Work is said to be done when a force is applied on
an object or a body, and the object or body changes it position or state of uniform motion
form one point to another. Work done is also the result of a force, acting over a certain
distance.
Let consider a constant force F acting on an object or a body or system results in the
displacement of the body Δx. That is the force moves the body by a distance x along a
straight line on a horizontal surface (Fig. 4.1). The work done by the force is defined as
53
the product of the magnitude of the force component in the direction of displacement and
the magnitude of displacement of the body.
F F
Δx
Fig. 4.1: A force F on a block moves the block by a horizontal distance Δx.
The direction of the force makes an angle θ with the horizontal direction. If the force F is
acting at angle θ with respect to the displacement Δx of the block, its component along
Δx will be F cos θ. Then work done by the force F is given by;
W = F cos θ × Δx 4.1
Vectorially, the work done is given by:
W = F. Δx 4.2
Note that if Δx = 0, W = 0. That is, no work is done by a force, whatever its magnitude,
if there is no displacement of the object. Similarly, even though both force and
displacement are vectors, work done is a scalar.
Where W = is the Work done

F = is the applied force doing the work on the body or object
Δx = is the displacement of the object or body from point A to point B
θ = is the angle between the applied force F and the displacement Δx
Nevertheless, in using this equation use the magnitude of the force F and the magnitude
of the displacement Δx as well as the cosine of the angle between F and Δx that
determines if the work done is positive or negative. As a condition, there must be an
applied force F, and displacement Δx must be in the direction of the component of the
applied force. If there is no displacement, there is no work done regardless of the huge
amount of the applied force that may be involved. The unit of work is defined using Eqn.
(4.2). If the applied force is in newton and displacement is in meter, then the unit of work
is joule. (Unit of Force) × (Unit of displacement) = newton. meter = Nm. This unit is
given a distinct name, joule, and is denoted by J. One joule is defined, as the work done
54
by a force of one newton when it produces a displacement of one meter. Joule is the SI
unit of work. Dimensionally, the unit of work done is [M0L2T-2].
4.2.1 Special cases of work done

Work done could be zero if a man lifts a tool box vertically at constant velocity (Fig.
4.2a). The applied force does no work on the tool box because the applied force is
vertical and the displacement is horizontal. Work done would be positive when both the
applied force and the displacement are downward and in the same direction. The motion
is in the same direction as the applied force. Both kinetic energy and velocity also
increases (Fig. 4.2b). work would be negative when both the applied force and the
displacement are upward and in the same direction. Both the kinetic energy and velocity
decreases (Fig. 4.2c).
If the applied force and the displacement are perpendicular, therefore, the angle θ = 900
(Fig. 4.2a). The work done becomes;
W = F× Δx cos 900 = F × Δx (0) = 0 4.3
If the applied force and the displacement are vertically downward the angle θ = 0 (Fig.
4.2b). The work done becomes;
W = F× Δx cos 00 = F × Δx (1) = F × Δx 4.4
W>0
If the applied force and the displacement are vertically upward against gravity the angle
θ = 1800 (Fig. 4.2c). The work done becomes;
W = F× Δx cos 1800 = F × Δx (-1) = -F × Δx 4.5
W<0
4.2.2 Work Done by a Variable Force

We have so far considered several cases of where a constant force is acting on a body
which may continually be correct. Approximately, in all cases, the force responsible for
doing work might continue varying with time. Consider a case in which the magnitude of
force F(x) changes with the position x of the object (Fig. 4.3). If many different
continuous forces are acting on a body while it moves through a displacement Δx, then
the total work done is given by the net work done by the forces.
𝑊•‚• = 𝐹M . ∆𝑥 + 𝐹) . ∆𝑥 + 𝐹Y . ∆𝑥 + 𝐹f . ∆𝑥 … + 𝐹• . ∆𝑥 4.6
𝑊•‚• = Ʃ 𝐹 . 𝛥𝑥 4.7
𝑊•‚• = 𝐹•‚• . ∆𝑥 4.8
55
If the forces acting on the body are not constant while the body moves, then the total
work done becomes an integral (a sum) to find the work done. Suppose the object moves
along a straight line in the x-axis, from xi to xf) component of the force in the x-direction
is Fx(x) acting on the body. Then the total work done is given by;
4=
𝑊= 𝐹
4† 4
𝑋 𝑑𝑥 4.9
The general expression for the work done can be given if the body moves from 𝑟= =
𝑥= 𝑖 + 𝑦= 𝑗 + 𝑧= 𝑘 to 𝑟† = 𝑥† 𝑖 + 𝑦† 𝑗 + 𝑧† 𝑘 while a force 𝐹 (𝑟) is acting on the body. The
work done becomes;
4= 6= >=
𝑊= 𝐹
4† 4
𝑟 𝑑𝑥 + 𝐹
6† 6
𝑟 𝑑𝑦 + >† >
𝐹 𝑟 𝑑𝑧 4.10
The integrals are along the path of the motion of the body. Therefore, the work done
becomes;
™=
𝑊= ™†
𝐹. 𝑑𝑟 4.11
F F Fa Δx
Fg = mg Fg = mg Δx Fg = mg
Δx
(b) Positive work (c) Negative work
(a) Zero work
Fig.4.2: Special cases of work done
56
F
X
Fig. 4.3: A variable force F changes the object from the initial position xi to final
position xf.
4.2.3 Work done by a Spring

A very simple analysis of a varying force is the force exerted by a spring. In figure 4.4,
shows the equilibrium position of a light spring whose one end is attached to a rigid wall
and the other end is attached to a block of mass m. The system is placed on a smooth
horizontal table. Let take the x-axis along the horizontal direction. Let the mass m be at
position x = 0. The spring is now compressed (or elongated) by an external force F. An
internal force Fx is called into play in the spring due to its elastic property. This force Fx
keeps increasing with increasing x and becomes equal to F when the compression (or
elongation) is maximum at x = xm. According to Hooke’s law, for small x, |Fx| = kx,
where k is known as the spring constant. Since the direction of Fx is always opposite to
the compression (or extension), the relationship between F and the spring constant k is
given by:
=0
(a) The relaxed position of
the spring’s, free end at x = 0
(b) The spring is compressed

by applying external force F
x
= - mg
(c) Pulled or elongated
by an external force F
=0 mg
Fig. 4.4: A spring-mass system whose one end is rigidly Fig. 4.5: Extension in a spring of a
spring fixed and mass m, rests on a smooth horizontal surface under a load
57
F = Fx = – kx 4.12
In compressing the spring, the external force F is directed towards the left and the
displacement x is also towards left. Hence, the work done by the external force is
positive. However, for the same direction of displacement, the restoring force generated
in the spring is towards right. Therefore, F and x are appositely directed. At x = 0, the
force Fx = 0. As x increases, the force Fx increases and becomes equal to F when x = xm.
Since the variation of the force is linear with displacement, the average force during
compression (or extension) is given by;
^Iš2 š
𝐹= = 4.13
) )
The work done by the force is given by;

W = force × displacement
š
𝑊 = ×𝑥
)
𝐹4 = 𝐾 𝑥ƒ
M
𝑊 = 𝐾𝑥ƒ ×𝑥ƒ
)
M)
𝑊 = 𝐾𝑥ƒ 4.14
)
Consider a spring that is suspended vertically under a load from a height h (Fig. 4.5). The
spring extends by some amount or distance. If the spring does not extend further, thus the
spring restoring force acting upwards balances the weight mg of the block in equilibrium.
Thus, the spring constant is given by;
𝐹4 = 𝐾×𝑥
𝑚𝑔 = 𝑘𝑥
ƒ•
𝑘= 4.15
4
4.2.4 Work done by Gravitational Force

Generally, when work is positive the velocity increase as the kinetic energy also
increases. This type work done is always in the direction of the gravitational force. This
is shown in the case of a ball projected vertically upward (Fig. 4.6a). In the case of
negative work done, the velocity decreases and the kinetic energy of the particle also
decreases. This is the type of work done against gravity. This shown by a falling ball
(Fig. 4.6b).
58
(a) A ball projected vertically upward (b) A falling ball
Fig. 4.6: Work done by a gravitational force
For a ball projected vertically upward, work done by gravitational force is given by;
𝑊• = 𝐹×∆𝑦 cos 𝜃
But 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑔
𝑊• = 𝑚𝑔 ∆𝑦 cos 𝜃
𝑊• = 𝑚𝑔 ∆𝑦 cos 180^
𝑊• = 𝑚𝑔 ∆𝑦 (−1)
𝑊• = −𝑚𝑔∆𝑦 4.16
M M
𝑊• = 𝐾œ = 𝑚𝑣 ) − 𝑚𝑣^) 4.17
) )
For a falling ball under gravity, work done by gravitational force is given by;
𝑊• = 𝐹×∆𝑦 cos 𝜃
𝑊• = 𝑚𝑔 ∆𝑦 cos 𝜃
𝑊• = 𝑚𝑔∆𝑦 cos 0
𝑊• = 𝑚𝑔∆𝑦 (1)
𝑊• = 𝑚𝑔∆𝑦 4.18
M M
𝑊• = 𝐾œ = 𝑚𝑣 − )
𝑚𝑣^) 4.19
) )
59
4.2.5 Work Energy Theorem
It can be shown that as a particle or body moves from an initial point ri to final point rf,
the change in kinetic energy of the particle is equal to the net work done on the particle
or body.
𝑊•‚• = ∆𝐸ž = 𝐸ž† − 𝐸ž= 4.20
A resultant force changes the velocity of an object and does work on that object
(Fig.4.7). The work done is given by;
WŸH hW H
𝑊 = 𝐹𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎 𝑥 =
)4
M M
𝑊= 𝑚𝑣†) − 𝑚𝑣=) 4.21
) )
Fig. 4.7: Work done by a force
Now consider a body of mass m, acted upon by a resultant accelerating force F, moving
with a velocity v. using Newton’s second law of motion, we have that;
dv
F = ma = m 4.22
dt
The work done by the force in displacing the body is given by;
v
dv dx
W = ∫ F .dx =m .dx = m∫ .dv
dt 0
dt
v
1
W = m∫ vdv = mv 2 4.23
0
2
If the work done is equal to change in kinetic energy ΔKE, and the particle is moving
with initial velocity u and final velocity v, we have that;
1 1
W = ΔKE = mv 2 − mu 2 4.24
2 2
Therefore, the work-energy theorem states that the work done by the resultant of all the
forces acting on a body is equal to the change in kinetic energy of the body.
60
4.2.6 Conservative forces
The work done by the gravitational force acting on an object depends on the product of
the weight of the object and its vertical displacement. If an object is moved from a point
A to a point B under gravity, (Fig. a), the work done by gravity depends on the vertical
separation between the two points. It does not depend on the path followed to reach B
starting from A. When a force obeys this rule, it is called a conservative force. Some of
the examples of conservative forces are gravitational force, elastic force and electrostatic
force. A conservative force has a property that the work done by a conservative force is
independent of the path. In (Fig. a), we have that;
WAB (along 1) = -WAB (along 2).
Fig. b shows the same two positions of the object. The object moves from A to B along
path 1 and returns back to A along path 2. By definition, the work done by a conservative
force along path 1 is equal and opposite to the work done along path 2.
WAB (along 1) = –WBA (along 2)
WAB + WBA = 0
This result displays an important property of a conservative force such that the work
done by a conservative force on an object is zero when the object moves in a closed path
and returns back to its starting point.
4.3 The concept of Energy

Generally, energy is anything that can be converted or transform into work or whatever
that can exert a force through a distance. The capacity to do work is also called energy. If
a system or body has energy, then it has ability to do work. An automobile moving on a
road uses chemical energy of fuel (petrol or diesel). It can push an object which comes
on its way to some distance. Thus, it can do work. All moving objects possess energy
because they can do work before they come to rest. There are two kinds of energy
(kinetic and potential energy). Potential Energy is the ability to do work by virtue of
position or condition while kinetic energy is the energy of an object because of its
motion.
4.3.1 Types of Energy

Energy is found in many things, and thus there are basically two types of energy namely;
potential and kinetic energy. However, there are many forms of energy in the universe.
Consequently, all forms of energy are either kinetic or potential. The energy in motion is
61
known as Kinetic Energy, whereas Potential Energy is the energy stored in an object and
is measured by the amount of work done. Some other types of energy are given below:
(1) Mechanical energy (7) Ionization energy

(2) Wave energy (8) Elastic energy
(3) Chemical energy (9) Gravitational energy
(4) Electrical energy (10) Thermal energy
(5) Magnetic energy (11) Heat energy
(6) Radiant energy (12) Nuclear energy
4.3.1 Potential Energy

All objects or bodies possess a kind of energy due to their position in space. This energy
is known as Potential Energy. Therefore, a body is capable of doing work by virtue of its
position and configuration. Potential energy is therefore defined as energy possess by a
body or system by virtue of its position. Familiar example is the Gravitational Potential
Energy possessed by a body in a gravitational field (Fig. 4.8).
𝒉𝟐
𝒉𝟏
𝒎𝒈
Earth surface
Fig. 4.8: Object of mass m moves from height h1 above the earth’s surface to a
height h2.
Let assume that a person lifts a mass m from a given height h1 to a height h2 above the
earth’s surface. Let us also consider that the value of acceleration due to gravity remains
constant. The object of mass has been displaced by a distance h = (h2 – h1) against the
force of gravity, g. The magnitude of this force is given by mg and it is acting
downwards. Therefore, the work done by the person is given by;
W = force × distance
W = mgh 4.25
62
The work is positive and is stored in mass m as energy. This energy is by virtue of the
position of the object or particle in space and it is called gravitational potential energy. It
has the capacity to do work. If this mass is left free, it will fall down and during the fall it
can be made to do work as well. For example, it can lift another mass if accurately linked
by a string, which is passing over a pulley. The selection of the initial height h1 is
arbitrary. The important idea is the change in height, h = (h2 – h1). Therefore, the point of
zero potential energy is arbitrary. Any point in space can be selected as a point of zero
potential energy. Typically, a point on the surface of the earth is assumed to be the
reference point with zero potential energy.
4.3.2 Kinetic Energy

Consider an object or body of mass m moving along a straight line with a constant
resultant force of magnitude F acting along the direction of its motion. If the force
produces a uniform acceleration a such that by Newton’s second law of motion F = ma.
Let the final velocity of the object be v1 at time t1 and initial velocity be v2 at another
instant of time t2. During this interval of time t = (t2 – t1), the object covers a distance, s.
Using Equations of Motion, we have that;
v22 − v12 = 2as
v22 − v12
=a 4.26
2s
According to Newton’s second law of motion, we have that;
v22 − v12
F = ma = m 4.27
2s
Work done by the force is given by;
v12 − v12
W = F .s = m ×s
2s
1 2 1 2
⇒ W = ΔKE = K 2 − K1 = mv2 − mv1 4.28
2 2
1 1
Where K1 = mv12 and K 2 = mv22 respectively denotes the final and initial kinetic
2 2
energies. The quantity (K2 – K1) denotes the change in kinetic energy, which is equal to
the work done by the force. Kinetic Energy is a scalar quantity. It depends on the product
of mass and the square of the speed. It does not matter which one of the two (m and v) is
1 2
small and which one is large. It is the total value of mv that determines the kinetic
2
energy.
63
4.3.3 Conservation of Energy
There are various forms of energy around us but we are conversant with some forms
more than others. Examples are Electrical Energy, Thermal Energy, Gravitational
Energy, Chemical Energy and Nuclear Energy. These forms of energy are identical and
closely related in the sense that one can be changed to another. The fundamental law of
energy is known as the Law of Conservation of Energy. It states that, “The total energy
of an isolated system always remains constant.” That energy may change from one form
to another or it can be converted from one form to another. But the total energy of the
system remains unchanged.
In an isolated system, if there is any loss of energy of one form, there is a gain of an
equal amount of another form of energy. Thus, energy is neither be created nor destroyed
but it can be converted or transform from one form to another. The universe is also an
isolated system as there is nothing beyond this. It is therefore said that the total energy of
the universe always remains constant in spite of the fact that variety of changes are
taking place in the universe every moment. This law is of great importance. It has led to
many new findings that led to many discoveries in science and engineering and it has not
been establish to nose dive. In a Thermal Power Station for instance, the chemical energy
of coal is transformed into electrical energy. The electrical energy turns machines. In
these machines, the electrical energy transforms into mechanical energy, light energy or
thermal energy. The law of conservation of energy is broader than one can reason It
applies to systems ranging from giant planets and stars to the minutest nuclear particles.
4.3.4 Conservation of mechanical energy during the free fall of a body

In order to test the validity of the law of conservation of energy in the form of
mechanical energy, which is of immediate interest. consider that an object of mass m
place on the ground surface is lifted to a height h. The work done is given by W = mgh,
which is stored in the object as potential energy. If this object is permitted to fall freely.
We can calculate the energy of this object when it has fallen through a distance h1. The
height of the object now above the earth surface is h2 = h – h1 (Fig. 4.9).
64
𝒉𝟏
𝑷 𝒉
𝒉𝟐
Earth surface
Fig. 4.9: Mass m is lifted to a height h from the earth’s surface and then dropped to
a height h2 at point P. The total energy at P is the same as that at the highest point.
At point P, the potential energy P.E = mgh2. When the object falls freely, it gets
accelerated and gains in terms of speed. We can calculate the speed of the object when it
has fallen through a height h1 from the top positions using the third equation of motion
stated as;
v² = u² + 2gs 4.29
Where u is the initial speed at the height h1, when u = 0 and s = h1. Therefore, we have
that;
v² = 2gh1 4.30
1 2 2
The kinetic energy at point P is given by K.E = mv . Putting 2gh1 for v in equation
2
(4.30), we have that;
1 2 1 m
K .E = mv = m × 2 gh1 = × 2 gh1 = mgh1 4.31
2 2 2
The total energy at point P above the ground surface is given by;
Kinetic Energy + Potential Energy = mgh1+ mgh2
Kinetic Energy + Potential Energy = mgh
This is the same as the potential energy at the highest point. Thus, the total Energy is
conserved.
65
4.4 The Concept of Power
The term power is a physical concept with various connotation depending on the
background and available information. Physical systems are not limited by the amount of
work done but relatively by the rate at which they can perform the work. This is
equivalent to a measure of the rate at which energy is converted or transform or the
energy expended per unit time. However, the time taken to execute or perform a
particular task or work is important in all systems. Consider that machines A and B are to
perform a particular task. Machine A may take 50 seconds while machine B may take
100 seconds to complete the same amount of work. Though both machines do the same
amount of work but machine B that does the work in 50 seconds is more powerful than
machine A. Therefore, it is important to know the rate at which work is being done. In
order words power is defined as the rate of doing work or the rate at which work is being
done.
workdone dW
power = = 4.32
time dt
If F is the applied force on the particle and v the velocity acquired by the particle, then
power is also defined by;
W F .dx
P= = = F .v 4.33
t dt
The SI unit of power is Joule per second (J/s) or Watt (W). 1 W = 1 J/s and it is also
measure in higher multiples of watt.
1 megawatt (1MW) = 106 W or 106 J/s
1 kilowatt (1MW) = 103 W or 103 J/s
In engineering power is measure in horse power. One horse power (1 HP) = 746 W. in
terms of electrical measurement, the unit of power is defined as the new unit of energy.
One kilowatt per hour (1KWh) = 1 KW × 1 hour

= 103 W × 3600 s
10 3W
= × 3600 s
1s
= 36,00,000 J
= 3.6 ×106 J
Alternatively, 1 kW h = 3.6 MJ (mega joules). The electrical energy that is consumed in

homes is measured in kilowatt-hour. In a common man’s language: 1kW h = 1 Unit of
electrical energy consumption.
66
Q1. A human cannonball uses a spring-loaded cannon to launch himself. He has a mass
of 70 kg, and the spring compresses a total distance of 1.40 m. If he needs a launch
velocity of 18.0 m/s, what should be the value of the spring’s spring constant?
Solution
Before launch, all the energy is stored in spring potential energy. When he comes out of
the cannon, all energy is kinetic (assuming he was launched horizontally).
M M
𝐾𝑥=) = 𝑚𝑣†)
) )
¢
ƒWŸH (l^ž•)(M¡ )H
H
𝐾= = = 11,600 𝑁/𝑚
4H (M.f ƒ)H
Q2. A mass is dropped from a height of 4.00 m onto a spring with a spring constant of
120 N/m. If the spring compresses by a maximum amount of 1.25 m, what is the mass of
the object?
Solution
In this problem, the object starts with just gravitational potential energy and ends with all
the energy in elastic potential energy in the spring.
M
𝑚𝑔𝑦= = 𝐾𝑥 )
)
Solving for m
¤4 H
𝑚=
)•6
The only tricky thing is using the correct yi. Remember, the box falls 4 meters before
hitting the spring and then moves down an additional 1.25 m while the spring is
compressing. The total distance down is therefore 4 m + 1.25 m = 5.25 m.
¥
¤4 H M)^ M.)o ƒ H
¢
𝑚= = ¢ = 1.82 𝑘𝑔
)•6 ) ¦.¡ H o.)o ƒ
§
Q3. What was the speed of the mass in the above problem when the spring was
compressed a distance of 0.500 m?
Solution
When the spring was partially compressed, the mass was still moving.
M M
𝑚𝑔𝑦= = 𝑚𝑣†) + 𝐾𝑥 )
) )
Solving for 𝑣†
67
)ƒ•6 h¤4 H
𝑣† = = 8.46 𝑚/𝑠
ƒ
Q4. A 10.0 kg mass is dropped from a tall building. During the first second of the fall,
what was the average power exerted by gravity? What was the average power exerted by
gravity during the first 5.00 seconds of the fall?
Solution
We need to first figure out how far the ball falls in 1.0 second and in 5.0 seconds.
M
∆𝑦 = 𝑦^ + 𝑣^6 𝑡 + 𝑎6 𝑡 )
)
But 𝑦^ = 0 and 𝑣^6 = 0
During the first 1.0 second, we have that;
M
∆𝑦 = 9.8 𝑚/𝑠 ) 1.0 𝑠 )
= 4.90 𝑚
)
During the first 5.0 seconds, we have that;
M
∆𝑦 = 9.8 𝑚/𝑠 ) 5.0 𝑠 )
= 123.5 𝑚
)
The power during the first 1.0 second, is given by;
∆œ ƒ•6 M^ ž• ¦.¡ ƒ/~ H f.¦^ ƒ
𝑃= = = = 480 𝑊
• • M.^ ~
The power during the first 5.0 seconds, is given by;
œ ƒ•6 M^ ž• ¦.¡ ƒ/~ H M)Y.o ƒ
𝑃= = = = 2400 𝑊
• • M.^ ~
Q5. A constant force F of magnitude 100 N acts on a block of mass 15kg that is resting
on a surface. A
constant frictional force of 20 N acts on the block and the block moves a distance of
80cm.
F = 100 N
15 kg
Calculate: (a.) The work done on the block by force F. (b.) The work done on the block
by frictional force FR.
Solution
(a.) W = F × dx × cos θ
W = 100 × (0.8) ×cos 0o
W = 80 J (Force F does work in the direction of displacement)
68
(b.) W = F × dx × cos θ
W = 20 × (0.8) ×cos180o
W = -16 J (Frictional force does work in the opposite direction of displacement.)
Work done on an object by a force acting at an angle to the horizontal
Q6. A football of mass 2.5 kg is lifted up to the top of a cliff that is 180 m high. How
much potential energy
does the football gain?
Solution:
PE = m × g × h
PE = 2.5 x 10 x 180
PE = 4500J
PE = 4.5 KJ
Q7. A person of mass 70 kg runs up a flight of stairs with a vertical height of 5 m. If the
trip takes 7s to complete, calculate the person’s power.
Solution:
Work Done, W = Potential Energy PE = mgh
PE = 70 x 10 x 5 = 3500J
¨ˆ™ž }ˆ•‚ © Yo^^ ª
Power, P = = = = 500W
•=ƒ‚ •€ž‚• • l~
Q8. A lift motor has to move a fully laden lift 4 m between floors in 1.5 s. The lift has a
mass of 1850 kg
(ignore friction). (a) Calculate the weight of the fully laden lift (b) What is the upward
force in the cable
when the lift is moving at a constant speed? (c) What is the work done by the motor? (d)
What is the
minimum power of the motor to raise the lift at a steady speed?
Solution:
(a) W = mg = 1850 x 10 = 18500N
(b) At constant speed, forces must be balanced. Upward force = downward force
(weight) Upward force = 18500N
(c) Work Done W = F × dx = 18500 x 4

W = 74000 J
W = 74 KJ
69
(d) Steady speed means forces are balanced.
¨ˆ™ž }ˆ•‚ © lf^^^ ª
Power, P = = =
•=ƒ‚ •€ž‚• • M.o ~
P = 49333.33 W
Q9. How much kinetic energy has a 160 g cricket ball when it is thrown at a speed of 22
m/s?
Solution:
M
Kinetic Energy KE = 𝑚𝑣 )
)
KE = 0.5 x 0.16 x (22)2
KE = 0.5 x 0.16 x 484
KE = 38.72 J
Q10. How fast is a trolley moving if it has 180.5J of kinetic energy?
Solution:
M
Kinetic Energy KE = 𝑚𝑣 )
)
Rearranging to get v
2KE = 𝑚𝑣 )
)¤œ
= 𝑣)
ƒ
) )¤œ
𝑣 =
ƒ
)¤œ )×M¡^.o Y¦M
𝑣= = = = 90.25 = 9.5 𝑚/𝑠
ƒ f f
Q11. A ball rolls off a table and hits the floor at 5m/s. What is the height of the table?
Solution:
Initial energy = PE
Final energy = KE
But conservation of energy tells us PE = KE.
M
mgh = 𝑚𝑣 )
)
2gh = 𝑣 )
«H )o
h= = = 1.25 𝑚
)• )^
Q12. Consider the figure below;
70
T
mg
Where M is the total mass of the system (elevator plus passengers), equal to 1800 kg.
Calculate (i) the tension in the system (b) the power in the system.
Solution
From Newton’s first law, we obtain:
Fnet = 0
T–W–f=0
T - Ff - Mg = 0
T = Ff + Mg
T = 4000 + (1800 × 9.8)
T = 2.16 x 104 N
P = Fv
P = 2.16 × 104 x 3.00
P = 6.48 × 104 W
Q13. The diagram below shows a force and displacement of the object in the direction of
the force.
N
F = 50 N
θ = 𝟑𝟎𝟎
F
mg
71
Calculate the work done by the 50 N magnitude force if its displaced the box a distance
of 6 m.
Solution
Fx = F×A ×cos θ
Fx = 50×cos30o
Fx = 43.3 N
W = Fx ×Δx × cos θ
W = 43.3 ×6 ×cos0o
W = 259.81 J

Q1. A 2.0 kg box slides down a frictionless incline as shown below.
3m
4m
Determine the following:
(A) As the box slides, determine the amount of work done by:
(i) the incline (normal force)
(ii) gravity
(B) What is the net work done on the box as it slides?
(C) What is the final kinetic energy of the box (at the bottom of the incline)?
(D) What is the final velocity of the box at the bottom of the incline?
ANSWERS: (A) (i) W = 0, (ii) W = 58.8 J; (B) W = 58.8 J; (C) kf = 58.8 J and (D) v
= 7.67 m/s
Q2. A football of mass 2.5kg is lifted up to the top of a cliff that is 180m high. How
much potential energy does the football gain? ANSWER: P.E = 4500 J
Q3. A person of mass 70kg runs up a flight of stairs with a vertical height of 5m. If the
trip takes 7s to complete, calculate the person’s power. ANSWER: P = 500 W
72
Q4. A lift motor has to move a fully laden lift 4m between floors in 1.5s. The lift has a
mass of 1850kg (ignore friction). (a) Calculate the weight of the fully laden lift (b) What
is the upward force in the cable when the lift is moving at a constant speed? (c) What is
the work done by the motor? (d) What is the minimum power of the motor to raise the
lift at a steady speed?
ANSWERS: (a) W = 18500 N; (b) Upward force = 18500 N; (c) Work done, W =
74,000 J; (d) Power P = 49, 333.33 W
Q5. How much kinetic energy has a 160g cricket ball when it is thrown at a speed of
22m/s?
ANSWER: K.E = 38.72 J
Q6. How fast is a trolley moving if it has 180.5J of kinetic energy? ANSWER: V = 9.5
m/s
Q7. A ball rolls off a table and hits the floor at 5m/s. What is the height of the table?
ANSWER: h = 1.25 m
Q8. How far must a 5N force pull a 50g toy car if 30J of energy are transferred?
ANSWER: d = 6.0 m
Q9. If a motor is rated at 5.60kW, how much work can it do in 20 minutes? ANSWER:
W = 6720 KJ
Q10. A tow-truck is pulling a trailer up a steep hill. If it has a 5hp engine, how much
work does the truck do in a minute? ANSWER: W = 2238 KJ
73
CHAPTER FIVE
GRAVITATIONAL FORCE AND SATELLITES
5.1 Universal Gravitation

We know that the moon goes around the earth. An object when thrown upwards reaches
a certain height and then falls downwards. It is said that when Newton was sitting under
a tree, an apple fell on him. The fall of the apple made newton to start thinking; if the
earth can attract an apple, can it not attract the moon? Is the force the same in both cases?
He conjectured that same in both cases? He conjectured that the same type of force is
responsible in both cases. He argued that at each point of its orbit, the moon falls towards
the earth, instead of going off in a straight line. So, it must be attracted by the earth. But
we do not really see the moon falling towards the earth. However, the motion of the
moon around the centripetal force is provided by the force of attraction of the earth. If
there were no such force, the moon would pursue a uniform straight-line motion. It is
seen that a falling apple is attracted towards the earth. Does the apple attract the earth? If
so, we do not see the earth moving towards an apple, why?
According to the third law of motion, apples does attract the earth but according to the
second law of motion, for a given force, acceleration is inversely proportionally to the
mass of an object. The mass of an apple is negligibly small compared to that of the earth.
So, we do not see the earth moving towards the apple. We can use the same argument to
explain why the earth does not move towards the moon.
In our solar system, all the planets go around the sun. By arguing the same way, we can
say that there exists a force between the sun and the planets. From the above facts
Newton concluded that not only does the earth attract an apply and the moon, but all
objects in the university attract each other. This force of attraction between objects is
called the gravitational force.
5.2 Universal Law of Gravitation

Newton propounded a universal law of attraction between objects known as Universal
Law of Gravitation. This law states that the force of attraction between two bodies is
directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between them.
The force is along the line joining the centre of the two bodies.
74
Mathematically, the force F, is given as:
F ∝ M1 ×M 2 F - - - - - - (5.1)
1
F∝ - - - - - - (5.2)
d2
Combining (5.1) and (5.2), we have;
M ×M
F∝ 1 2 2 - - - - - - (5.3)
d
GM 1 M 2
F= - - - - - - (5.4)
d2
Where G is the constant of proportionality known as universal gravitational constant.

Fd 2
G= - - - - - - (5.5)
M 1M 2
The SI unit of G is Nm2Kg-2 which can be derived from Eg. (5.4)
Numerically, G = 6.67 x10-11 Nm2Kg-2
5.2.1 Importance of the Universal Law of Gravitation

The universal law of gravitation successfully explained several phenomena which were
believed to be unconnected.
i) The force that binds us to the earth
ii) The motion is the moon around the earth
iii) The motion of planets around the sun
iv) The tides due to the moon and the sun
5.3 Gravitational Force on Masses, Relationship between G and g

Whenever objects fall towards the earth under the attraction of the gravitational force
only, we say that the objects are in free fall or falling freely or moving under gravity
only. While a body is falling freely, where is no change in the direction of motion of the
body. But due to the earth’s attraction, there will be a change in the magnitude of the
velocity. Any change in velocity involves acceleration. As such, whenever an object falls
towards the earth, an acceleration is involved. This acceleration is called acceleration due
75
to gravity or acceleration due to free fall). It is denoted by g with the usual unit of
acceleration ms-2.
From the second law, the product of mass and acceleration is force. Therefore, the
magnitude of the gravitational force F will be equal to the product of mass and
acceleration due to the gravitational force, that is;
F = mg - - - - - - - (5.6)
From Eqn. (5.4) and (5.6)
GMm
Mg = - - - - - - - (5.7)
d2
Where m = mass of the falling object
M = Mass of the earth
d = Distance between the object and the earth
GM
g= - - - - - - - (5.8)
d2
Assuming the object is near the surface of the earth the distance d in Eqn. (5.8) will be
equal to the radius of the earth R. Thus Eqn. (5.8) is rewritten as:
GM
g= - - - - - - - (5.9)
R2
The earth is not a perfect sphere. As the radius of the earth increases from the poles to
the equator, the value of g becomes greater at the poles than at the equator.
5.3.1 To calculate the value of g
To calculate the value of g, we should put the values of G, M and R in Eqn. (5.9).
G = 6.7 × 10 −11 Nm 2 Kg 2 , M = 6 × 10 24 Kg and R = 6.4 × 10 6 m.
GM
g=
R2
6.7 × 10 −11 Nm 2 Kg −2 × 6 × 10 24 Kg
=
(6.4 × 10 6 m) 2
= 9.8 ms-2
Thus, the value of acceleration due to gravity of the earth, g = 9.8 ms-2.
5.4 LOCAL VARIATIONS OF g

If we take the idealization of a perfectly spherical symmetrical earth, then the
gravitational force on an object of mass m at a distance h above the surface of the earth is
given by:
76
GMm
F= - - - - - - (5.10)
( R + h) 2
If we identify F with m times the value of g at the point in question, we have;
GM
g ( h) = - - - - - - (5.11)
( R + h) 2
For h<<R, this would imply an almost exactly linear decrease of g with height. Using the
binomial theorem, we can rewrite Eqn. (5.11) as thus.
GM h
g ( h) = 2
(1 + ) −2
R r
GM ⎛ 2h 3h 2 ⎞
= ⎜1 − + 2 ... ⎟⎟
R 2 ⎜⎝ R R ⎠
Hence, for small h, we have;
⎛ 2h ⎞
g ( h ) ≈ g 0 ⎜1 − ⎟ - - - - - 5.12
⎝ R⎠
Where g 0 = GM 2 , the value of g at points extremely close to the earth’s surface.
R
5.5 GRAVITATION FIELD STRENGTH EQUATION

Field strength is often used in connection with fields such as electric and magnetic fields
respectively. The gravitational field strength, E G at a point in the field is defined as the
force per unit mass or the force per kilogram on a mass at r.
Mathematically;
F
EG = - - - - - - - 5.13
m
From the definition of gravitational field strength E G , using Newton’s law of gravitation,
the field strength E G is equivalent to acceleration of free fall.
The gravitational force on a particle of mass m is given as;
F = mg - - - - - - 5.14
F
Hence, g =
m
Implying that;
GM
EG = g = - - - - - 5.15
R2
77
5.6 GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL
The potential, V, at a point due to the gravitational field of the earth is defined as
numerically equal to the work done in taking a unit mass from infinity to that point. The
potential at infinity is conventionally take as zero.
Assuming that the earth is spherical and its mass is concentrated at its centre, the force of
attraction per unit mass outside the earth is given as;
GM
F= - - - - - - 5.16
r2
Where r is the distance from the centre.
The work done by the gravitational force in moving a distance towards the earth is given
by;
GMR
VG = ∫ dr
∞ r2
GM
VG = − - - - - - 5.17
R
The negative sign in Eqn. 5.17 implies that the potential at infinity is higher than the
potential close to the earth.
5.6.1 Potential Charges

For large distance from the earth., for instance when a rocket is fired from the earth to
the moon, the charge in potential energy of a mass can only calculated by using
(
mass × GM
R
− GM
R1
) where R and R are the distance from the centre of the earth.
1
For small distance above the earth’s surface, the gravitational force on a mass is fairly
constant. So, the change in potential energy in this instant can be obtained using force x
distance (mgh).
5.7 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FIELD STRENGTH AND POTENTIAL

GRADIENT
Support a mass in a gravitational field is taken from A to B through a small distance Δr
as shown in figure 5.2.
Figure 5.2 Field Strength and potential gradient
78
The work done per kg in moving a unit mass from A to B is equal to the produce of the
force per kg and the small distance Δr . This is equivalent to change in potential per kg
from A to B.
Force per kg = Average field strength Eqn in the region AB
E G x Δr = Δv - - - - - 5.18
Where Δv is the potential energy change from A to B.
Δv
EG = - - - - - 5.19
Δr
Δv
The term is called the potential gradient in the region AB. Recall that the potential
Δr
decrease when r increases. Hence,
E G = - potential gradient
Δv
=- - - - - - 5.20
Δr
5.7 PLANETARY MOTION

The famous Newton’s law of gravitation is applied to resemble the force of attraction
between the sun and the planets, as well as the attraction between the earth and the earth
satellites.
Let’s begin this discussion with the Kepler’s laws. Kepler after studying the records of
astronomical observations of Tycho Brahe proponed three laws known as Kepler’s law.
These laws are stated as follows:
Law 1: The planet describe ellipse about the sun as one focus.
Law 2: The line joining the sun and the planet sweeps out equal areas in equal times.
Law 3: The squares of the periods of revolution of the planets are proportional to the
cubes of their mean distance from the sun.
Now the force acting on the planet moving round the sun is given as;
F = mrw2 - - - - - - 5.21
Where m = mass of the planet

ω = angular speed of the planet
r = radius of the circular path of the planet around the sun
2π
ω= where T = Period of the motion
T
Therefore, the force F on the planet is;
79
2 2
⎛ 2π ⎞ 4π mr
F = mr ⎜ ⎟ = - - - - 5.22
⎝ T ⎠ T2
This force F is equal to the force of attraction of the sun on the planet. Assuming that the
planet is attracted to the sun by the gravitational force.
Km
F= - - - - - 5.23
r2
Km 4π 2 mr
∴ =
r2 T2
4π 2 3
T2 = r
K
T 2 α r3 - - - - - 5.24
Eqn. 5.24 is the statement of Kepler’s Third Law
5.8 MOTION OF MOON ROUND THE EARTH

The inverse-square law is applicable to the motion of the moon round the earth. The
moon has a period of revolution T, about the earth of approximately 27.3 days.
Assuming the moon experiences a force of mRω2, where R and m are the radius of its
orbit and its mass respectively.
The force on the moon is therefore expressed as;
2 2
⎛ 2π ⎞ 4π mR
F = mR⎜ ⎟ = - - - - 5.25
⎝ T ⎠ T2
If the moon were to be on the earth surface, the force of attraction it will experience will
be equal to mg, where g is the acceleration of free fall. Taking the ratio of the two forces,
while keeping in mind that the inverse square law holds between the earth and the moon.
We have;
4π 2 mR 1 1
2
: mg = 2 : 2
T R Re
Where Re is the radius of the earth.
4π 2 mR Re2
= 2
T 2g R
4π 2 R 3
g= - - - - - 5.26
Re2 T 2
Where R = radius of the moon’s orbit
≈ 60.1Re
T = Period of the moon
80
≈ 27.3days
Re = Radius of the earth
≈ 6.4 x 106m
The value of g can be estimated from Eqn. 5.26 using the stated values of R, Re and T.
5.9 EARTH SATELLITES

Earth satellites are satellites launched from the earth’s surface to move in an orbit round
the earth. These satellites are kept in their orbits by the gravitational attraction of the
earth. Consider a satellite of mass m orbiting round the earth, the centripetal force
experienced by the satellite is equal to the gravitational attraction of the earth on it.
mV 2 GMm
= 2 = mg - - - - 5.27
Re Re
Where M = Mass of the earth
g = Acceleration of free fall
Re = Radius of the earth
The speed V of the satellite in its orbit is obtained from Eqn. 5.27 as:
V = Re g = 6.4 ×10 6 × 9.8
= 8 Kms −1
The period of the satellite in orbit is given as;
Circumference of earth
T =
Speed
2πR 2π × 6.4 × 10 6 m
= =
V 8 × 10 3 ms −1
≈ 5000 sec ≈ 83 min
5.10 PARKING ORBITS

A satellite is said to be in its parking orbit if it period T is equal to the period of rotation
of the earth about its axis. Suppose a satellite is moving in an orbit
mV 2 GMm
= 2
R R
But GM = gRe2 from Eqn. 5.9
81
mV 2 mgRe2
∴ =
R R
2
gRe
V2 =
R
gRe2
V = - - - - - 5.28
R
If T is the period of the satellite in its orbit, then
2πR
V =
T
4π 2 R 2 gRe2
∴ =
T2 R
2 3
4π R
∴ T2 = - - - - 5.29
gRe2
5.11 VELOCITY OF ESCAPE

If a rocket carrying satellite is to be put in an orbit, it has to be fired from the earth such
that it escapes from the gravitational influence of the earth. The work done to achieve
this = m x potential difference between infinity and a given point on the earth surface.
GM
W = m × - - - - 5.30
Re
Where m = Mass of rocket + Satellite
M = Mass of the earth
Re = Radius of the eart
1 GM
∴ Kinetic energy of rocket = mv 2 = m ×
2 Re
2GM
V= - - - - - 5.31
Re
GM
Recall g =
Re2
∴ V = 2 gRe - - - - - 5.32
Eqn. 5.32 is the velocity of escape.
Substituting the numerical value of g and Re into Eqn. 5.32, we have the approximate
value of value of the velocity of escape as 11Kms-1. It means that for a rocket to
82
completely escape from the gravitational attraction, it must be with an initial velocity of
11Kms-1.
The molecules of air at normal temperature and pressures have an average velocity of the
order of 480ms-1 or 0.48Km-1 which is smaller than the escape velocity.
The implication is that the velocity of molecules of air is not sufficient for these
molecules to escape from the gravitational attraction of the earth. Hence gravitational
attraction is responsible for the atmosphere (body of air which envelops the earth
surface) round the earth. The gravitational attraction of the moon is less than that of the
earth and this is responsible for lack of atmosphere round the moon.
5.12 POTENTIAL AND KINETIC ENERGY OF SATELLITE

A satellite of mass m orbiting the earth possesses kinetic and potential energies.
Recall; the force on the satellite is
mV 2 GMm
F= =
R R2
The kinetic energy K.E is given as;
1 GMm
K .E = mv 2 = - - - 5.33
2 2R
The potential energy of satellite with respect to the earth at an infinite point is given as;
GMm
P.E = − - - - - 5.34
R
GMm GMm
The total energy of the satellite in an orbit E = − +
R 2R
GMm
E=− - - - - - 5.35
2R
From Eqn. 5.35 the total energy of the satellite increases as the radius of the orbit
decreases.
5.13 MASS AND DENSITY OF EARTH

A body on the surface of the earth experience a force of attraction equal to mg where g is
acceleration of free fall. Assuming the earth is spherical in shape and its concentrates at
the centre, it follows that the attraction of the earth on the mass is given as;
GMm
= mg - - - - - 5.36
Re2
GM
g =
Re2
83
gRe2
∴ M = - - - - - 5.37
G
Where g = 9.8 ms-1
Re = 6.4 x 106 m
G = 6.9 x 10-11 Nm2Kg-2
2
9.8 × (6.4 × 10 6 )
∴ M =
6.7 × 10 −11
M = 6.0 × 10 24 Kg
The volume of a sphere is given as;
4π r 3
V = - - - - - 5.38
3
From definition density is given by;
M
ρ= Where M = Mass of the earth
V
3gRe2 3g
ρ= 3
= - - - - 5.39
4πRe G 4πRe G
The density of the earth is estimated from Eqn. 5.39
EXERCISE
1. A satellite weighs 60N at the earth’s surface. If R is the radius of the earth, at
what distance from the earth would the weight of the satellite be 30N?
2. A satellite of mass 66kg is in orbit round the earth at a distance of 5.7R above its
surface, where R is the value of the mean radius of the earth. If the gravitational
field strength at the earth’s surface is 9.8NKg-1, calculate the centripetal force
acting on the satellite.
3. Explorer 30, a radio-astronomy research satellite of mass 400kg orbits the earth
in an orbit or radius 5R/3 where R is the radius of the earth. Assuming the
gravitational pull at the earth’s surface is 10N per kilogram, determine How
much Pull on the satellite.
4. A satellite is moving around the earth at a distance 6.5R above the surface, if R
is the radius of the earth and the satellite weighs 60kg. Calculate the centripetal
force on the satellite, if the gravitational potential on the surface of the earth is
9.8NKg-1.
5. Two stars of masses 1025 kg and 30x1025 kg respectively, rotate above their
common centre of mass with an angular speed ω. Given that they are mutually
attracted to each other by the gravitational force. Determine ω. Take the distance
between the stars to by 107 Km and G is 6.7 x 10-11 Nm2Kg-2.
84
CHAPTER SIX
ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF MATTER
6.1 Introduction
The advancement in science, engineering and technology is possible through our detailed
understanding of the properties of matter. Generally, when a system or body is subjected
to an external force it experiences a change in size or shape or both. The applied force on
a system or body causes these changes. Consider a situation where a force is applied to a
spring, it would be observed that its shape and size or both changes. But when the
applied force is removed, it will regain its original position. If the same force is applied
on some objects such as molten wax, they do not regain their original position or shape
and size after the force has been removed. Thus, some objects regain their original shape
and size while others do not. This behavior of objects depends on a property of matter
called elasticity.
Elastic properties of matter are very vital in science and engineering. It is used to
determine the strength of materials that helps us support the weight of bodies,
construction of buildings and bridges, fabrication of machines and machinery. The study
of the properties of matter gives vital information which is of practical value to both the
physicist and the engineer in order to solve real-world problems. Some of these
information is about the internal forces which act between the constituent parts of the
substance. In the concluding investigation these physical properties must be justifiable in
terms of the forces between the molecules of the substance and, in some cases, between
the atoms of the substance.
A solid has definite shape and size. In order to cause deformation (change the shape or
size of a body), application of force is indispensable. If a helical spring is strained by
gently pulling its ends, the length of the spring increases considerably. When the ends of
the spring are release, it regains its original size and shape. The property of a body, by
virtue of which it tends to regain its original size and shape when the applied force is
removed, is known as elasticity and the deformation caused is known as elastic
deformation. However, if you apply force to a piece of mud, they have no gross tendency
to regain their original shape, and they become permanently deformed. Such substances
are called plastics and this property is called plasticity.
6.2 Molecular Theory of Matter (Intermolecular Forces)

Matter consists of atoms and molecules. The forces acting between atoms and molecules
are accountable for the structure of matter. The interaction of these forces between
85
molecules of substances are called inter-molecular forces. The relationship between
inter-molecular forces with inter-molecular separation is as shown in Fig. 6.1
Fig. 6.1: Graph of inter-molecular force and Inter-molecular separation.
For large separations, the force between two molecules is attractive and weak. As the
separation decreases, the net force of attraction increases to a particular value and
beyond this value, the force becomes repulsive. At a distance R = R0 the net force
between the molecules is zero. This type of separation is called equilibrium separation.
Consequently, if inter-molecular separation is such that R > R0 there will be an attractive
force between molecules. In case R < R0, a repulsive force will act between them. The
molecules of solids are very close to each other at their equilibrium separation and in the
order of 10–10 m. Owing to the high intermolecular forces, solids are practically static at
their positions and therefore, possess definite shape. The average separation between the
molecules of liquids are slightly greater and they are in the order of 10–8 m. The
attractive forces of liquids are weak and the molecules are relatively free to move about
inside the entire mass of the liquid. Therefore, liquids do not have definite shape.
Liquids takes the shape of the containing vessel. Whereas, the intermolecular separation
in gases is significantly greater and the molecular force is very weak (almost negligible).
The molecules of a gases are virtually free to move about inside the containing vessel.
Thus, gases do not have fixed shape and size.
6.3 Elasticity
In general, when an external force is applied on an object, its shape or size (or both)
change and this process is called deformation. The degree of deformation depends on the
material and shape of the body and the magnitude of the external force applied. When
the external forces are withdrawn, the body tends to regain its original shape and size.
Comparatively, a spring loaded with a mass or a force applied on its end of the can also
undergoes deformation. The property of matter to regain its original shape and size after
removal of the deforming forces is called elasticity. An elastic body is the one that return
to its original shape and size after deformation. An inelastic body is the one that does not
86
return to its original shape after a deformation. There are three types of elasticity. (1)
Linear elasticity called Young’s modulus, corresponding to linear strain. (2) Elasticity of
volume or Bulk modulus, corresponding to volume strain. (3) Elasticity of shape or shear
modulus or Modulus of Rigidity, corresponding to shear strain respectively.
6.3.1 Elastic and Plastic Bodies

A body which regains its original state completely on removal of the deforming force is
called perfectly elastic body. Similarly, a body which do not show any tendency to
recover their original condition on the removal of deforming forces are called perfectly
plastic bodies. Conversely, in practice the behavior of all bodies is within these two
limits. There exists no perfectly elastic or perfectly plastic body in nature. The nearest
approach to a perfectly elastic body is quartz fiber and to the perfectly plastic is ordinary
putty. Here it can be added that the object which opposes the deformation more is more
elastic. No doubt elastic deformations are very important in science and technology, but
plastic deformations are also important in mechanical processes. This might be observed
in some of the processes such as stamping, bending and hammering of metal pieces.
These are possible only due to plastic deformations. The phenomenon of elasticity can
be explained in terms of inter-molecular forces.
6.3.2 Molecular Theory of Elasticity

Solid is composed of a large number of atoms arranged in a definite order. Each atom of
solid is acted upon by forces due to neighbouring atoms. Due to inter-atomic forces,
solid takes such a shape that each atom remains in a stable equilibrium. When the body
is deformed, the atoms are displaced from their original positions and the inter-atomic
distances change. If in deformation, the separation increases beyond their equilibrium
separation (R >R0), strong attractive forces are developed. However, if inter–atomic
separation decreases (R < R0), strong repulsive forces develop. These forces, called
restoring forces, drive atoms to their original positions. The behaviour of atoms in a solid
can be compared to a system in which balls are connected with springs.
6.4 The Concept of Stress

When an external force or system of forces is applied to a body, it undergoes
deformation (shape or size) depending on the nature of the forces. During the process of
deformation, internal restoring force is developed due to molecular displacements from
their positions of equilibrium. The internal restoring force opposes the deforming force.
The internal restoring force acting per unit area of cross-sectional area of a deformed
body is called stress. Therefore, stress is the restoring force per unit area set up inside the
body. In equilibrium, the restoring force is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction
to the external deforming force. Hence, stress is measured by the external force per unit
87
area of cross-sectional area when equilibrium is attained. If the magnitude of deforming
force is F and acting on area A, then stress is defined mathematically, as;
restoringforce F
stress = =
area A
6.1
The unit of stress is Nm–2. The stress may be longitudinal, normal or shearing. Let us
study them one by one.
6.4.1 Longitudinal Stress

When the deforming forces are acting along the length of the body, the stress produced is
called longitudinal stress (Fig. 6.2a and Fig. 6.2b).
(b)
Fig. 6.2: Tensional stress (a) Compressional stress (b)
6.4.2 Normal Stress

If the deforming forces are applied uniformly and normally all over the surface of the
body so that the change in its volume occurs without any change in shape, the stress
produced is called normal stress (Fig. 6.3). Normal stress is produced by applying force
uniformly over the entire surface of the body. Deforming force per unit area normal to
the surface is called pressure while restoring force developed inside the body per unit
area normal to the surface is known as stress.
F
F
F
F F F F F
F F
F F
F
F
Fig. 6.3: Normal stress
88
6.4.3 Shearing Stress
If the deforming forces are acting tangentially or parallel to the surface (Fig.6.4a), such
that the shape of the body changes without change in volume, the stress is called
shearing stress. An example of shearing stress is shown in Fig.6.4b) in which a book is
pushed sideways. Its opposite face is held fixed by the force of friction.
Fig. 6.4a: Shearing stress Fig. 6.4b: Pushing a book side way
6.5 The Concept of Strain

Deforming forces produce changes in the dimensions of the body. In general, the strain
is defined as the change in dimension (e.g. length, shape or volume) per unit dimension
of the body. As the strain is ratio of two similar quantities, it is a dimensionless quantity.
Depending on the kind of stress applied, strains are of three types: (i) linear strain, (ii)
volume (bulk) strain, and (iii) shearing strain.
6.5.1 Linear Strain

If on application of a longitudinal deforming force, the length L of a body changes by ΔL
(Fig. 6.5), then linear strain is given by;
ΔL
Linear strain = change in length/original length = 6.2
L
F
L ∆L
Fig. 6.5: Linear strain
89
6.5.2 Volume Strain
If on application of a uniform pressure ΔP, the volume V of the body changes by ΔV
(Fig. 6.6), without change of shape of the body, then the volume strain is given by;
ΔV
Volume strain = change in volume/original volume = 6.3
V
∆P
∆V
∆P ∆P
V
∆P
Fig. 6.6: Volume strain
6.5.3 Shearing strain

When the deforming forces are tangential (Fig. 6.7), the shearing strain is given by the
angle θ through which a line perpendicular to the fixed plane is turned due to
deformation. (The angle θ is usually very small.) Then, the shearing strain is given by;
Δx
θ= 6.4
y
∆x x
F
θ
y
A
F
y
6.7: Shearing strain
6.6 Stress-strain Relationship

The relationship between the stress and the strain for a given material under tensile stress
can be found experimentally. In a standard test of tensile properties, a test cylinder or a
wire is stretched by an applied force. The fractional change in length (the strain) and the
applied force needed to cause the strain are recorded. The applied force is progressively
90
increased in steps and the change in length is recorded. A graph is plotted between the
stress (which is equal in magnitude to the applied force per unit area) and the strain
produced. A typical graph for a metal is shown in (Fig. 6.7). Similar graphs for
compression and shear stress may also be obtained. The stress-strain curves vary from
material to material. These curves help us to understand how a given material deforms
with increasing loads. From the graph, we can see that in the region between O to A, the
curve is linear for a Metallic Wire (Fig. Fig. 6.7) which shows the variation of stress with
strain when a metallic wire of uniform cross-sectional area is subjected to an increasing
load.
Fig. 6.8: Stress-strain curve for a steel wire
In the region from A to B, stress and strain are not proportional. However, the body still
returns to its original shape and size when the load is removed.
Generally, along the curve the following regions are of particular importance.
(i) Region of Proportionality (OA): this is a straight line indicating that in this region,
stress is directly proportional to strain and the body behaves like a perfectly elastic body.
(ii) Elastic Limit (B): If the strain is increase little beyond A, the stress is not directly
proportional to strain. However, the wire still remains elastic. After removing the
deforming force (load), the wire still regains its original state. The maximum value of
strain for which a body shows elastic property is called elastic limit. Beyond the elastic
limit, a body behaves like a plastic body.
(iii) permanent set (C): When the wire is stretched beyond the limit B, the strain
increases more rapidly and the body becomes plastic. It means that even if the deforming
load is removed, the wire will not recover its original length. The material follows dotted
line CD on the graph on gradual reduction of load. The left over strain on zero load strain
is known as a permanent set. After point E on the curve, no extension is recoverable
91
(iv) Breaking point (F): Further than point E, strain increases very rapidly and near
point F, the length of the wire increases continuously even without increment in the load.
The wire breaks at point F. This is called the breaking point or fracture point and the
corresponding stress is known as breaking stress. The stress corresponding to the
breaking point F is called tensile strength. Within the elastic limit, the maximum stress
which an object can be subjected to is called working stress and the ratio between
working stress and breaking stress is called factor of safety. If large deformation takes
place between the elastic limit and the breaking point, the material is called ductile. If it
breaks soon after the elastic limit is crossed, it is called brittle e.g. glass. The region of
the graph between C and F is called the plastic region.
6.7 Hook’s Law

Robert Hooke (1635-1703), was the first 1678 to obtained the relationship between stress
and strain (stress-strain curve), experimentally for various solids or substances and
established a law of elasticity known as Hooke’s law. Hook’s law states that if the elastic
limit is not exceeded, the applied stress is directly proportional to the corresponding
strain.
stress ∝ strain
stress
= a constant (E) 6.5
strain
This constant of proportionality E is a measure of elasticity of the substance or body and

is called modulus of elasticity. As strain is a dimensionless quantity, the modulus of
elasticity has the same dimensions or units as stress. Its value is independent of the stress
and strain but depends on the nature of the material. Any material that obeys hook’s law,
the ratio of load to extension will be constant.
6.7.1 Moduli of Elasticity

Basically, there are three types of stress and strain. Therefore, it is clear that there must
be three moduli of elasticity corresponding to these stress and strains. These are (i)
Young’s modulus (ii) Bulk Modulus and (iii) Modulus of rigidity corresponding to linear
strain, volume strain and shearing strain, respectively.
(i) Young’s modulus

Young’s modulus of a material is defined as the ratio of the longitudinal stress to the
longitudinal strain. Consider a wire of length L and of cross-sectional area A is stretched
by a force of magnitude F, the change in its length is equal to ΔL. Then, we have that;
92
‡ˆ••=•V}=•€‡ ~•™‚~~
Young’s Modulus = 6.6
‡ˆ••=•V}=•€‡ ~•™€=•
force F
Longitudinal stress = = 6.7
area A
extension ΔL
Longitudinal strain = = 6.8
load L
Dividing equation (6.7) by (6.8), we have that;
F
stress FL
Young’s Modulus = = A = 6.9
strain ΔL AΔL
L
The SI unit of Y in is Nm–2
Steel is the most elastic material. The values of Young’s modulus for typical substances
are given in Table 6.1.
TABLE 6.1: Young’s modulus of some typical materials
Name of substance Y (109Nm–2)
Aluminum 70
Copper 120
Iron 190
Steel 200
Glass 65
Bone 9
Polystyrene 3
Consider a wire of radius r that is suspended vertically with a rigid support and a mass m
hanging at its lower end, then A = πr2 and F = mg.
mgL
Y= 6.10
πr 2 ΔL
(ii) Bulk Modulus:

The ratio of normal stress to the volume strain is called bulk modulus of the material of
the body. If due to increase in pressure P, volume V of the body decreases by ΔV
without change in shape, then we have that;
Normal stress = ∆P
Volume strain = ∆V/V
93
ΔP VΔP
Bulk modulus B = = 6.11
ΔV / V ΔV
The reciprocal of bulk modulus of a substance is called compressibility. Gases being
most compressible are least elastic while solids are most elastic or least compressible
(Bsolid > Bliquid > Bgas).
1 1 ΔV
Compressibility K = = 6.12
B V ΔP
(iii) Modulus of Rigidity or Shear Modulus:

The ratio of the shearing stress to the shearing strain is called modulus of rigidity of the
material of the body. If a tangential force F is acting on an area A and θ is the shearing
strain, the modulus of rigidity is given by;
shearingstress F / A F
Shear modulus, η = = = 6.13
shearingstrain θ θA
It is important to note that both solids and liquids have bulk modulus. However, fluids do
not have Young’s modulus and shear modulus because a liquid cannot sustain a tensile
or shearing stress.
6.7.2 Poisson’s Ratio

When a rubber tube is stretched along its length, there is a contraction in its diameter
(Fig. 6.8)). This is also true for a wire but may not be simply noticeable. While the length
increases in the direction of forces, a contraction occurs in the perpendicular direction.
𝒅
𝒍
𝒅 − ∆d
∆𝒍
𝑭
Fig. 6.9: A stretched rubber tube
94
The strain perpendicular to the applied force is called lateral strain. Poisson pointed out
that within elastic limit, lateral strain is directly proportional to longitudinal strain.
Therefore, the ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal strain is constant for a material body
and is known as Poisson’s ratio. It is denoted by a Greek letter σ (sigma). If α and β are
the longitudinal strain and lateral strain respectively, then Poisson’s ratio is given by;
β
σ= 6.14
α
If the tube of length l and diameter d is elongated by applying a force causing an
extension by an amount Δl and its diameter decreases by Δd, then longitudinal strain is
given by;
Δl Δd
α= and lateral strain β =
l d
Δd / d l Δd
α= = 6.15
Δl / l d Δl
The limiting values of poison ratio are derived as follows;
Recall that;
Y = 3k (1 − 2σ )
and
Y = 2η (1 + σ )
Therefore;
3k (1 − 2σ ) = 2η (1 + σ )
(i) If σ is positive, RHS is positive. Therefore, LHS must be positive. That is; 2σ < 1
1
and σ = or σ < 0.5.
2
(ii) If σ is negative, then the LHS is positive. Therefore, RHS will be positive.
1
1 + σ > 0 ⇒ σ > -1. Hence, -1< σ <
2
Poisson’s ratio is a ratio of two strains and has no unit. Therefore, it is a pure number.
The value of Poisson’s ratio depends only on the nature of material and for most of the
substances, it lies between 0.2 and 0.4. When a body under tension it suffers no change
in volume, that is the body is perfectly incompressible, the value of Poisson’s ratio is
maximum i.e. 0.5. Theoretically, the limiting values of Poisson’s ratio are –1 and 0.5.
95
In dealing with elastic materials it is important to note some of the following facts about
elasticity:
(1) If we add some suitable impurity to a metal, its elastic properties are modified.
For example, if carbon is added to iron or potassium is added to gold, their
elasticity increases.
(2) The increase in temperature decreases elasticity of materials. For example,
carbon, which is highly elastic at ordinary temperature, becomes plastic when
heated by a current through it. Similarly, plastic becomes highly elastic when
cooled in liquid air.
(3) The value of modulus of elasticity is independent of the magnitude of stress and
strain. It depends only on the nature of the material of the body.
6.8 Elastic Energy

When a spring is either compressed or extended, it undergoes a change in its
configuration and is capable of performing work. Elastic energy is a kind of potential
energy and it is the energy which is associated with the state of compression or extension
of an elastic object like a spring. The force involved here is the spring force. If we
compress or extend a spring, we change the relative locations of the coil of the spring. In
case of a rubber like tube we change the relative locations of its different layers. A
restoring force resists the change and result in work done by us due to which increases
the elastic potential energy of the spring or such like objects increases. Suppose the
spring constant of a spring is k and the spring is stretched through a distance x at any
instant (Fig. 6.10), then the force applied is given by, F = kx.
(a) r
(b) r
(c) dx
Fig. 6.10: compression and extension of spring
Supposing the spring is stretched further by a small distance dx as shown in the (Fig.
6.9), then the small work done is given by
96
dW = Kx.dx 6.16
Therefore, the total work done in elongating the spring through a total distance r from its
equilibrium position (Fig. 6.9) is given by;
r
x ⎡ x2 ⎤ 1 2
dW = W = ∫ Kxdx = K ⎢ ⎥ = Kr
0
⎣ 2 ⎦0 2
Hence, the elastic potential energy U of the spring is given by;
U = Kr 2
6.17
6.9 Relationship between the three moduli of Elasticity
To derive the relationship between Young’s modulus, bulk modulus and rigidity
modulus, then the three moduli need to the expressed in terms of longitudinal strain (α)
and lateral strain (β) and therefore in terms of σ (Poisson’s ratio), must be known.
Recall that;
1
K= 6.27
3(α − 2β )
And
1
η= 6.18
2(α + β )
Rearranging equations (6.17) and (6.18), we have that;
1
(α − 2β ) = 6.19
3k
1
(α + β ) = 6.20
2η
Subtracting (6.19) and (6.20), we have that;
1 1
3β = −
2η 3k
3k − 2η
3β =
6ηk
Dividing both sides by 3, we have that;
3k − 2η
β= 6.21
18ηk
Multiplying equation (6.20) by 2 and adding equations (61.9) and (6.20) we get;
1 1
3α = +
η 3K
97
3k + η
3α =
3kη
3k + η
α= 6.22
9kη
Recall the equation of Young’s Modulus;
1
Y= . This implies that;
α
1
α= 6.23
Y
Putting equation (6.23) into (6.22), we have that;
1 3k + η
=
Y 9kη
9 3k η
= +
Y kη kη
9 3 1
= + 6.24
Y η k
The above equation gives the relation connecting the three elastic constants Y, K and η .
6.10 Applications of Elastic Behaviour of Materials

Elastic behaviour of materials plays an important role in our day to day life. Pillars and
beams are important
parts of our structures. A uniform beam clamped at one end and loaded at the other is
called a Cantilever [Fig. 6.11]. The hanging bridges are supported on cantilevers.
Fig. 6.11: A cantilever
Consider a cantilever of length l, breadth b and thickness d the undergoes a depression δ

at its free end when it is loaded by a weight of mass m. The depression is given by;
4 gml3
δ= 6.25
γbd 3
98
It can also help us to understand as to why the cross-section of beams and bars are kept
in I-shaped (Fig. 6.12). The depression δ is inversely proportional to the cube root of the
thickness d provided all other factors remains the same.
1
δ∝ 6.26
d3
Fig. 6.13: A beam in I-SHAPE Fig. 6.14: A beam and bar in I-SHAPE
Therefore, by increasing the thickness d, the depression decreases under the same load
more effectively. This considerably saves the material without sacrificing strength for a
beam clamped at both ends and loaded in the middle (Fig. 6.14), the sag in the middle is
given by;
mgl3
δ= 6.27
4bd 3γ
Consequently, for a given load, a material with a large Young’s modulus Y is selected
and again a large thickness to keep small depression δ. However, a deep beam may have
a tendency to buckle (Fig. 6.15). To avoid this, a large load bearing surface is provided.
In the form I-shaped cross-section, both these requirements are fulfilled. In cranes, we
use a thick metal rope to lift and move heavy loads from one place to another. To lift a
load of 10 metric tons with a steel rope of yield strength 300 mega Pascal, the minimum
cross sectional area required will be 10 cm or 0.1 m. A single wire of this radius will
practically be a rigid rod. That is why ropes are always made of a large number of turns
of thin wires braided together. This provides ease in manufacturing, flexibility and
strength. Practically, the maximum height of a mountain on earth is in the region of
about ~ 10 km otherwise the rocks under it will shear under its load.
99
Fig. 6.15: A buckle deep beam
6.11 Solved Numerical problems

Q1. The Young’s modulus of a metal is 2 × 1011 N/m2 and its breaking stress is 1.078 ×
109 N/m2. Calculate the maximum amount of energy per unit volume which can be
stored in the metal when stretched. Sol:
Solution
Y = 2 × 1011 N/m2 and Maximum stress = 1.078 × 109 N/m
Energy stored per unit volume = 1/2 stress × strain
1 stress
=
2
[ ]
1.078 × 10 9 ×
Y
1 1.078 × 10 9
= × 1.078 × 10 9 × = 2.90 × 10 6 J / m 2
2 2 × 10 6
Q2. Find the work done in stretching a wire of 1 sq. mm cross section and 2 m long
through 0.1 mm. Given Y = 2 X 1011 N/m2.
Solution.
1
Workdone =× F ×l
2
1 YaL
W= × ×l
2 L
1 Yal
W= × ×l
2 L
Y = 2 ×1011N/m2
L = 2m
l = 0.1 mm =10-4 m2
100
a = 1 sq. mm =10-6 m2
1 2 ×1011 × 10 −6 × 10 −6 ×10 −4
Work = × = 5 × 10 −4 J
2 2
Q3. Find the stress, strain and Young’s modulus in the case of wire 1.5 m long and 1 sq.
mm in cross section, if it increases by 1.55 mm, when a weight of 10 kg is suspended.
Solution
F Δl
stress = ; srain =
A l
Young’s modulus = stress/strain
F = 10 kg = 10 ×1000×980 dynes
A = 1 sq. mm = 0.01 sq. cm
l = 1.5 m = 150 cm
∆l = 1.55 mm = 155 cm
98 × 10 5
stress = = 98 × 10 7 dynes / cm 2
0.05
Δl 0.155
strain = = = 10.33 × 10 −4
l 150
stress 98 × 10 7
Y= = = 9.49 × 1011 dynes / cm 2
strain 10.33 × 10 −4
Q4. A load of 100 kg is suspended by a wire of length 1.0 m and cross sectional area
0.10 cm2. The wire is stretched by 0.20 cm. Calculate (i) the tensile stress, and (ii) the
strain in the wire. Given, g = 9.80 ms–2.
Solution
(i) Tensile stress = = =

(
F mg (100kg ) 9.80ms −2 )
= 9.8 ×107 Nm −2
A A (
0.10 ×10 m−4 2
)
(ii) Tensile strain = =
(
Δl 0.20 ×10 −2 m )
= 0.20 ×10 −2
l (1.0m)
Q5. Calculate the maximum length of a steel wire that can be suspended and Fluids
without breaking under its own weight, if its breaking stress = 4.0 x 108 Nm–2, density =
7.9 × 103 kg m–3 and g = 9.80 ms–2.
Solution
101
The weight of the wire W = Alρg, where, A is area of cross section of the wire, l is the
maximum length and ρ is the density of the wire. Therefore, the breaking stress
W
developed in the wire due to its own weight = = ρgl
A
W 4.0 ×108 Nm−2
l= = = 0.05 ×105 m = 5 ×103 m = 5km
( 3 −3
Aρg 7.9 ×10 kgm 9.8ms )(
−2
)
Q6. Calculate the force required to increase the length of a wire of steel of cross
sectional area 0.1 cm2 by 50%. Given Y = 2 × 1011 N m–2.
Solution
Increase in the length of wire = 50%. If Δl is the increase and l is the normal length of
Δl 1
=
l 2
wire, then Y =
F ×l
A × Δl
F=
( )(
Y × A × Δl 2 × 1011 Nm −2 0.1× 10 −4 m 2 × 1
=
)
= 0.1× 10 7 N = 10 6 N
l 2

Q1. What will be the nature of inter-atomic forces when deforming force applied on an
object (i) increases, (ii) decreases the inter-atomic separation?
Q2. If we clamp a rod rigidly at one end and a force is applied normally to its cross
section at the other end, name the type of stress and strain?
Q3. The ratio of stress to strain remains constant for small deformation of a metal wire.
For large deformations what will be the changes in this ratio?
Q4. Under what conditions, a stress is known as breaking stress?
Q5. If mass of 4 kg is attached to the end of a vertical wire of length 4 m with a diameter
0.64 mm, the extension is 0.60 mm. Calculate the tensile stress and strain.
Q6. Is the unit of longitudinal stress same as that of Young’s modulus of elasticity? Give
reason for your answer.
Q7. Solids are more elastic than liquids and gases. Justify
102
Q8. The length of a wire is cut to half. What will be the effect on the increase in its
length under a given load?
Q9. Two wires are made of the same metal. The length of the first wire is half that of the
second and its diameter is double that of the second wire. If equal loads are applied on
both wires, find the ratio of increase in their lengths?
10. A wire increases by 10–3 of its length when a stress of 1 × 108 Nm-2 is applied to it.
Calculate Young’s modulus of material of the wire.
Q11. Calculate the elastic potential energy stored in a spring of spring constant 200 Nm–
1
when it is stretched through a distance of 10 cm
ANSWERS
1. If R > R0, the nature of force is attractive and if (ii) R < R0 it is repulsive.
2. Longitudinal stress and linear strain.
3. The ratio will decrease.
4. The stress corresponding to breaking point is known as breaking stress.
5. 0.12 × 1010N m–2.
6. Both have same units since strain has no unit?
7. As compressibility of liquids and gases is more than solids, the bulk modulus is
reciprocal of compressibility. Therefore, solids are more elastic than liquid and gases.
8. Half.
9. 4. 1: 8
10. 1 × 1011N m– 2.
11. 1 J
103
CHAPTER SEVEN
HYDROMECHANICS
7.1 Introduction
Fluid mechanics is the branch of science which deals with the behavior of fluids (liquids
or gases) at rest as well as in motion. It deals with the static, kinematics and dynamic
aspects of fluids. The study of fluids at rest is called fluid statics or hydrostatics while the
study of fluids in motion is called hydrodynamics. Liquids and gases lack the ability of
solids to offer a permanent resistance to a deforming force. They deform continuously
for as long as the force is applied. A fluid is substance that deforms continuously under
the action of shearing forces. Fluid Mechanics is also the science that study the behavior
of fluids at rest (fluid statics) or in motion (fluid dynamics) and the interaction of fluids
with solids or other fluids at their confines. Matter in liquid and gaseous phase is referred
as a fluid. The difference between a solid and a fluid is made on the foundation of the
substance’s capability to resist an applied shear (tangential) stress that tends to change its
shape. A solid can resist an applied shear by deforming its shape whereas a fluid deforms
continuously under the influence of shear stress, no matter how small is its shape. In
solids, stress is proportional to strain, but in fluids, stress is proportional to strain rate
(Fig. 8.1).
𝑭
∆𝒙 𝑭
∆𝒖
𝒚 𝒚
𝒉 𝒉
𝒙 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅 𝒃𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒍𝒂𝒚𝒆𝒓𝒔

𝒙
𝒇𝒊𝒙𝒆𝒅 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆
Fig. 8.1: Sketch of Solid and Fluid deformation
Based on (Fig. 8.1), the shear modulus of solid (S) and the coefficient of viscosity (µ) for
fluid can be defined as follows;
shearstress F / A
S= = 7.1
shearstrain Δx / h
shearstress F/A
µ= = 7.2
shearstrainrate Δu / h
104
The shear force (F) is acting on the definite cross-sectional area (A), h is the height of the
solid block and the height between two adjacent layer of the fluid element, ∆x is the
elongation of the solid block and ∆u is the velocity gradient between two adjacent layers
of the fluid.
Despite the fact that liquids and gases share some common characteristics, they have
several distinguishing characteristics on their own. It is stress-free to compress a gas
however, liquids are incompressible. A given mass of the liquid occupies a fixed volume,
regardless of the size and shape of the container. A gas has no fixed volume and will
expand constantly except controlled by the enclosing vessel. For liquids, a free surface is
formed in the volume of the container and is larger than that of the liquid. A gas will
absolutely fill any vessel in which it is positioned and consequently, does not have a free
surface.
7.2 Hydrostatics
Historically, Approximately all the principles of hydrostatics have been famous in a
pragmatic and natural sense since ancient times, by the builders of
boats, containers, aqueducts and fountains. Archimedes is credited with the discovery
of Archimedes' Principle, which describes the buoyancy force on an object that is
submerged in a fluid to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object.
The Roman engineer Vitruvius was the first to cautioned readers about lead pipes
bursting under the influence of hydrostatic pressure. In 1647, the
French mathematician and philosopher Blaise Pascal formulated the concept of pressure
and the way it is transmitted by fluids. Pascal made significant contributions to the
developments of both hydrostatics and hydrodynamics. Pascal's Law is a fundamental
principle of fluid mechanics which states that any pressure applied to the surface of a
fluid, it is transmitted equally throughout the fluid in all directions, in such a way that
initial variations in pressure are not changed.
In line with the essential nature of fluids, a fluid cannot remain at rest under the presence
of a shear stress. Conversely, fluids can exert pressure perpendicular to any contacting
surface. If a point in the fluid is assumed to be an infinitesimally small cube, then it
follows from the principles of equilibrium that the pressure on every side of this unit of
fluid must be equal. If this were to be different, the fluid would move in the direction of
the resulting force. Consequently, the pressure on a fluid at rest is isotropic, that it is
acting in all directions with equal magnitude. This characteristic of fluids allows them to
transmit force through the length of pipes or tubes. The applied force to a fluid in a pipe
is transmitted, via the fluid, to the other end of the pipe. This principle was first
articulated, in a marginally comprehensive form, by Blaise Pascal, and it is today called
105
Pascal’s Principle. The branch of physics which study fluids at rest or the term
hydrostatics is also applied to the study of fluid at rest.
7.2.1 Hydrostatic pressure for fluids

The term ‘pressure’ is used to indicate the normal force per unit area at a point acting on
a given plane within the fluid mass of interest. It is governed by Pascal’s law which
states that the pressure at a point in a fluid at rest or in motion is independent of direction
as long as there is no shearing stress present. The net pressure force acting on a fluid
element per unit volume FP is given by;
FP = −ΔP 7.3
It is not the pressure but the pressure gradient that causes the net force. In Science,
engineering and technology applications, the pressure is measured either as absolute
numbers (called absolute pressure) or relative to atmospheric value (gauge/vacuum
pressure). Consider Fig. 8.2, if the atmospheric pressure is given as a p, then the pressure
at ‘A’ can be measured as gauge pressure (Pgauge) or absolute pressure.
P(bar)
A
𝑷𝟏
∆𝑷𝟏
Local atm. (1 bar)
𝑷𝒂
∆𝑷𝟐
Absolute B
𝑷𝟐
Absolute zero reference
Fig. 7.2: Fig. 1.2.1: Sketch of gauge and vacuum pressure
The pressure gradient is a surface force that acting on the sides of a fluid element.
Similarly, if the fluid element is in motion, it will have surface forces due to viscous
stresses. There may be a body force due to gravitational potential, acting on the entire
mass of the element. By, Newton’s second law of motion, the sum of these forces per
unit volume ( FP ) equals to the density (ρ ) times (mass per unit volume) the
acceleration (a) of the fluid element.
∑F = F P + Fg + F V = −ΔP + ρg + FV 8.4
106
ρ a = −ΔP + ρ g + FV 8.5
FP = pressure force
Fg = force of gravity
FV = viscous force
Equation (8.5) is the general equilibrium equation for a fluid element. When the fluid is
at rest or at constant velocity (a = 0), the pressure distribution reduces to equation (7.6)
below;
ΔP = ρ g 7.6
This is the equation for hydrostatic pressure distribution and it is true for all fluids at rest
irrespective of their viscosity. In the normal coordinate system, the direction of z is
opposite to the direction of gravity therefore, Eq. (8.5) can be written in a scalar form as
follows;
∂P ∂P ∂P dP
= 0, = 0, = − ρg = −γ 7.7
∂x ∂y ∂z dz
Where γ is the specific weight of the fluid. Integrating equation (8.7) above, we have
that;
2
P2 − P1 = − ∫ γdz 7.8
1
Consequently, the significant deduction about hydrostatic condition is that, pressure in a
continuously distributed uniform static fluid varies only with the vertical distance and is
independent of the shape of the container. The pressure is the same at all point on a given
horizontal plane in the fluid. The pressure increases/decreases with depth of the fluid.
Equation (8.8) can be simplify as follows if the specific is given by;
γ = ρg
P2 − P1 = −ρg (Z2 − Z1 ) 8.9
7.3. Hydrodynamics
Hydrodynamics is a branch of physics that deals with the motion of fluids and the
forces acting on solid bodies immersed in fluids and in motion relative to them. It also
a branch of science deals with the study of forces acting on or exerted by fluids
(especially liquids). Fluid dynamics is concern with the study of fluids in motion.
Basically, all hydraulic problems can be solved by the application of one or more of
these three physical principles; continuity (mass conservation), momentum and energy.
107
The study of fluids in motion is based on the conservation laws of mass, momentum and
energy. Mathematically, the statement of these laws is written in differential and integral
form. The integral form is used to study large scale variables or macroscopic variables
while the differential form may in principle may be used to found exact solutions to
microscopic variables or specific flows. Numerical techniques are mostly used to
obtained solutions but limited to modelling microscopic processes. Basically,
hydrodynamics finds applications in the study of closed conduits or pipes and open
channel flows and the calculation of the forces acting on submerged bodies both
theoretically and experimentally.
7.3.1 Real and Ideal Fluids

Ideal fluids have no viscosity. There is no internal friction or loss of mechanical energy.
No such fluid exists, but many flows can be approximated as ideal if viscous forces are
small and do not cause major flow phenomena such as boundary-layer separation. Real
fluids have non-zero viscosity. This has two important consequences:
(i) They satisfy the no-slip condition at solid boundaries. i.e. the (relative) velocity at the
boundary is zero
(ii) There are frictional forces between adjacent layers of fluid moving at different speeds
and between the fluid and a boundary
Ideal Real
Fig. 7.3: Real and Ideal fluid

The motion of real fluids is complicated and difficult to comprehend.
Laminar and Turbulent Flow

In laminar or steady flow, the velocity of the moving fluid at any fixed point does not
change with time, magnitude and direction. Alternatively, at low flow speeds viscosity
ensures that adjacent layers of fluid slide smoothly over one another in a steady fashion
without mingling. This flow regime is called laminar flow. Similarly, at greater speeds
viscosity is insufficient to smooth out minor perturbations to the flow, which grow
rapidly to create unsteadiness and eddying motions. This flow regime is called turbulent
flow.
108
The transition between laminar and turbulent flow can be noticed in the rising plume
from a cigarette. There is an initial laminar flow which wavers and then breaks up into
turbulent eddies as the flow accelerates. The laminar and turbulent flow in pipes can be
calculated if the Reynold’s number is known.
ρUL
Re = 7.10
µ
But v = µ/ρ. This implies that;
UL
Re =
v
7.11
Where U and L are typical velocity and length scales of the flow, ρ is the density, µ is
the dynamic viscosity and v = µ/ρ the kinematic viscosity. The Reynolds number is
perhaps the single greatest important parameter in fluid mechanics.
Laminar Turbulent
Fig. 7.4: Laminar and Turbulent flow
The Reynolds number can be considered as a measure of the ratio of the total force (=
mass × acceleration) to the viscous force. Consider a block of fluid with volume L3, we
have that;
U
( )
Mass × acceleration, ma = ρL3 ×
L /U
= ρU 2 L2 7.12
Viscous force τA = µ (ρL )× L

3 2
= µUL 7.13
mass × acceleration ρU 2 L2 ρUL
Therefore, = = = Re 7.14
viscousforce µUL µ
on When the Reynolds number is large the effects of viscosity are small and conversely.
Generally,
Low Re = laminar flow
High Re = turbulent flow
For pipes it is conventional to take U as average velocity and L as the diameter; then: Re
< 2000 (laminar flow) Re > 4000 (turbulent flow). The commonly-accepted critical
Reynolds number for transition in a round pipe is 2300. These particular numerical
109
values are for pipe flow only, with a particular choice of velocity and length scales. For
example, selecting the radius rather than diameter as a length scale would directly halve
the Reynolds number, but will not affect the flow regime.
73.1 Steady Continuity Equation

The speed of water emerging from a garden hose can be increased by partially closing
the hose opening with your thumb. Apparently the speed v of the water depends on the
cross sectional area A through which the water flows. The continuity equation is
customarily applied when there is a change in cross sectional area and when there is a
junction. There is a relationship between the speed v and the cross sectional area A for
the steady flow of an ideal fluid through a tube with varying cross sectional area.
Consider a stream tube with a change of cross section from A1 to A2 (Fig. 8. 5).
𝝆𝟏
𝒗𝟏 𝝆𝟐
𝒗𝟐
𝑨𝟐
𝑨𝟏
Fig. 7.5: Steady rate flow from left to right
The fluid is flowing with velocity v1 from the left end of the tube and v2 at the right
segment. The cross sectional area at the left hand segment is A1 and at the right end is A2.
Suppose at a time interval ∆t a volume ∆V of fluid enters the tube from the left hand
segment. Since the fluid in incompressible, an identical volume ∆V must emerge from
the right hand segment. The fluid element passing through the tube with velocity v in a
time interval ∆t along the distance ∆x = v∆t. The volume ∆V of the fluid that is passing
through the dotted lines in the time interval ∆t is given by;
ΔV = AΔx = AvΔt 7.14
Applying equation (8.14) to both left and right segments of the tube, we have that;
ΔV = A1v1Δt = A2v2 7.15
A1v1 = A2v2 7.16

Equation (7.16) is the relationship between speed and cross sectional area and it is called
the continuity equation for steady rate flow of an ideal fluid. The equation shows that the
110
floe speed increases when the cross sectional decreases. With the increase in area the
speed decreases. In hydraulics the fluid can usually be treated as incompressible, density
remains constant along a streamline and so the volume flow rate is constant, we have
that;
ρ1 A1v1 = ρ2 A2v2 7.17
7.3.2 Bernoulli’s equation

In general, fluid moving at a higher velocity has lower pressure than fluid moving at a
lower speed. Daniel Bernoulli in 1738 was the first to described this phenomenon in his
book "Hydrodynamica," and is commonly known as Bernoulli's principle. It can be
applied to measure the speed of a liquid or gas moving in a pipe or channel or over a
surface. This principle is also responsible for lift in an aircraft wing, which is why
airplanes can fly. Because the wing is flat on the bottom and curved on the top, the air
has to travel a greater distance along the top surface than along the bottom. To do this
effect, it must go faster over the top, causing its pressure to decrease. This makes the
higher-pressure air on the bottom lift up on the wing.
Consider a tube which an ideal fluid is flowing at a steady rate. Supposing at time
interval ∆t the volume of fluid ∆V enters from the input end of the tube (Fig. 8.6a), and
an identical volume emerges from the output end of the tube (Fig. 8.6b). The emerging
volume must be the same as the entering volume because the fluid is incompressible with
constant density ρ. Let the velocity, elevation and the pressure entering at the input end
be v1, y1 and P1 and the corresponding quantities for the fluid emerging from the output
be v2, y2 and P2 respectively. Applying the principle of conservation of energy, we have
that;
1 2 1
P1 + ρgy + ρv1 = P2 + ρgy + ρv22 7.18
2 2
1 2
P + ρgy + ρv = a constant 7.19
2
Equation (8.19) is called Bernoulli’s equation.
111
𝑳
𝒚
𝒕𝟏
𝒗𝟏
𝑷𝟏
Input
𝒚𝟏
(𝒂)
𝒗𝟐
𝒚
𝑷𝟐
Output
𝒚𝟐
𝒕 + ∆𝒕
𝒙
(𝒃)
Fig. 7.6: Flow at steady rate at time t (a) flow at steady rate at time t + ∆t (b)
Proof:
Let us apply the principle of conservation of energy to the system as its move from its
initial stage (Fig. 7.6a) to final state (Fig. 8.6a). consider the changes between the input
and the output ends, then from the law of conservation of energy, we have that;
W = ∆W 7.20
This implies that change in kinetic energy of the system is equal to the work done. The
change in kinetic energy results in the change in speed between the two ends of the tube.
1 1
Δk = Δmv22 − Δmv12
2 2
1
Δk = ρΔV (v22 − v12 ) 7.21
2
Where Δm = ρΔV is the mass of the fluid that enters at the input and leaves the output
the change in time from t to ∆t. There are two sources of work done on the system. Work
done the gravitational force on the fluid during the vertical lift is given by;
112
Wg = −Δmg ( y2 − y1 )
Wg = − ρgΔV ( y2 − y1 ) 7.22
The work is negative because the upward displacement and the acceleration due gravity
are in opposite direction. Work is also done by the system in pushing the fluid into the
tube from the input to emerge at the output is given by;
FΔx = (PA)Δx = P(AΔx) = PΔV 7.23
Then the work done on the system is P1∆V and the work done by the system is - P2∆V.
thus;
WP = −P2ΔV + P1ΔV
WP = −(P2 − P1 )ΔV 7.24
Applying the work-energy theorem, we have that;

W = Wg + WP = Δk 7.25
Substituting equations (8.21), (8.22) and (8.24) into equation (8.25), we have that;
1
− ρgΔV ( y2 − y1 ) − ΔV (P2 − P1 ) =
2
(
ρΔV v22 − v12 ) 7.26
Rearranging, we have that;

1 1 1
P1 + ρv1 + ρgy = P2 + ρv22 + ρgy 7.27
2 2
7.4 Properties of Fluids

These are those characteristics common to all fluids which are directly of interest to
scientists and engineers. The properties that will be consider includes but to limited to
are; Density, Specific weight, Relative density or specific gravity, Viscosity, Surface
tension, Compressibility and Pressure.
7.4.1 Surface Tension

The force of attraction or repulsion acting between the molecules are referred to as
intermolecular force. The nature of intermolecular force is electromagnetic. Surface
tension depends mainly upon the forces of attraction between the particles within the
given liquid and also upon the gas, solid, or liquid in contact with it. The molecules in a
drop of water, for example, attract each other weakly. Water molecules well inside the
drop may be thought of as being attracted equally in all directions by the surrounding
113
molecules. However, if surface molecules could be displaced slightly outward from the
surface, they would be attracted back by the nearby molecules. The energy responsible
for the phenomenon of surface tension may be thought of as approximately equivalent to
the work or energy required to remove the surface layer of molecules in a unit area.
Surface tension is also a property of a liquid surface displayed by a force acting as if it
were a stretched elastic membrane. This phenomenon can be observed in the nearly
spherical shape of small drops of liquids and of soap bubbles. Because of this property,
certain insects can stand on the surface of water. A razor blade also can be supported by
the surface tension of water. The razor blade is not floating: if pushed through the
surface, it sinks through the water. Surface tension also the elastic tendency of a liquid
surface which makes it acquire the least surface area possible. At liquid–air interfaces,
surface tension results from the greater attraction of liquid molecules to each other (due
to cohesion) than to the molecules in the air (due to adhesion). The net effect is an
inward force at its surface that causes the liquid to behave as if its surface were covered
with a stretched elastic membrane.
Surface tension γ is defined as the magnitude of the force F that is exerted parallel to the
surface of a liquid divided by the length L of the line over which the force acts.
F
γ= 7.28
L
Surface tension may be expressed in the units of energy (joules) per unit area (square
meters). Therefore, its unit is N m–1 and dimensional formula is MT–2. Surface tension
has the dimension of force per unit length, or of energy per unit area. The two are
equivalent, but when referring to energy per unit of area, it is common to use the term
surface energy, which is a more general term in the sense that it applies also to solids. In
materials science, surface tension is used for either surface stress or surface free energy.
Factors affecting surface tension

(i) Effects of impurities: The present impurities in a liquid considerably affect surface
tension. A highly soluble substance like salt increases the surface tension whereas
sparingly soluble substances like soap decreases the surface tension.
(ii) Effects of temperature: The surface tension decreases with rise in temperature. The
temperature at which the surface tension of a liquid becomes zero is called critical
temperature of the liquid. Oxygen in the atmosphere is known to decrease the surface
tension of various substances.
114
Application of surface tension
(i) The oil and grease spots on clothes cannot be removed by pure water. On the other
hand, when detergents (like soap) are added in water, the surface tension of water
decreases. As a result of this, wetting power of soap solution increases. Also the force of
adhesion between soap solution and oil or grease on the clothes increases. Thus, oil,
grease and dirt particles get mixed with soap solution easily. Hence clothes are washed
easily.
(ii) In soldering, addition of flux reduces the surface tension of molten tin. Hence, it
spreads.
(iii) Antiseptics like Dettol have low surface tension, so that they spread faster.
(iv) Surface tension prevents water from passing through the pores of an umbrella.
(v) A duck is able to float on water as its feathers secrete oil that lowers the surface
tension of water.
7.3 3 Molecular theory of surface tension

The surface tension of liquid arises from the attraction of its molecules. Molecules of
liquid and gas attract one another with a force. If any other molecule is within the sphere
of influence of first molecule it will experience a force of attraction. Consider three
molecules A, B, C having their spheres of influence (Fig. 8.7). The sphere of influence of
A is well inside the liquid, that of B partly outside and that of C exactly half of total
molecules like A do not experience any resultant force, as they are attracted equally in all
directions. Molecules like B or C will experience a resultant force directed inward. Thus
the molecules will inside the liquid will have only kinetic energy but the molecule near
surface will have kinetic as well as potential energy which is equal to the work done in
placing them near the surface against the force of attraction directed inward
C B
Fig. 7.7: Attraction of molecules of the same substance
115
Adhesion and Cohesion forces
Intermolecular forces are the force between two molecules of a substance and are called
adhesive and cohesive forces. Adhesion is the force of attraction between the molecules
of different substances. Cohesion is the force of attraction between molecules of the
same substance. This force is lesser in liquids and least in gases. Basically, this
intermolecular forces are electrical in nature. When the distance between two molecules
is larger, the distribution of charges is such that the mean distance between opposite
charges in the molecule is slightly less than the distance between their like charges. So a
force of attraction exists. When the intermolecular distance is less, there is overlapping
of the electron clouds of the molecules resulting in a strong repulsive force. The
intermolecular forces are of two types. They are (i) cohesive force and (ii) adhesive
force. Cohesive force is the force of attraction between the molecules of the same
substance. This cohesive force is very strong in solids, weak in liquids and extremely
weak in gases. Adhesive force is the force of attraction between the molecules of two
different substances. For example, due to the adhesive force, ink sticks to paper while
writing. Water wets glass because the cohesive force between water molecules is less
than the adhesive force between water and glass molecules. Whereas, mercury does not
wet glass because the cohesive force between mercury molecules is greater than the
adhesive force between mercury and glass molecules.
Contact Angle
The angle between the tangent to the curved liquid surface at the point of contact and the
solid surface, inside the liquid, is called the angle of contact for pair of solid and liquid.
Angle of contact between a liquid and a solid is also defined as the angle enclosed
between the tangents to the liquid surface and the solid surface inside the liquid, both the
tangents being drawn at the point of contact of the liquid with the solid.
𝜽 = 𝟗𝟎𝟎 𝜽 > 𝟗𝟎𝟎

𝜽 < 𝟗𝟎𝟎
Concave meniscus Plane meniscus Convex meniscus
116
Liquid wets the solid surface Liquid does not wet the Liquid does not wet the
Fig. 7.8: Sketch to illustrate angle of contact
Note:
(i) The value of angle of contact lies between 00 and 1800
θ = 00 for pure water and glass, θ = 80 for tap water and glass, θ = 900 for water and
silver, θ = 1380 for mercury and glass, θ = 1600 for water and chromium.
(ii) The angle of contact changes with the pair of solid and liquid.
(iii) It does not depend upon the inclination of the solid in the liquid.
(iv) On increasing the temperature, angle of contact decreases.
(v) Soluble impurities increases the angle of contact.
(vi) Partially soluble impurities decrease the angle of contact.
Capillary action
Capillary action is the tendency of a liquid to rise in narrow tubes or to be drawn into
small openings such as those between grains of a rock. Capillary action, also known as
capillarity, is a result of the intermolecular forces of attraction within the liquid and solid
materials. A familiar example of capillary action is the tendency of a dry paper towel to
absorb a liquid by drawing it into the narrow openings between the fibers. Capillarity
result in in cohesion of water molecules and adhesion of those molecules to the solid
material forming the void. As the edges of the container are brought closer together, such
as in a very narrow tube, the interaction of these phenomena causes the liquid to be
drawn upward in the tube. The narrower the tube, the greater the rise of the liquid.
Greater surface tension and increased ratio of adhesion to cohesion also result in greater
rise. However, increased density of the liquid will cause it to rise to a lesser degree.
The force that results in capillary action varies with the quantity of water being held.
Water flowing into a natural void, such as a pore within the soil, forms a film on the
surface of the material surrounding the pore. The adhesion of the water molecules closer
to the solid material is greatest. As water is added to the pore, the thickness of the film
increases, the capillary force is reduced in magnitude, and water molecules on the outer
portion of the film may begin to flow under the influence of gravity. As more water
enters the pore the capillary force is reduced to zero when the pore is saturated. The
movement of groundwater through the soil zone is controlled, in part, by capillary action.
The transport of fluids within plants is also an example of capillary action. As
the plant releases water from its leaves, water is drawn upward from the roots to
replace it. The height h, of the liquid column is given by;
117
2γ cosθ
h= 7.28
ρgr
Where γ is the liquid-air surface tension (force/unit length), θ is the angle contact, ρ is
the density of liquid (mass/volume), g is the acceleration due to gravity and r is
the radius of tube. As r is in the denominator, the thinner the space in which the liquid
can travel, the further up it goes. Likewise, lighter liquid and lower gravity increase the
height of the column. For a water-filled glass tube in air at standard laboratory
conditions, γ = 0.0728 N/m at 20 °C, ρ = 1000 kg/m3, and g = 9.81 m/s2. Because
water spreads on clean glass, the effective equilibrium contact angle is approximately
zero. For these values, the height of the water column is given by;
1.48 × 10 −5 m 2
h≈
r
Consequently, for a 2 m (6.6 ft.) radius glass tube under laboratory conditions given
above, the water would rise at an unnoticeable 0.007 mm (0.00028 inch). However, for a
2 cm (0.79 inch) radius tube, the water would rise 0.7 mm (0.028 inch), and for a 0.2 mm
(0.0079 inch) radius tube, the water would rise 70 mm (2.8 inch).
𝑹𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 𝑹𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽
𝑹 𝑹
𝒓
𝜽 𝜽
𝑹𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 𝑹𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
𝑪 𝜽 𝜽 𝑫
h
Fig. 7.9: Capilary action
Consider a capillary tube of uniform bore dipped vertically in a beaker containing water.
Due to surface tension, water rises to a height h in the capillary tube as shown in (Fig.
8.10). The surface tension T of the water acts inwards and the reaction of the tube R
outwards. R is equal to T in magnitude but opposite in direction.
118
𝑹𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽
𝑹
𝒓
𝜽
𝑹𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
𝑪 𝑫
Fig. 7.10: Liquid meniscus
This reaction R can be resolved into two rectangular components.

(i) Horizontal component R sin θ acting radially outwards
(ii) Vertical component R cos θ acting upwards. The horizontal component acting all
along the circumference of the tube cancel each other whereas the vertical component
balances the weight of water column in the tube. Total upward force = R cos θ ×
circumference of the tube.
R =T
∴ F = 2πr cos θ
7.29
and
F = 2πr cosθ
This upward force is responsible for the capillary rise. As the water column is in
equilibrium, this force acting upwards is equal to weight of the water column acting
downwards.
F=W 7.30
Now, volume of water in the tube is assumed to be made up of (i) a cylindrical water
column of height h and (ii) water in the meniscus above the plane CD.
Volume of cylindrical water column = πr2h
Volume of water in the meniscus = [Volume of cylinder of height r and radius r] –
[Volume of hemisphere] Therefore, volume of water in the meniscus is given by;
2 1
πr 2 × r − πr 3 = πr 3
3 2
Thus, total volume of water in the tube becomes;
1 ⎛ r⎞
πr 2 h + πr 3 = πr 2 ⎜ h + ⎟
3 ⎝ 3⎠
If ρ is the density of water, then weight of water in the tube is given by;
119
⎛ r⎞
W = πr 2 ⎜ h + ⎟ ρg 7.31
⎝ 3⎠
Substituting (8.12) and (8.14) into (8.13), we have that;
⎛ r⎞
πr 2 ⎜ h + ⎟ ρg = 2πrT cosθ
⎝ 3⎠
⎛ r⎞
πr 2 ⎜ h + ⎟ ρg
⎝ 3⎠
T=
2πr cosθ
Since r is very small, r/3 can be neglected compared to h, we have that,
hrρg
T=
2 cosθ
For water θ is very small cos θ =1, thus;
hrρg
T= 7.32
2
7.4.2 Viscosity
If we pour equal amounts of water and castor oil in two identical funnels. It is observed
that water flows out of the funnel very quickly whereas the flow of castor oil is very
slow. This is because of the frictional force acting within the liquid. This force offered by
the adjacent liquid layers is known as viscous force and the phenomenon is called
viscosity. Viscosity is the property of the fluid by virtue of which it opposes relative
motion between its different layers. Both liquids and gases exhibit viscosity but liquids
are much more viscous than gases.
Co-efficient of viscosity Consider the slow and steady flow of a fluid over a fixed
horizontal surface (Fig. 8.11). Let v be the velocity of thin layer of liquid at a distance x
from the fixed solid surface. Then according to Newton, the viscous force acting
tangentially to the layer is proportional to the area of the layer and the velocity gradient
at the layer. If F is the viscous force on the layer then, F ∝ A, where A is the area of the
layer and F is also given by;
Δv
F ∝− 7.33
Δt
120
𝑽 + Δ𝑽
Δ𝒙
𝑽
Fig. 8.11: Fluid flow over a horizontal surface
The negative sign is put to account for the fact that the viscous force is opposite to the
direction of motion Thus, the viscous force is given by;
dv
F = −ηA 7.34
dt
Where η is a constant depending upon the nature of the liquid and is called the
coefficient of viscosity and dv/dt is the velocity gradient.
If A = 1 and dv/dt = 1. We have F = - η. Thus, the coefficient of viscosity of a liquid may
be defined as the viscous force per unit area of the layer where velocity gradient is unity.
The coefficient of viscosity has the dimension [ML-1T-1] and its unit is Newton second
per square metre (Nsm-2) or kilogram per metre per second (kgm-1s-1). In CGS, the unit
of viscosity is Poise, 1kilogram per metre per second = 10 Poise.
Stoke’s Law
When a solid move through a viscous medium, its motion is opposed by a viscous force
depending on the velocity, shape and size of the body. The energy of the body is
continuously decreasing in overcoming the viscous resistance of the medium. This is
why cars, aero planes etc. are shaped streamline to minimize the viscous resistance on
them. The viscous drag on a spherical body of radius r, moving with velocity v, in a
viscous medium of viscosity η is given by;
Fviscous = 6πηrv 7.35
This relation (Eq. 8.35) is called Stoke’s law.
Terminal Velocity
Let the body be driven by a constant force. In the beginning velocity v = 0 and
acceleration ‘a’ is max so the body experiences small viscous force. With increase in
speed viscous force goes on increasing till resultant force acting on the body becomes
zero, and body moves with constant speed, this speed is known as terminal velocity
Consider the downward movement of a spherical body through a viscous medium such
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as a ball falling through a viscous medium as a ball falling through a liquid. If r is the
radius of the body, ρ the density of the material of the body and σ is the density of the
liquid, then;
(i)The weight of the body downward force is given by;
4 3
πr ρg
3
(ii) The buoyancy of the body upward force is given by;
4 3
πr ρ0 g
3
The net downward force is given by;
4 3
πr (ρ − ρ 0 )g
3
If v is the terminal velocity of the body, then viscous force Fviscous = 6πηrv
When acceleration becomes zero upward viscous force = resultant downward force, thus;
4
6πηrv = πr 3 (ρ − ρ 0 )g 7.36
3
2r 2 g (ρ − ρ0 )
v= 7.37
9η
8.4.3 Density and Relative Density

The density of a fluid is defined as the ratio of the mass of the fluid to its volume.
Therefore, mass per unit volume of a fluid is referred to as density. It is denoted by the
symbol rho (ρ). It is scalar property and the SI unit of density is kilogram per cubic meter
(kg/m3). Generally, in fluids the density of liquids is constant while that of gases changes
with the variation of pressure and temperature. This implies that gases are readily
compressible but liquids are not. Mathematically density is given as;
mass( M )
Density( ρ ) =
volume(V )
M
⇒ρ= 7.38
V
The density of water is found to be about 1gm/cm3 or 1000kg/m3.
Specific weight of a fluid is the ratio between the weight of a fluid to its volume. The
specific weight of the fluid can be defined similarly as its weight per unit volume. Thus,
weight per unit volume of a fluid is called weight density and it is denoted by w. it is
express as;
W = weight of fluid/volume of fluid.
122
Weight of fluid = mass of fluid × acceleration due to gravity = m × g
mg
Weight density (w) = = ρg
V
⇒ w = ρg 7.39
The unit of weight density is N/m3.
Relative density
The specific gravity or relative density of a fluid is defined as the ratio of the weight
density or density of a fluid to the density of a standard fluid. The standard fluid is taken
as water for liquids and air for gases. It is a dimensionless quantity and it is denoted by
S.G. Mathematically,
SG (for liquids) = density of liquid/density of water
SG (gases) = density of gas/density of air.
Density of liquid = SG × density of water = SG × 1000 kg/m3
Archimedes’ principle
Archimedes’ principle referred to as the physical law of buoyancy was discovered by the
ancient Greek inventor and mathematician known as Archimedes. The principle states
that the exerted upward buoyant force on a body fully or partially immersed in a fluid is
equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body acting in the upward direction at
the center of mass of the displaced fluid. This principle explained that the volume of
displaced fluid is equivalent to the volume of an object fully or partially immersed in a
fluid or to that portion or fraction of the volume immersed for an object partially
submerged in a liquid since the density of the fluid is constant. This principle indicates
that the upward buoyant force that is exerted on a body immersed in a fluid partially or
wholly is equal to the weight of the fluid that the body displaces.
Fig. 7.12: Archimedes’ principle
123
Similarly, Archimedes’ principle states that when a body is wholly or partially immersed
in a fluid, a buoyancy force Fb from the surrounding fluids acts on the body. The force is
directed upward and has magnitude equal to the weight W = mg of the fluid displaced.
Fb = mg
7.40
m
Recall that, ρ = ⇒ m = ρV
V
Fb = W = ρVg 7.41
The implication is that the difference between the buoyant force and its weight is the net
upward force on the object. This net force could be positive, negative or neutral (zero).
The object floats if the net force is positive, the object sinks if it is negative and if zero
(neural), the object is neutrally buoyant which makes the object remains in place without
either rising or sinking. Since the weight of the body is opposed by the upthrust,
therefore the weight of the body when in liquid W1 is decreased and becomes smaller
than the weight of the body in air W. The difference between the weight of the body in
air and the weight of the body in the liquid is apparent loss in weight W2.
Weight of the body in air – weight of the body in liquid = apparent loss in weight
W – W1 = W2 7.42
The apparent loss in weight is called the upthrust. Upthrust is also equal to the weight of
the liquid displaced.
U = W1 – W2 7.43
Floatation
Ships, canoes and ferry boats as well as other submarines float on top of water. A
balloon filled with lighter gas such as hydrogen will keep rising up when released from
the hand. Floatation if defined as the tendency of a body to rise up to the upper levels of
the liquid or stay on the surface of the liquid the body is immersed on it. The law of
floatation states that a floating body displaces its own weight of the liquid in which it
floats. The average density of the body should be less than the density of the fluid in
which the body has to float. The upthrust must be equal to the weight of the liquid
displaced. Therefore, when a body floats in fluid, the magnitude of the buoyant force
acting on the body equals to the magnitude of the gravitational force acting on the body.
Fb = Fg = floating body. 7.44
But Fg = mg
124
Note:
The real weight = apparent weight + apparent loss in weight
Apparent loss in weight = weight of the fluid displaced = upthrust
But when object floats, its apparent weight becomes zero.
If apparent weight = 0, then;
Real weight = 0 + upthrust
Real weight = upthrust
Consequently, the relationship between upthrust and real weight of a floating body is
such that the upthrust is always equal to the real weight and because upthrust equals the
weight of the fluid displaced then the floating body displaces its own weight of the fluid
in which its floats. This called the law of floatation.
Applications of the law of floatation

1. Transportation by water ways
2. Transportation by air
3. Decoration
4. Measurement of specific gravity of liquids
5. Construction of submarines
8.4.4 Compressibility and pressure

Consider a small area dA in a large mass of fluid. If the fluid is stationary, then the force
exerted by the surrounding fluid on the area dA will always be perpendicular to the
surface dA. Let the force acting on the area dA be dF and in the normal direction. Then
the ratio dF/dA is called the intensity of pressure or simply pressure. The pressure at a
point in the fluid is given by;
dF
P= 7.45
dA
If the force F is uniformly distributed over the area A, then the pressure at any given
point is defined by the relation;
F
P= 7.46
A
The unit of pressure is kg/m2 or N/m2 and is known as Pascal represented by Pa. 1 atm. =
1.01 × 105 Pa.
Pascal principle
When one end of a tube containing toothpaste is squeezed, the paste will come out in the
other end. This is Pascal principle in action. A sharp pressure increase properly applied
to the abdomen is transmitted to the throat forcefully ejecting food. This was first clearly
observed by Blaise Pascal in the year 1652. Pascal principle states that the pressure at
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every point in a fluid is equal in all directions. It’s also states that a change in the
pressure applied to an enclosed incompressible fluid is transmitted undiminished to every
portion of the fluid and to the walls of it container. Pascal’s law simply states that the
pressure at a point in a fluid at rest is the same in all directions.

Q1. Calculate the work done in blowing a soap bubble of radius 10cm, surface tension
being 0.08 Nm-1. What additional work will be done in further blowing it so that its
radius is doubled?
Solution
In case of a soap bubble, there are two free surfaces Surface tension = Work done per
unit area.
Work done in blowing a soap bubble of radius R is given by
Surface tension × Area
W = T × (2×4πR2)
W = (0.06) × (8×3.14×0.12)
W = 1.51 J
Similarly, work done in forming a bubble of radius 0.2 m is
W’ = (0.06) × (8×3.14×0.22) = 60.3 J
Additional work done in doubling the radius of the bubble is given by
W’ – W = 60.3 – 1.51 = 5.42J
Q2. A mercury drop of radius 1cm is sprayed into 106 droplets of equal size. Calculate
the energy expended if surface tension of mercury is 35×10-3 N/m
Solution
Since total volume of 106 droplets has remains same
If radius of the small droplet is r’ and big drop is r, then r = (106 )1/3 r’
1 = 102 r’ or r’ = 0.01 cm = 10-4 m
Since surface area increased energy
Total energy of small droplet = [ T (4πr’2)] 106
Total energy of big droplet = [T (44πr2)]
Spending of energy = Total energy of small droplets - Total energy of big droplet
Spending of energy
= [ T (4πr’2)] 106 - [T (4πr2)]
Spending of energy = T×4π [106× r’2 – r2]
Spending of energy = 35×10-3×4×3.14 [106× (10-4) 2 – (10-2)2]
126
Spending of energy =0.44[10-2 – 10-4]
Spending of energy = 4.356×10-3 J
Q3. Q) A mercury barometer has a glass tube with an inside diameter equal to 4mm.
Since the contact angle of mercury with glass is 1400, capillary depresses the column.
How many millimeters of mercury must be added to the reading to correct for capillarity
(Assume surface tension of mercury T = 0.545 N/m, density of mercury = 13.6×103).
Solution:
The height difference due to capillarity given by,
2T cosθ 2 × 0.545 × cos1400
h= = = −0.0031m
rρg ( )( )
2 ×10 −3 13.6 ×103 (9.8)
Therefore 3.1 mm must be added to the barometer reading.
Q4. An ice cube of density 0.9 g/cm3 floats in fresh water of density 1.0 g/cm3. What is
the fraction of volume of ice that is submerged? If the same ice is floating in sea water of
density 1.3 g/cm3, what is the percentage volume of the ice submerged?
Solution
% Volume of ice submerged in fresh water = density of floating object/ density of fluid
ρ 0 0.9 g / m 3
= = = 0.9 = 90%
ρ f 1.0 g / m 3
ρ 0 0 .9 g / m 3
% volume of ice submerged in sea water = = = 0.69 = 69%
ρ f 1 .3 g / m 3
Q5. A water flowing in a capillary tube 40 cm long and of 1 mm internal radius under a
constant pressure head of 15 cm of water. Calculate the maximum velocity of water in
the tube and verify that the flow is streamlined. Given viscosity for water = 0.0098 poise,
Reynold’s number = 100 and g = 9.8 m/s2.
Solution
The velocity of the flow of the liquid at a distance r from the axis of the capillary tube of
length l and radius a, under pressure P is given by;
P 2
v=
4ηl
(
a − r2 )
The velocity is maximum at the axis where r = 0. Thus;
127
Pa 2
vmax = . P = 0.15 cm of water = 0.15 × 103 × 9.8 = 1470 N/m2.
4ηl
A = 1 mm = 0.001 m, η = 0.00098 kg/m/s, l = 0.4 m
vmax =
Pa 2
=
1470 × 10 −3( )= 0.9375m
4ηl 4 × 0.00098 × 0.4
Rη 1000 × 0.00098
The critical value of flow through the tube is vc = =
ρa 10 3 × 10 −3
Q6. Let 2 .4×10−4 J of work is done to increase the area of a film of soap bubble from
50 cm2 to 100 cm2. Calculate the value of surface tension of soap solution.
Solution:
A soap bubble has two free surfaces, therefore increase in surface area
∆A = A2−A1 = 2(100-50) × 10-4m2 = 100 × 10-4m2.
W 2.4 ×10 −4 J
Since, work done W = T ×ΔA ⇒T = = = 2.4 ×10 −2 N / m
ΔA 100 × 10 −4 m2
Q7. If excess pressure is balanced by a column of oil (with specific gravity 0.8)
4 mm high, where R = 2.0 cm, find the surface tension of the soap bubble.
Solution
The excess of pressure inside the soap bubble is given by;
4T
ΔP = P2 − P1 =
R
ΔP = P2 − P1 = ρgh
But, 4T
⇒ ρgh =
R
Surface tension T is given by;
T=
ρghR
=
(800)(9.8)(4 ×10 −3 )(2 ×10 −2 ) = 15.68 ×10 −2 N / m
4 4
Q8. Water rises in a capillary tube to a height of 2.0cm. How much will the water rise
through another capillary tube whose radius is one-third of the first tube?
Solution
1
Recall that, h ∝ ⇒ hr = cons tan t
r
Consider two capillary tubes with radius r1 and r2 which on placing in a liquid, capillary
rises to height h1 and h2, respectively. Then,
128
h1r1 = h2r2 = cons tan t
h2 = =
( )
h1r1 2 × 10 −2 m × r
= 6 × 10 −2
r2 r
3
Q9. Mercury has an angle of contact equal to 1400 with soda lime glass. A narrow tube
of radius 2 mm, made of this glass is dipped in a trough containing mercury. By what
amount does the mercury dip down in the tube relative to the liquid surface outside?
Surface tension of mercury T=0.456 N m-1; Density of mercury ρ = 13.6 × 103 kg m-3
Solution
Capillary descent,
h=
(
2T cosθ (2)× 2 × 0465Nm −1 cos1400
=
)( )
= −6.89 ×10 −4 m
rρg (−3
)(3
2 ×10 m 13.6 ×10 9.8ms −2
)( )
where, negative sign indicates that there is fall of mercury (mercury is depressed) in
glass tube.
Q1. Where the negative sign indicates that there is fall of mercury (mercury is depressed)
in glass tube. Mercury has an angle of contact equal to 1800 with soda lime glass. A
narrow tube of radius 4 mm, made of this glass is dipped in a trough containing mercury.
By what amount does the mercury dip down in the tube relative to the liquid surface
outside? Surface tension of mercury T=0.856 N m-1; Density of mercury ρ = 13.6 ×
103 kg m-3
ANS: -6.89 × 10-4 m
Q2. If the radius of the opening of the dropper is rr, the vertical force due to the surface
tension on the drop of radius RR (assuming r≪R) (r≪R) is ----------------
ANS: 2πr2TR2πr2TR
Q3. If r = 5×10−4m r = 5×10−4m, ρ =103kg/m3 ρ =103kg/m3, g =10m/s2 g=10m/s2, T=

0.11N/m T=0.11N/m, the radius of the drop when it detaches from the dropper is
approximately -----------
ANS: 1.4×10−3m, 1.4×10−3m
Q4. A sliding wire of length 3.5 cm is pulling a liquid film, as Figure 3 shows. The
pulling force exerted by the wire is 4.4 × 10−3 N. From the table of surface tensions,
determine the film material.
Q5. A circular ring (radius = 5.0 cm) is used to determine the surface tension of a liquid.
The plane of the ring is positioned so that it is parallel to the surface of the liquid. The
ring is immersed in the liquid and then pulled upward, so a film is formed between the
129
ring and the liquid. In addition to the ring’s weight, an upward force of 3.6 × 10−2 N is
required to lift the ring to the point where it just breaks free of the surface. What is the
surface tension of the liquid?
Q6. Suppose that the C-shaped wire frame in Figure 3 is rotated clockwise by 900, so
that the sliding wire would fall down if it were free to do so. The sliding wire has a
length of 3.5 cm and a mass of 0.20 g. There is no friction between the sliding wire and
the vertical sides of the C-shaped wire. If the sliding wire is in equilibrium, what is the
surface tension of the film?
Q7. Two soap bubbles (γ = 0.025 N/m) have radii of 2.0 and 4.5 mm. For each bubble,
determine the difference between the inside and outside pressures.
Q8. Α small bubble of air in water (γ = 0.073 N/m) has a radius of 0.10 mm. Find the
difference in pressures between the inside and outside of the bubble.
Q9. A drop of oil (γ = 0.0320 N/m) has a radius of 0.0100 mm. The drop is located a
distance of 2.55 m below the surface of fresh water. The atmospheric pressure above the
water is 1.01 × 105 Pa. (a) What is the absolute pressure in the water at this depth? (b)
Determine the absolute pressure inside the oil drop.
Q10. Suppose that a bubble has the shape of a long cylinder, rather than that of a sphere.
Determine an expression for the difference between the inside and outside pressures;
express your answer in terms of the surface tension γ and the radius R of the cylinder.
(Hint: Review the reasoning that was used to obtain the difference in pressures for a
spherical soap bubble. For the cylindrical bubble, “cut” the cylinder into two halves by
slicing along a line that is parallel to the axis of the cylinder).
130
CHAPTER EIGHT
LINEAR MOMENTUM AND EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCES
8.1 Linear Momentum

In Physics, Momentum is so important for the understanding motion such that it was
called the quantity of motion by physicists such as Newton. It is a quantity that controls
motion of a body, and since force is an agent of push or pull (motion), therefore
momentum is influenced by force. Momentum is a concept that describes how the
motion of an object depends not only on its mass, but also its velocity. When an object of
consideration moves in a straight line, the quantity of motion is termed linear
momentum.
Therefore, linear momentum is defined as the product of the mass of the body and its
velocity. Symbolically given as below
𝑃 =𝑚∙𝑣 (8.1)
Where m is the mass of the body and v, its velocity then P is the linear momentum with
the S. I. unit of 𝑘𝑔𝑚/𝑠.
Equation (8.1) indicates that linear momentum is directly proportional to the object’s
mass and also its velocity. Practically, the greater an object’s mass or the greater its
velocity, the greater its momentum, meaning that a large, fast-moving object has greater
momentum than a smaller, slower object.
Momentum is a vector quantity and has the same direction as velocity v, since mass is
a scalar. When velocity is in a negative direction (i.e., opposite the direction of motion),
the momentum will also be in a negative direction; and when velocity is in a positive
direction, momentum will likewise be in a positive direction.
Considering the second Newtonian law of motion:
𝐹•‚• = 𝑚𝑎 (8.2)
It is shown that Newton actually stated the above law based on linear momentum: the
rate of change of linear momentum of a system is proportional to the net force acting on
it. Change in linear momentum is the difference between the final and the initial
momentum,
At an initial moment, a body has the momentum 𝑃M = 𝑚𝑣M and at a second instance, at a
different velocity, the same body (mass unchanged) has a momentum of 𝑃) = 𝑚𝑣) ,
hence the change in momentum ∆𝑃 follows thus:
131
∆𝑃 = 𝑃) − 𝑃M = 𝑚(𝑣) − 𝑣M )
(8.3)
By the above stated law
∆j ƒ(WH hW¯ )
𝐹∝ and 𝐹∝
• •
ƒ(WH hW¯ )
𝐹=𝑘 (8.4)
•
When (1) all the parameters are measured in their S.I units and (2) F is a net force, then
the constant 𝑘 = 1, hence
ƒ(WH hW¯ )
𝐹•‚• = (8.5)
•
By definition of acceleration, (9.5) becomes (9.2)
∆j
And 𝐹•‚• = (8.6)
•
𝐹•‚• ∙ 𝑡 = ∆𝑃 (8.7)
9.2 Impulse
The RHS of (8.7) is termed impulse, which is the impact of a force on an object at a very
short time. Hence the equation is known as impulse – momentum theorem.
Impulse is a term that quantifies the overall effect of a force acting over time. It is
conventionally given the symbol, J and expressed in Newton-seconds.
𝐹•‚• ∙ 𝑡 = 𝐽 (8.8)
From the equation (9.8), we see that the impulse equals the product of average net
external force and the time this force acts. It is equal to the change in momentum.
For a constant force, J = F⋅Δt, (8.9)
The effect of a force on an object depends on how long it acts, as well as the strength of
the force. Impulse is a useful concept because it quantifies the effect of a force. A very
large force acting for a short time can have a great effect on the momentum of an object,
such as the force of a racket hitting a tennis ball. A small force could cause the same
change in momentum, but it would have to act for a much longer time.
Since an impulse is a force acting for some amount of time, it causes an object’s motion
to change.
Example 8.1:
Calculate the momentum of a 100-kg football player running at 5.0 m/s. Hence,
compare the player’s momentum with the momentum of a hard-thrown 0.5-kg
football that has a speed of 50.0 m/s
132
Solution:
There is no information regarding the direction of the velocity, so only the magnitude of
the momentum is computed.
Part 1: 𝑃 = 𝑚𝑣 = 100 5 = 500.0𝑘𝑔𝑚/𝑠
Part 2: 𝑃 = 𝑚𝑣 = 0.5 50 = 25.0𝑘𝑔𝑚/𝑠
The ratio of the player’s momentum to that of the ball is
j±²³3´µ o^^.^
= = 20
j¶³²² )o.^
Discussion
Though the ball has a greater velocity than the player, but the he has a much greater
mass. Thus the momentum of the player is much greater (by an amount of 20) than the
momentum of the football, as you might guess. As a result, the player’s motion is only
slightly affected if he catches the ball.
Example 8.2:
During Tokyo Olympics 2021, Zverev hit the fastest recorded serve in a premier
men’s match, reaching a speed of 180 km/h. What is the average force exerted
on the 55-g tennis ball by Zverev racquet, assuming that the ball’s speed just
after impact is 50 m/s, that the initial horizontal component of the velocity before
impact is negligible, and that the ball remained in contact with the racquet for
2.5 ms?
What additional force (not due to the racquet) was also experienced by the
tennis ball? Given that 𝑔 = 9.8𝑚/𝑠
Solution
Part 1: This problem is one dimensional (1D) problem because the ball starts from
having no horizontal velocity component before impact.
𝑚 = 55𝑔 = 0.055𝑘𝑔, 𝑣) = 180𝑘𝑚/ℎ = 50𝑚/𝑠, 𝑡 = 2.5𝑚𝑠 = 2.5×10hY 𝑠, 𝑣M = 0
Applying equation (9.3) to compute the change in momentum
∆𝑃 = 𝑚 𝑣) − 𝑣M = 0.055 50 − 0 = 2.75𝑘𝑔𝑚/𝑠
Applying equation (9.6) to compute the net force
).lo
𝐹•‚• = = 1100.0𝑁
).o×M^·¸
This quantity was the average force exerted by Zverev’s racquet on the tennis ball during
its brief impact.
Part 2:
the ball also experienced the 0.52-N force of gravity (𝐹 = 𝑚𝑔), which was not due to
the racquet.
133
Example 8.3:
The captain of a starship Enterprise has his ship accelerating from 2.5×10x 𝑚/
𝑠 to a final speed of a quarter of the velocity of light in a vacuum. Assuming this
maneuver is completed in 60 s, what average force did the impulse engines apply
to the ship? Hence, find the impulse applied to the engine. According to 2009
movie, the mass of enterprise is 2 x 109 kg
Solution:
M
𝑚 = 2×10¦ 𝑘𝑔 , 𝑣M = 2.5×10x 𝑚/𝑠 , 𝑣) = (3×10¡ )𝑚/𝑠 = 75.0×10x 𝑚/𝑠
f
Part 1: Applying equation 9.5 to compute the net force
)×M^¹ (loh).o)×M^º
𝐹= = 2.4×10Mo 𝑁
x^
Part 2: Applying equation 9.7 to determine the applied impulse
𝐽 = 2.4×10Mo 60 = 1.45×10Ml 𝑁𝑠
Problems
1. (a) An elephant of mass 2000-kg chases a hunter at a speed of 7.50 m/s. If the
hunter runs at the speed of 10m/s, calculate his weight. Take 𝑔 = 9.8 𝑚/𝑠 )
(b) Compare the elephant’s momentum with the momentum of a 0.0400-kg
tranquilizer dart fired at a speed of 600 m/s. (c) What is the momentum of the
90.0-kg hunter running at 7.40 m/s after missing the elephant?
2. A moving object of mass 1500g covers a distance of 180m steadily at 3.0s and it
is hit by a body moving in opposite direction such that the speed reduces by a
factor of 6. (a) Calculate the impulse applied to it by body (b) If a force of
25,000N was generated during the impact, calculate the duration of the impact
(in ms).
3. (a) At what speed would a 2.00 × 104-kg airplane have to fly to have a
momentum of 1.60 × 109 kg · m/s? (b) What is the plane’s momentum when it is
taking off at a speed of 60.0 m/s? (c) If the ship is an aircraft carrier that
launches these airplanes with a catapult, discuss the implications of your answer
to (b) as it relates to recoil effects of the catapult on the ship.
4. (a) What is the momentum of a garbage truck that is 1.20 × 104 kg and is moving
at 10.0 m/s? (b) At what speed would an 8.00-kg trash can have the same
momentum as the truck?
5. A runaway train car that has a mass of 15,000 kg travels at a speed of 5.4 m/s
down a track. (a) Compute the time required for a force of 1500 N to bring the
car to rest.
6. The mass of Earth is 5.972 × 1024 kg and its orbital radius is an average of 1.496
× 1011 m. Calculate its linear momentum.
134
8.3 Conservation of Momentum
In physics, the term conservation refers to something which does not change. This
means that the variable in an equation which represents a conserved quantity is constant
over time. It has the same value both before and after an event.
There are many conserved quantities in physics. They are often remarkably useful for
making predictions in what would otherwise be very complicated situations. In
mechanics, there are three fundamental quantities which are conserved. These
are momentum, energy, and angular momentum. Conservation of momentum is mostly
used for describing collisions between objects.
A physical system is always exerted upon by both internal and external forces. A
System (mechanical) is defined as the collection of objects in whose motion (kinematics
and dynamics) are of interest to you.
The internal force is the force exerted by one part of a system on another, while an
external force is the one exerted on any part of a system by some agent outside the
system. If the no external force act on the system, it is called an isolated system, i.e.,
there is no external impulse.
As it is with the other conservation principles, conservation of momentum applies only
to an isolated system of objects.
The principle of conservation of momentum states that:
In an isolated system with any number of objects in it, the total momentum of the system
is constant or conserved.
Requirements for Momentum Conservation
There is a complication, however. A system must meet two requirements for
its momentum to be conserved:
1. The mass of the system must remain constant during the interaction. As the
objects interact (exert forces on each other), they may transfer mass from one to
another; but any mass one object gains are balanced by the loss of that mass
from another. The total mass of the system of objects, therefore, remains
unchanged as time passes:
}ƒ
=0 (9.10)
}• ~6~•‚ƒ
2. The net external force on the system must be zero. As the objects collide, or
explode, and move around, they exert forces on each other. However, all of these
forces are internal to the system, and thus each of these internal forces is
balanced by another internal force that is equal in magnitude and opposite in
sign.
𝐹‚4•‚™•€‡ = 0
(9.11)
135
𝑷𝟏 + 𝑷𝟐 = 𝑷𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍
𝑷¾ 𝟏 + 𝑷¾ 𝟐 = 𝑷¾ 𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍
FIG. 8.1: Conservation of momentum in an isolated system
A vehicle of mass m1 moving with a velocity of 𝒗𝟏 bumps into another vehicle of

mass m2 and velocity 𝒗𝟐 . As a result, the first one slows down to a velocity of 𝒗¾ 𝟏 and
the second speeds up to a velocity of 𝒗¾ 𝟐 . The momentum of each vehicle is changed, but
the total momentum 𝑷𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 of the two vehicles is the same before and after the collision
if you assume friction is negligible.
By applying the impulse-momentum theorem, the change in momentum of vehicle 1 is
given by,
∆j¯
∆𝑃M = 𝐹M ∆𝑡, hence 𝐹M =
∆•
where F1 is the force which the second vehicle exerts on the first vehicle and Δt is the
time the force acts, or the duration of the collision.
Similarly, the change in momentum of vehicle 2 is
∆jH
∆𝑃) = 𝐹) ∆𝑡, hence 𝐹) =
∆•
where F2 is the force exerted on 2 due to by vehicle 1, and we assume the duration of the
collision Δt is the same for both cars.
From Newton’s third law of motion, we can conclude that F2 = –F1, and so
∆jH ∆j¯
=− then ∆𝑃) = −∆𝑃M
∆• ∆•
Therefore, the changes in momentum are equal and opposite, and ∆𝑃) + ∆𝑃M = 0
136
Because the changes in momentum add to zero, the total momentum of the two-car
system is constant. That is,
𝑃M + 𝑃) = 𝑃 ¾M + 𝑃 ¾ ) (8.12)
𝑚M 𝑣M + 𝑚) 𝑣) = 𝑚M 𝑣 ¾M + 𝑚) 𝑣 ¾ ) (8.13)
.4 Types of collision
Principally, there are two types of collision; inelastic and elastic collision. In any form of
collision, the total momentum is always conserved.
Elastic collision: When both the momentum and the kinetic energy of the colliding
particles are conserved, the collision is termed elastic. Air molecules in a room constitute
elastic collision.
Also, the colliding particles usually separate and move with different velocities. Consider
two particles of masses 𝑚M and 𝑚) moving with respective velocities 𝑢M and 𝑢) , if 𝑢M >
𝑢) , there will be collision. Since after collision, their K.E is not conserved, they will
move in different velocities 𝑣M and 𝑣) and may go in different directions
𝑢M 𝑢) 𝑚M 𝑚) 𝑣)
𝑚M 𝑚)
𝑣M
Before collision
After collision
FIG. 8.2: Elastic collision
M M M M
K.E: 𝑚M 𝑢M ) + 𝑚) 𝑢) ) = 𝑚M 𝑣M ) + 𝑚) 𝑣) ) (8.14)
) ) ) )
Momentum: 𝑚M 𝑢M + 𝑚) 𝑢) = 𝑚M 𝑣M + 𝑚) 𝑣) (8.15)
Inelastic collision: When two particles collide and their kinetic energy changes into other
forms of energy such as heat, sound, which is not recoverable, the energy is not
conserved, such collision is said to be inelastic. For instance, if a lump of putty falls to
the ground, it loses some amount of momentum and the earth gains equal amount of
momentum but all the kinetic energy of the putty is changed to sound and heat on
colliding with the earth. Here, their momentum is conserved but kinetic energy is not
conserved.
137
After inelastic collision, the two particles always stick together and move off as a unit
with a common velocity.
𝑢M 𝑢)
𝑚M 𝑚) 𝑚M 𝑚) 𝑣
Before collision After collision
FIG. 8.3: Inelastic collision
M M M
K.E: 𝑚M 𝑢M ) + 𝑚) 𝑢) ) = (𝑚M + 𝑚M )𝑣 ) (9.16)
) ) )
Momentum: 𝑚M 𝑢M + 𝑚) 𝑢) = (𝑚M + 𝑚) )𝑣 (9.17)
If the two particles are moving opposite to each other, the momentum is negative, since
conventionally, the velocity of one particle is opposite the other.
Example 8.4
A ball P of mass 0.5 𝑘𝑔 moving with a velocity of 6 𝑚/𝑠 collides head-on with a
ball Q of mass 0.3 𝑘𝑔 more than P but with two-third the P’s velocity. After
collision, P moves with velocity of 4.4 𝑚/𝑠 and Q with the velocity of 5 𝑚/𝑠. (a)
Show that the collision obeys the law of conservation of momentum and (b) What
is the type of collision experienced by the particles?
Solution
)
(a). 𝑚j = 0.5 𝑘𝑔, 𝑚n = 0.3 + 0.5 = 0.8 𝑘𝑔, 𝑢j = 6 𝑚/𝑠, 𝑢n = ×6 = 4 𝑚/𝑠,
Y
𝑣j = 4.4 𝑚/𝑠, 𝑣n = 5 𝑚/𝑠
Before collision, total momentum = 0.5×6 + 0.8×4 = 3 + 3.2 = 6.2 𝑁𝑠
After collision, total momentum = 0.5×4.4 + 0.8×5 = 2.2 + 4 = 6.2 𝑁𝑠
So the momentum is conserved.
M M
(b) Total K.E before collision:= ×0.5×6) + ×0.8×4) = 9 + 6.4 = 15.4 𝐽
) )
M M
Total K.E after collision:= ×0.5×4.4) + ×0.8×5) = 4.84 + 10 =
) )
14.84 𝐽
Since the K.E is not the same after the collision, the collision is inelastic.
Example 8.5:
In principle, any time someone jumps up, the earth moves in the opposite
direction. To see why we are unaware of this motion, calculate the recoil speed
138
of the earth when a 75 kg person jumps upward at a speed of 2.0𝑚/𝑠 (Mass of
Earth 𝑚œ = 6.0×10)f 𝑘𝑔)
Solution
We assume that the person and the earth constitute an isolated system. +𝑦 be upward, in
the direction the person jumps, 𝑃=6 = 𝑃†6 , 𝑃=6 = 0. The earth recoils in the −𝑦 direction
with speed 𝑣œ , so 𝑚Å‚™~ˆ• ×𝑣Å‚™~ˆ• = 𝑚œ ×𝑣œ
ƒ±´µ§ÆÇ ×W±´µ§ÆÇ lo×).^

𝑣œ = = = 2.5×10h)Y 𝑚/𝑠
ƒÈ x.^×M^HÉ
Example 8.6:
A lead bullet of mass 0.03kg is fired with a velocity of 250m/s into a lead block
of mass 0.97kg. Given that the block can move freely, find the final kinetic
energy after impact.
Solution
𝑚M = 0.03𝑘𝑔, 𝑣M = 250𝑚/𝑠, 𝑚) = 0.97𝑘𝑔, 𝑣) = 0
The collision is completely inelastic, so 𝑚M 𝑣M + 𝑚) 𝑣) = (𝑚M + 𝑚) )𝑣
ƒ¯ W¯ IƒH WH ^.^Y×)o^ I(^.¦l×^) l.o
𝑣= = = = 7.5𝑚/𝑠
ƒ¯ IƒH ^.^YI^.¦l M
The final kinetic energy is thus, given by
M M ƒ¯ W¯ IƒH WH ) M
K.E = 𝑚𝑣 ) = 𝑚M + 𝑚) = 0.03 + 0.97 7.5 )
= 28.13𝐽
) ) ƒ¯ IƒH )
8.4 Equilibrium of forces

8.40 Introduction
An object attains equilibrium state with respect to a given observable quantity during the
time for which there is no change in that quantity. For instance, if several forces are
acting on a body, the body is said to be in equilibrium when it does not move or rotate.
8.4.1 Equilibrium
When a system of forces or a body acted upon by many forces remains at rest or moves
with a constant speed in a straight line, or when the whole body is either not rotating at
all or is rotating at a constant speed, the body/system or system is said to be in
equilibrium.
A body is in equilibrium when it is not accelerating, which implies that no resultant force
from any direction is acting on it.
139
8.4.1 Types of equilibrium
Some bodies which are in equilibrium while at rest are said to be in static equilibrium
while those that are moving with a constant velocity in a straight line, or rotating with a
constant angular velocity are said to be kinetic or dynamic equilibrium. For dynamic
equilibrium to be attained, it means the forces that set the body in motion are
counterbalanced by the forces that resist the motion of the body.
8.5 Resultant force

In the system of forces, there is a single force that acts in such a way to balance the other
forces. This force always acts alone, and it is called resultant force. So the resultant force
is therefore defined as a single force which has the same effect both in magnitude and
direction as the combination of other forces acting on the system. It is simply the result
obtained when forces are combined. The resultant force is usually found by drawing a
parallelogram and applying the necessary laws.
8.6 Equilibrant
In a system of unbalanced forces, there exists a single force that when applied would set
the system to equilibrium. This single force is called equilibrant. It is usually equal but
opposite to resultant force.
Example 8.7
If two forces of 20𝑁 and 10𝑁are acting at 60° to each other on an object. Determine the
single force that will:
(a) replace the system of force (b) balance the system of forces
Solution
10𝑁 𝑅
60°
∝ (180 − 60)°
𝐸 20𝑁
The force that will replace the system is the resultant given by:
𝑅 ) = 20) + 10) − 2 20 10 cos 180 − 60 ° ⟹ 𝑅 ) = 400 + 100 −

400 −0.5 = 700
𝑅 = 26.5 𝑁
To obtain the inclination (direction) ∝, of the resultant to the horizontal, sine rule is
applied:
140
M^ Ì M^~=•M)^°
= ⟹ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ∝ = ⟹ ∝=
~=•∝ ÍÎÏ M)^° Ì
M^~=•M)^°
sinhM = 19.1°
Ì
The resultant 𝑅 is 26.5𝑁 at 19.1° from 20 𝑁 force and 40.9° from 10𝑁 force. If
20 𝑁 force is acting due east, then 𝑅 = 26.5 𝑁, 𝑁70.9°𝐸
(a) The equilibrant: 𝐸 = 𝑅 but in opposite direction, 𝐸 = 26.5 𝑁, 𝑆70.9°𝑊 or at
160.9° from 20 𝑁 force.
8.7 Turning Force

A turning force is said to be exerted when a force applied to a body causes the turning
effect of the body about a fixed point. This force can be seen in opening and closing of a
door, turning of water tab, tightening of a nut by a spanner (Figure 9.4). In case of a
bicycle, the force applied on the pedal produces a turning effect which keeps the wheel
moving. In the case of bottle opener, the metallic cap of a bottle of drink is levered off by
a turning effect.
FIG 8.4: Turning effect of force
8.7.1 Moment of turning force

The moment of a turning force about a point is the turning effect of the force about that
point and it is equal to the product of the force and the perpendicular distance between
the line of action of the force and the turning point (hinge, pivot or fulcrum) (Figure 8.2).
The moment of a force is a vector quantity because the direction of a line of action of the
force is specified. In the figure below, if 𝑦 is the distance between the pivot and line of
action of the force 𝐹, then the moment of the force about the pivot is given in equation
(8.18)
𝐻𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝐹 (𝑁)
141
Figure 8.5: Moment of a force
Moment of the force, 𝑀 = 𝐹×𝑦 (𝑁𝑚) (8.18)
A very large turning effect can be produced with a small force provided the distance
from the pivot is large. This explains why it is easier to loosen a tight nut with a long
spanner than with a short one
8.7.2 Principle of moment

This states that provided the system is in equilibrium, the algebraic sum of moments of
all the force about a point is zero i.e, if those forces are in equilibrium, the sum of
clockwise moment about a point (turning point) equates the sum of antic lock wise
moment about the same point.
8.8 Conditions of equilibrium

For a system or body acted upon by several forces to be in equilibrium, there are
necessary conditions to be met. These forces can be parallel or non-parallel.
8.8.1 Under the action of parallel coplanar forces

Forces are said to be coplanar if they all lie in the same plane. The plane could be
vertical, horizontal or inclined plane. In the other hand, parallel forces are those whose
lines of action are parallel to each other.
For a body acted upon by several parallel coplanar forces to be in equilibrium, the
following conditions must hold:
1. The algebraic sum of the moments of all forces about any point on the body must
be zero.
2. The algebraic sum of the forces acting on the body in a given direction must be
zero. That is the sum of forces in one direction must be equal to the sum of
forces in the opposite direction
8.8.2 Under the action of non-parallel coplanar forces

If the forces acting on the body are non-parallel, the conditions are;
1. The algebraic sum of the moments of all forces about any axis perpendicular to
the plane of the forces must be zero.
2. The algebraic sum of resolved components of the forces in any two
perpendicular directions is zero.
142
Example 8.8
A uniform half metre rule is freely pivoted at 15 𝑐𝑚 mark and it balances horizontally
when a body of mass 40 𝑔 is hung from the 2 𝑐𝑚 mark. Draw a clear force diagram of
the arrangement and calculate the mass of the ruler.
Solution
0 2𝑐𝑚 15𝑐𝑚 25𝑐𝑚 50𝑐𝑚
13𝑐𝑚 10𝑐𝑚
40𝑔
𝑀
Let the mass of the ruler be 𝑀

Taking moment about the pivot and applying section (8.4.2)
𝑀×10 = 40×13 ⟹ 𝑀 = 52𝑔
Example 8.9
A non-uniform rod of weight 3𝑁 is 0.6 𝑚 long and it is suspended at it ends by two
strings. If its centre of mass is at 0.4 𝑚 from one end, calculate the tension in each of the
strings.
Solution
𝑃 𝑄
0.4𝑐𝑚 𝐺 0.2𝑐𝑚
3𝑁
Let the tensions on the strings be 𝑃 and 𝑄.

𝑃+𝑄 =3 (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑢𝑚)
Taking moment about 𝐺, 𝑃×0.4 = 𝑄×0.2 ⟹ 3 − 𝑄 0.4 = 0.2𝑄 ⟹ 1.2 − 0.4𝑄 =
0.2𝑄
𝑄 = 2𝑁 but 𝑃 + 𝑄 = 3 ⟹ 𝑃 = 1𝑁
143
8.9 Couple
A couple is a set of two equal forces acting on a body in opposite direction to produce
rotational effect. In couple, the lines of action of the forces do not coincide. Typical
example is the turning on and off of a water tap.
8.9.1 Moment of a couple or Torque

When the two forces produce turning effect, we have moment of a couple which is called
a torque.
𝑻𝒐𝒓𝒒𝒖𝒆 = 𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆×𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒃𝒆𝒕𝒘𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒔
(9.19)
𝐹
𝐹
𝑥
𝑑
𝐹
𝐹
(a) (b)
FIG. 9.5: couples and moments
Example 8.10
Two forces each of magnitude 10 𝑁 act in opposite direction at the end of a table. If the
length of the table is 50 𝑐𝑚, calculate the resultant force and the moment acting on the
table
Solution
Resultant force 𝐹Ì = 10 + −10 = 0
From figure (8.3a) 𝐹 = 10𝑁 and 𝑥 = 50 𝑐𝑚 = 0.5𝑚

Moment of the couple = 𝐹𝑥 = 10×0.5 = 5.0𝑁𝑚
Exercise
1. In order to weigh a boy in the laboratory, a uniform plank of wood 𝐴𝐵, 3.0 𝑚 long
having a mass of 8.0 𝑘𝑔 is pivoted about a point 0.5 𝑚 from 𝐴. The boy stands 0.3 𝑚
fom 𝐴 and a mass of 2 𝑘𝑔 is placed 0.5 𝑚 from 𝐵 in order to balance the plank.
Calculate the mass of the boy. Answer: 60 kg
144
2. It is found that a uniform wooden lath 100 𝑐𝑚 long and of mass 95 𝑔 can be balanced
on a knife edge when a mass of 5.0 𝑔 is hung 10 𝑐𝑚 from one end. How far is the knife
edge from the centre of the lath? Answer: 2.0cm
3. A boy applied couple 𝐹 on the pedals of a bicycle whose wheel has an area of
Ml¡)
𝑐𝑚 ) . Calculate the magnitude of 𝐹 that would give a moment of 180𝑁𝑚. Answer:
l
1000N
9.10 Centre of Mass

If two small objects with masses 𝑚M and 𝑚) , say each of magnitude 1 𝑘𝑔 are connected
by a rod of negligible mass (Figure 7.4). The centre of mass of 𝑚M and 𝑚) is the point 𝑂
midway (1 unit) between them.
3 𝑘𝑔
1 𝑘𝑔 1 𝑘𝑔 1 𝑘𝑔
𝑂 (𝑐. 𝑚. ) 𝑂 (𝑐. 𝑚. )
1 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 3 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑚)
𝑚M 1 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 1 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑚) 𝑚M
(a) (b)
FIG. 9.6: Centre of mass (c.m.)
If the two masses connected together can move, a total of 2 𝑘𝑔 can be considered to
concentrate at the point 𝑂 (Figure 9.6 a). So we can therefore define a centre of mass as
the point where total mass of a system concentrates or tends to concentrate. If we replace
𝑚M by 3 𝑘𝑔 mass, the centre of mass 𝑂 will now shift nearer to 𝑚M . Intuitionally, the
ratio of their separations, 𝑂𝑚M : 𝑂𝑚) = 1: 3 (Figure 9.6b). We can see from the above
figures that 𝑚M ∶ 𝑚) = 𝑂𝑚) ∶ 𝑂𝑚M
8.11 Centre of Gravity
If 5𝑘𝑔 and 2𝑘𝑔 loads are respectively suspended at 1 𝑐𝑚 and 99 𝑐𝑚 marks of a metre
rule which is balanced on a knife edge at 𝑂 (Figure 7.5). The moment about the hinge
(turning point) 𝑂 of the weight 5𝑔 of the 5𝑘𝑔 load will counterbalance exactly, the
moment of the weight 2𝑔 of the 2 𝑘𝑔 load about the same hinge horizontally. Since, the
total weight of the load concentrates at the point 𝑂, the point is called the centre of
gravity.
The centre of gravity is the point where the resultant weight of two masses acts or tends
to act.
5 𝑘𝑔 𝑂 (𝑐. 𝑔) 2 𝑘𝑔
5𝑔 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 2𝑔 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
FIG. 8.7: Centre of gravity (c.g.)
145
8.11.1 The position of Centre of mass and centre of gravity
Uniform rod: If mass per unit length of a uniform rod AB is the same throughout the
entire length, the centre of mass is at the mid-point of the rod.
Uniform disc and uniform ring: The centre of mass is at the centre of the ring
Uniform square: The centre of mass is located at the mid-point of the square sheet.
Triangular uniform lamina: Then centre of gravity and mass is located at the point of
)
intersection of the medians, 𝐴𝐺 = 𝐴𝐵
Y
𝐴
𝐺 𝐺 𝐺
𝐺
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐 𝑅𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑡 𝐵

𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟
𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎
𝐺
𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟
FIG. 8.8: Positions of 𝑐. 𝑚. and 𝑐. 𝑔. 𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎
8.12 Stability and centre of gravity

Centre of gravity is the factor that determines the stability of a body. The concept of
stability and equilibrium here will be restricted to a body with respect to the direction of
the turning moments exerted by the force of gravity on it when it is given a slight
displacement. There are principally three types of stability or equilibrium of an object;
stable, unstable and neutral equilibrium.
𝐹
𝐹
𝐺 𝐺 𝐺
𝐺 𝐹
𝐺
(a) (b) (c)

FIG. 8.9: Types of stability
146
8.12.1 Stable equilibrium/stability
A body is said to attain stable equilibrium is it is able to regain its original position after
a slight thrust must have been given to it by a small force, 𝐹 to undergo a small
displacement (Figure 9.9a). This is because the location of the centre of gravity, G is still
within the base of the object.
8.12.2 Unstable stability

When a body is unable to regain its original position after a slight thrust had been given
to it by a small force, F the body is said to be in unstable stability (Figure 9.9b). Due to
the fact that the position of acceleration due to gravity (the centre of gravity) has fallen
outside the base of the object, it then falls.
8.12.3 Neutral stability

There are some objects that that the displacement by a force does not affect the position
of the centre of gravity. This is principally cause by the nature of the object (Figure
9.9c). Examples of such stability can be seen in a ball, cylindrical object such as drums.
8.13 Introduction to Rocket Propulsion

Rocket range in size from firework so small that ordinary people use them to immense
Saturn Vs the once propelled massive payloads toward the moon. The propulsion of all
rockets, jet engines, deflating balloons, and even squids and octopuses is explained by
the same physical principle – Newton’s Third law of motion. Matter is forcefully ejected
from a system, producing an equal and opposite reaction on what remains. Another
common example is the recoil of a gun. The gun exerts a force on a bullet to accelerate it
and consequently experiences an equal and opposite force, causing the gun’s recoil or
kick.
Consider a rocket of mass m and a velocity v relative to the earth, whose momentum is
mv. After a time Δt , the rocket ejects a mass Δm of hot gas at a velocity Ve relative to
the rocket. The remainder of the mass (m- Δm ) now has a greater velocity (v + Δv ). The
momentum of the entire system (rocket plus expelled gas) has actually decrease because
the force of gravity has acted for a time Δt , producing a negative impulse Δp = −mgΔt
. So, the centre of mass of the system is in free fall but, by rapidly expelling mass, part of
the system can accelerate upward. By calculating the change in momentum for the entire
system over Δt , and equating this change to the impulse, we obtain the acceleration of
the rocket.
Δp
The external force Fnet = −mg , and = −mg
Δt
147
mdv dm
Fnet = + Ve 8.20
dt dt
mdv dm
− mg = + Ve 8.21
dt dt
mdv dm
= −mg − Ve 8.22
dt dt
dv dm
= − g − Ve 8.23
dt dt
dm
a = −Ve −g 8.24
dt
Eqn. (8.24) is the acceleration of the rocket
To achieve the high speeds needed to hop continents, obtain orbit, or escape earth’s
gravity altogether, the mass of the rocket other than fuel must be as small as possible. It
can be shown that in the absence of air resistance and neglecting gravity, the final
velocity of a one-stage rocket is initially at rest is obtained by integrating Eqn (9.23).
⎡M ⎤
V = Ve In ⎢ o ⎥
⎣Mr ⎦
Where Mo is the initial mass of the rocket and Mr is the final mass of the rocket after all
of the fuel is exhausted.
QUESTIONS
1. (a) Calculate the momentum of a 110Kg football player running at 8.00m/s
(b) Compare the player’s momentum with the momentum of a hard-thrown
0.50kg football that has a speed of 20.0m/s
2. During the 2007 French open, Venus Williams hit the fasted recorded serve in a
Premier women’s match reading a speed of 58m/s. What is the average force
exerted on the 0.057kg tennis bass by Venus Williams’ racquets, assuming that
the ball’s speed just after impact is 58m/s, that the initial horizontal component
of the velocity before impact is negligible, and that the ball remained in contact
with the racquet for 5.0m/?
3. A car moving at 10m/s crashes into a tree and stops on 0.26s. Calculate the force
the seat belt exerts on a passenger in the car to bring him to a halt. The mass of
the passenger is 70Kg.
4. What is the velocity of a 900kg car initially moving at 30.0m/s, just after it hits a
150kg deer initially running at 12.0m/s in the same direction? Assume the deer
remains on the car.
5. A 0.240kg billiard ball that is moving at 3.00m/s strikes the bumper of a pool
table and bounces straight back at 2.40m/s. The collision lasts 0.0150s.
148
(a) Calculate the average force exerted on the ball by the bumper
(b) How much kinetic energy in joules is lost during the collision.
(c) What percentage of the original energy is left?
6. What is the acceleration of a 5000kg rocket taking off from the moon, where the
acceleration due to gravity is only 1.6m/s2, if the rocket expels 8.00kg of gas per
second at an exhaust velocity 2.20 x 103m/s.
149
SECTION 2
THERMAL PHYSICS
150
CHAPTER ONE
TEMPERATURE AND STATES OF MATTER
1.1 Temperature and states of matter

Temperature is a measure of how hot or cold a body is or it is the degree of hotness or
coldness of a body. It is measured by means of a Thermometer. Temperature and Heat
should never be confused as the same for the following reasons:
- Heat refers to a body's total internal energy, whereas temperature refers to the
energy of molecules moving or the average kinetic energy of particles.
- Temperature is a measure of how hot or cold a body is while the addition or
subtraction of heat causes change in the temperature except for change of state
(melting, freezing, vaporization or condensation).
- Heat depends on the mass of a body and its nature, unlike temperature. However,
temperature is connected to the amount of heat in something, but it is not the
same as heat.
- Temperature is important in making heat flow from one place to another. Heat
flows from a region of high temperature to a region of low temperature.
Matter can exist in three states: solid, liquid, and gaseous, with the state of a substance
largely influenced by its temperature. A phase change occurs when a temperature
threshold unique to each substance in the universe is crossed, changing the state of the
matter. The fundamental determinant of a substance's phase under constant pressure is
temperature (since pressure has an effect on phase change).
Molecular motion slows down at low temperatures, and things have less intrinsic or
internal energy. Solid matter is characterized by atoms settling into low energy states
relative to one another and moving very little or not at all. As the temperature rises, more
heat energy is transferred to the solid's constituent parts, causing more molecular
mobility or motion. Molecules begin to push against one another and the overall volume
of a substance increases. At this point, the matter has entered the liquid state. When
molecules have absorbed so much heat energy from rising temperatures that they are free
to move around at fast speeds, they are said to be in a gaseous state.
The phase change threshold is the point at which matter subjected to a specific
temperature under constant pressure begins to change its phase. Every bit of the
substance exposed to the heat will alter its state at this temperature. The melting point
marks the transition from a solid to a liquid, and the boiling point marks the transfer from
a liquid to a gas. The condensation point, on the other hand, marks the transition from a
gas to a liquid, while the freezing point marks the transition from a liquid to a solid.
151
If the temperature a substance is exposed to is rapidly changed, the substance may
experience phase transition from a solid to a gas or from a gas to a solid. When the
temperature around a solid is rapidly elevated, it can sublimate, or change state from
solid to gas without becoming a liquid. On the contrary, a gas that is quickly super
cooled can undergo deposition completely. However, aside temperature the nature of the
substance could determine whether sublimation or deposition takes place.
1.2 Zeroth Law

The Zeroth law of thermodynamics says, if a system A and B are each in thermal
equilibrium with a system C, then A and B are in a thermal equilibrium with each other.
Example, if you want to know the temperature of a cup of hot coffee, you immerse a
thermometer in the coffee: as the two interact, the thermometer becomes hotter and the
coffee cools off a little. After the thermometer settles down to a steady value, the system
has reached an equilibrium condition, in which the interaction between the thermometer
and the coffee causes no further change in the system. This state is called thermal
equilibrium. Two systems are in thermal equilibrium, if they share the same temperature.
Worked Example
Three substances are in added to a mug to make coffee: the coffee, which is 65℃, the
milk, which is 65℃, and sugar, which is in thermal equilibrium with the coffee. Describe
the thermal state of the sugar.
Solution
The sugar is in thermal equilibrium with the milk, based on the Zeroth law of
thermodynamics.
The explanation is that the Zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if two objects are in
thermodynamic equilibrium with a third object, then they must be in thermodynamic
equilibrium with each other. In this question, the coffee is in equilibrium with both the
milk and sugar, allowing us to conclude that the milk and sugar must be in equilibrium
with each other.
1.3 Measurement of Temperature

Temperature is measured by means of a thermometer. The instrument makes use of the
physical property that changes with temperature; e.g. the expansion or increase in
volume of a liquid when heated. We use this instrument instead of our sense of touch
because our sense of touch is not reliable.
1.3.1 Thermometer and Their Thermometric Substances
Thermometers use some physical property of a substance which changes in proportion
with temperature changes. Such substances are called thermometric substances. Table 1
shows some thermometers and their thermometric substances with their thermometric
properties.
152
Table 1.3.1: Types of thermometers and their thermometric substances with
properties
Type of thermometer Thermometric Thermometric property
substance
Liquid in glass Mercury/Alcohol Increase in volume which increases

thermometer in temperature.
Gas thermometer Gases Increase in the pressure of a gas at

constant volume with increase in
temperature.
Thermo-electric Metal e.g. an Current flowing in a circuit when

thermometer amalgam of the junction of two different metals
constantan and are heated
copper wire
Resistance thermometer Metal e.g. Increase in the resistance of a

copper wire, metallic wire or conductor when it
constantan wire is heated.
etc., others are,
Germanium
crystal or carbon
cylinder.
1.3.2 Fixed Properties of Thermometers

When preparing a scale for reading temperatures, two references of temperature are
chosen. The two reference temperatures are called the fixed temperatures or fixed points.
The higher reference temperature is called the upper fixed point and the lower reference
temperature is called the lower fixed point.
- The upper fixed point (also called the steam point) is the temperature of steam
from pure water boiling at normal atmospheric pressure.
- The lower fixed point (also called the ice point) is the temperature of a mixture
of pure ice and water at normal atmospheric pressure.
-
1.3.3 Scales of Temperature
The following are the commonly used scales of temperature:
The Centigrade scale has its unit as, 0C (degree Centigrade/Celsius). The lower and
upper fixed points are 00C and 1000C respectively. It is often called the Celsius scale.
This is commonly used in scientific work. The Kelvin scale has its unit as, K (Kelvin).
The lower fixed and upper fixed points are 273K and 373 K respectively. Kelvin is
related to the degree Centigrade/Celsius as shown in equation. 1.1
153
K = 273.15 + ℃. 1.1
0
The Fahrenheit scale has its unit as, F (degree Fahrenheit). The ice and steam points are
320F and 2120F respectively. Equations 2.3.3.2 and 2.3.3.3 show the relationship
between the degree Fahrenheit and degree Centigrade/Celsius.
¦
℉ = ℃ + 32 1.3
o
OR
¦
℃= (℉ + 32) 1.4
o
Worked Example
The ice and steam points of a certain thermometer are found to be 20cm apart. What
temperature is recorded in degree Celsius (0C) when the length of the mercury thread is
5cm above the ice point mark?
Solution
ëì îï
=
íì ðï
)^ M^^ ¡ ò M^^
= ⇒ ?℃ = = 40℃
¡ ?℃ )^
1.3.4 Why is Water not used in a Liquid-In-Gas-Thermometer?

1. It does not expand uniformly.
2. It freezes at 0C and boils at 1000C; hence it has a small range of expansion.
3. The meniscus in the glass is difficult to read, since water is colourless and wets
glass.
154
1.3.5 Comparison of Mercury and Alcohol as Thermometric Liquids
Table 2.3.5 shows the comparison of mercury and alcohol as thermometric liquids.
Table 2.3.5: The comparison of mercury and alcohol as thermometric liquid

Advantages Disadvantages
Mercury boils at 3750C and can be used Alcohol boils at 780C and cannot be
to measure high temperatures. used to measure high temperatures.
Alcohol freezes at -1150C, hence can be Mercury freezes at -390C. cannot be

used for measuring very low used for measuring very low
temperatures. temperatures.
Alcohol has high expansivity about 6 Mercury has low expansivity.

times that of mercury.
Mercury is not easily vaporized. Alcohol easily vaporizes.
Mercury does not wet glass. Alcohol wets glass.
Mercury has much greater conductivity Alcohol has poor conductivity and
than alcohol, hence responds more responds slowly to temperature changes.
rapidly to temperature changes.
Mercury is opaque due to its silvery Alcohol is not easily seen; it must be
surface which makes it easily seen. coloured.
155
CHAPTER TWO
THERMAL EXPANSION OF SOLIDS, LIQUIDS AND GASSES
2.1 Linear Expansivity (∝)

This is defined as the increase in length per unit length for each degree rise in
temperature.
óÏôõö÷Íö ÎÏ øöÏùúû
Mathematically ∝ = 2.1
üõÎùÎÏ÷ø øöÏùúû ò úöýþöõ÷úÿõö õÎÍö
∆!
∝= 2.2
!¯ ∆"
!H h !¯
∝=
!¯ ("H h "¯ )
1.7
From the equation 2.4.1.3: L) − LM = ∝ LM (θ) − θM ) 1.8
∆𝐿 = ∝ LM ∆θ 1.9
Where; L) is final length of substance (mainly solid) at a final temperature, θ)
LM is original length of substance (mainly solid) at an initial temperature, θM
θ) - θM is temperature rise and
L) − LM (∆𝐿) is expansion or increase in length

Units of ∝ are K-1 (SI unit) or ℃-1
Linear expansivity is also called the coefficient of linear expansivity or length
expansivity.
Worked Example
An iron rod has length 50m when the temperature is 200C. By how much will it expand
when the temperature rises to 300C? Take ∝ to be 0.000012k-1.
Solution
∝ = 0.000012𝐾 hM
𝐿M = 𝐿)^ = 50𝑚
𝐿) = 𝐿Y^ = ?
𝐿Y^ – 𝐿)^
∴∝=
𝐿)^ (30 − 20)
∴ 𝐿Y^ – 𝐿)^ = ∆𝐿 = ∝ (30 − 20)
= 0.000012 x 50 x 10
= 0.0060𝑚
156
2.2 Area Expansivity
Area Expansivity (β) can be defined as increase in area per unit area for each degree
rise in temperature.
ëH h ë¯ ∆ë
Mathematically, β = = 2.3
ë¯ ("H h "¯ ) ë¯ ∆"
From the equation 2.4.2.1: A2 = A1 (1+β∆θ) 2.4

Also: β = 2 ∝ (Area expansivity is two times linear expansivity)
Where; A ) is final area of substance (mainly solid or liquid) at a final temperature, θ)

AM is original area of substance (mainly solid or liquid) at an initial temperature,
θM
A ) − AM (∆A) is expansion or increase in area
Units of β are K-1 (SI unit) or ℃-1
Area expansivity is also called superficial expansivity.

Worked Example
The coefficient of linear expansivity of a metal is 0.000019 per K. what will the area of
400mm2 become if its temperature is raised by 10K?
Solution
The new area A2 = A1 (1 + ∆βθ)
β = area expansivity
A2 = A1 (1 + 2∝ ∆θ) since β = 2∝
∴ A2 = 400 (1 + 2 x 19 x 10-6 x 10)

= 400 (1 + 39 x 10-5)
= 400.152mm2
2.3 Volume Expansivity
Volume expansivity (γ) is defined as increase in volume per unit volume for each
degree rise in temperature. Hence, real volume expansivity γõ is defined as increase in
volume per unit volume for each degree rise in temperature.
*H h *¯ ∆*
Mathematically, γõ = = 2.5
*¯ ("H h "¯ ) *¯ ∆"
From the equation 2.4.3.1: V) = VM (1 + γõ ∆θ) 2.6
157
Also: γõ = 3∝ (Volume expansivity is three times linear expansivity)
Where; V) is final volume of substance (solid or liquid or gas) at a final temperature, θ)
VM is original area of substance (solid or liquid or gas) at an initial temperature, θM
V) − VM is expansion or increase in volume
Units of γõ are K-1 (SI unit) or ℃-1
Volume expansivity is also called Cubic expansivity.

The apparent volume or cubic expansivity is defined as the increase in volume per unit
volume per unit rise in temperature when the liquid is heated in an expansible vessel and
it is denoted by γ÷ . Real volume or cubic expansivity and Apparent volume or cubic
expansivity are related by the equation 2.7
γõ = γ÷ + γ 2.7
Real cubic expansivity = Apparent cubic expansivity + Cubic expansivity (γ) of the
vessel containing it.
γõ > γ÷ because γ÷ depends on the cubic expansivity of the material of the vessel.
Apparent cubic expansivity (γ÷ ) is given by
*,øÿýö ,- øÎ.ÿÎ/ öòþöøøö/
γ÷ = 2.8
*,øÿýö ,- øÎ.ÿÎ/ õöý÷ÎÏÎÏù×0öýþöõ÷ÿõö õÎÍö
Since the masses are proportional to the volumes of the liquid, we have:
1÷ÍÍ ,- øÎ.ÿÎ/ öòþöøøö/
γ÷ = 2.9
1÷ÍÍ ,- øÎ.ÿÎ/ õöý÷ÎÏÎÏù×0öýþöõ÷ÿõö õÎÍö
Worked Example
An iron cube has each edge 15cm long at 20℃. What will be the volume when the
temperature rises to 80℃.
Solution
Volume of iron cube at 20℃ = 𝑉M = 15×15×15 = 3375𝑐𝑚 Y
Coefficient of cubic expansivity, 𝛾 = 3 = 3×1.2×10ho = 3.6 ×10ho K hM
∴ Volume at 80℃ = 𝑉) = 𝑉M 1 + 𝛾∆𝜃 = 3375 1 + 3.6 ×10ho ×60 = 3382.29𝑐𝑚 Y
Worked Example
A density bottle holds 250g of liquid at 30℃ and only 248.5g at 60. Find
a. The apparent and
158
b. The real cubic expansivity of the liquid, if the linear expansivity of the material
of the bottle is 𝛼• = 0.000006𝐾 hM
Solution
Mass of liquid expelled
γ÷ =
Mass of liquid remaining×Temperaure rise
250.0 − 248.5
=
248.5(60 − 30)
1.50
=
248.5×30
= 0.0002012K hM
γõ = γ÷ + γ = γ÷ + 3𝛼• Where 𝛼• = 0.000006𝐾 hM
γõ = 0.0002012 + 3× 0.000006 = 0.0002192𝐾 hM
2.4 Thermal Expansion of Water

Water between 00C to 40C decreases in volume with increase in temperature: within this
range of temperature, the coefficient of volume expansion is negative. On the contrary,
above 40C, water expands when heated or the temperature is raised. Thus, water is said
to have its maximum density at 40C. More so, water expands when it freezes unlike most
materials that contract when they freeze. The phenomenon above is anomalous behavior
of water.
Fig. 2.1 Anomalous expansion of water

This behavior of water plays a significant role on for the survival of plant and animal life
in lakes around the polar region. Above 40C, cooled water flows from the surface to the
bottom due to high density of the cooled water. However, when the temperature falls
below 40C, the water at the surface is less dense than the warmer water at the bottom.
Thus, as the surface temperature of a lake approaches freezing point, ice floats on the
surface of the water due to its lower density.
159
CHAPTER THREE
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES
3.1 Introduction
This is a theory based on a simplified molecular or particle description of a gas from
which many gross properties of the gas can be derived. The British James Clerk Maxwell
and the Austrian Physicist Ludwig Boltzmann in the 19th century led in establishing the
theory, which became one of the most important concepts in modern science.
The simplest kinetic model of gases is based on the assumptions or postulates
that:
1. The gas is composed of large number of identical molecules moving in random
directions, separated by distances that are large compared with their size. Thus,
the volume occupied by the molecules of the gas is negligible compared to the
volume of the gas itself.
2. The molecules undergo perfectly elastic collisions (no energy or kinetic energy
loss) with each other and with walls of the container.
3. The molecules of an ideal gas exert no attractive forces on each other, or on the
walls of the container.
4. The average kinetic energy of the gas molecules is directly proportional to the
absolute temperature. That is, the transfer of kinetic energy between molecules is
heat.
5. Molecules are in constant random motion, and as material bodies, they obey
Newton's laws of motion. This means that the molecules move in straight lines
until they collide with each other or with the walls of the container.
These simplifying assumptions or postulates bring the characteristics of gases within the
range of mathematical treatment. However, the above assumptions or postulates describe
an ideal gas. There are two notable situations in which the behavior of real gases deviates
from the above model:
1. At high pressures where the volume occupied by gas molecules does not
approach zero.
2. At low temperatures where the contribution of intermolecular forces becomes
significant.
3.
3.2 Microscopic Origin of Pressure
Pressure is explained by kinetic theory as arising from the force exerted by molecules or
atoms striking the walls of a container. Consider a gas of N molecules, each of mass m,
enclosed in a cubical container of volume V=L3. When a gas molecule collides with the
wall of the container perpendicular to the x coordinate axis and bounces off in the
opposite direction with the same speed (an elastic collision), then the change in
momentum (Δp) of the particle is:
160
∇𝑃 = 𝑃†; 4 − 𝑃= ; 4 = 𝑚𝑣4 − −𝑚𝑣4 = 2𝑚𝑣4
3.1
Note, vx is the x-component of the initial velocity of the particle.
The particle impacts one specific side wall once every ∆𝑡 = 2𝐿 𝑣4
Note, L is the distance between opposite walls
Thus, the force due to this particle is,
∆j )ƒW2 ƒW2 H
𝐹= = = 3.2
∆• )? W2 ?
Since there are N number of the molecules of the gas, therefor the total force on the wall
of the container due to the particles is,
@ƒW2 H
𝐹= 3.3
?
The bar denotes an average squared-velocity over the N particles. Since the assumption
is that the particles move in random directions, if we divide the velocity vectors of all
particles in three mutually perpendicular directions, the average value of the squared
velocity along each direction must be same. This does not mean that each particle always
travels in 45 degrees to the coordinate axes.
WH
This gives 𝑣4 ) = 3.4
Y
@ƒW H
We can rewrite the force as 𝐹 =
Y?
3.5
This force is exerted on an area L2.
Therefore, the pressure of the gas is,

š š @ƒW H Y? @ƒW H @ƒW H •ƒW H
𝑃= = = = = = 3.6
1 ?H ?H Y? ¸ Y« Y
3
V = L is the volume of the box.
The fraction n = N/V, is the number density of the gas. This above equation is the first
non-trivial result of the kinetic theory because it relates pressure (a macroscopic
property) to the average (translational) kinetic energy per molecule which is a
microscopic property.
3.3 Microscopic Origin of Temperature

Temperature is directly proportional to the average translational kinetic energy of
molecules in an ideal gas. This implies, hotter air suggests faster movement of air
molecules. We have seen from the “microscopic origin of Pressure” that, for an ideal gas
under kinetic theory of gas assumptions:
@ƒW H
𝑃= 3.7
Y«
P is the pressure, N is the number of molecules, m is the mass of the molecule, v is the
speed of molecules, and V is the volume of the gas. From the equation 3.8
161
•ƒW H @ƒW H
𝑃𝑉 = ×𝑉 = = 1 3 𝑁𝑚𝑣 ) 3.8
Y« Y
We can derive a relationship between temperature and the average translational kinetic
energy of molecules in a gas. Recall the macroscopic expression of the ideal gas law:
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑁𝐾𝑇 3.9
N is the number of molecules, T is the temperature of the gas, and k is the
Boltzmann constant.
Equating the right-hand sides of the equation 3.8 and equation 3.9 gives
1 𝑁𝑚𝑣 ) = 𝑁𝐾𝑇 3.10
3
1 𝑚𝑣 ) = 𝐾𝑇 3.11
3
3.4 Thermal Energy
The average kinetic energy (KE) of a molecule in the gas is,
𝐾𝐸 = 1 2 𝑚𝑣 ) 3.12
From equation 2.5.2.4
1 )
3 𝑚𝑣 = 𝐾𝑇 3.13
Thus, 𝑚𝑣 ) = 3𝐾𝑇 3.14
From the equation 3.12, thus we derive the relation between average KE and temperature
as follows:
𝐾𝐸 = 1 2 𝑚𝑣 ) = 1 2 3𝐾𝑇 = 3 2 𝐾𝑇 3.14
∴ 𝐾𝐸 = 3 2 𝐾𝑇 3.16
The average translational kinetic energy of a molecule is simply called thermal energy.
3.5 RSM Speed

The average speed of molecules in a gas in terms of temperature can be derived from
equation 2.3.
𝟑𝑲𝑻
𝒗𝟐 = 𝒗𝑹𝑴𝑺 = 2.17
𝒎
162
𝒗𝑹𝑴𝑺 stands for Root-Mean-Square (𝒗𝑹𝑴𝑺 ) speed or velocity.
3.6 Internal Energy of an Ideal Gas

Internal energy is the total energy contained by a thermodynamic system, and has two
major components: kinetic energy and potential energy. The kinetic energy is due to the
motion of the system’s particles. In ideal gases, there is no inter-molecular interaction.
Thus, we will disregard potential energy and only focus on the kinetic energy
contribution to the internal energy.
The average kinetic energy (KE) of a particle in an ideal gas is given as:
𝐾𝐸 = 1 2 𝑚𝑣 ) = 3 2 𝐾𝑇 2.18
K is the Boltzmann’s constant.
With N atoms in the gas, its total internal energy U is given as:
𝐾𝐸 = 3 2 𝑁𝐾𝑇 2.19
N is the number of atoms in the gas.
Note that there are three (3) degrees of freedom in monatomic gases: translation in x, y
and z directions. Since atomic motion is random (and therefore isotropic), each degrees
of freedom contribute 1/2kT per atom to the internal energy.
A diatomic molecule possesses five (5) degrees of freedom (3 for translation in
x, y and z directions, and 2 for rotation). Therefore, the internal energy for diatomic
gases is:
𝐾𝐸 = 5 2 𝑁𝐾𝑇 2.20
3.6 Intermolecular Forces and the Limitations of the Ideal Gas Law
The following are the limitations of the Ideal Gas Law.
1. Gas particles have less kinetic energy at low temperatures, so they travel more
slowly; at slower speeds, they are far more likely to interact (attract or repel)
when they collide. These interactions are not taken into consideration by the
Ideal Gas Law.
2. Gas particles are driven into close proximity with one another at high pressures,
resulting in substantial intermolecular interactions.
3. As the weight of individual gas molecules grows, instantaneous dipole forces
tend to increase, because the number of electrons within each gas molecule tends
to increase as well. Because there are more electrons, when two gas molecules
meet or converge, the electron clouds around each nucleus reject one another,
163
forming an "instantaneous dipole" (a separation of charge resulting in a partial
positive and partial negative charge across the molecule). The dipoles can then
induce other dipoles in nearby molecules, and the molecules' opposite charges
can attract one another. These attractive forces can become significant at high
pressures and low temperatures.
3.7 The Van-der Waals Equation

The ideal gas equation is given thus,
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
P is the pressure, V is the volume, R is the universal gas constant, T is the

absolute temperature and n is number of moles of molecules or particles. The above
equation is applicable to real gases only at low pressure and hight temperature.
The Ideal Gas Law is based on the assumptions that gases are composed of point
masses that undergo perfectly elastic collisions. However, real gases deviate from those
assumptions at low temperatures or high pressures. Imagine a container where the
pressure is increased. As the pressure increases, the volume of the container
decreases. The volume occupied by the gas particles is no longer negligible compared to
the volume of the container and the volume of the gas particles needs to be taken into
account. At low temperatures, the gas particles have lower kinetic energy and do not
move as fast. The gas particles are affected by the intermolecular forces acting on them,
which leads to inelastic collisions between them. This leads to fewer collisions with the
container and a lower pressure than what is expected from an ideal gas.
The Van-der Waals Equation models the non-ideal behavior of real gases at
high pressures and low temperatures. This equation of state is presented as:
€•H
𝑃+ 𝑉 − 𝑛𝑏 = 𝑁𝑅𝑇 3.21
WH
P is the pressure, V is the volume, R is the universal gas constant, T is the absolute
temperature and N is number of molecules. The constants a and b represent the
magnitude of intermolecular attraction and excluded volume respectively. a and b have
positive values and are specific to each gas. The term involving the constant a corrects
for intermolecular attraction. Attractive forces between molecules decrease the pressure
of a real gas, slowing the molecules and reducing collisions with the walls.
• The higher the value of a, the greater the attraction between molecules and the
more easily the gas will compress.
• The b term represents the excluded volume of the gas or the volume occupied by
the gas particles.
Notice that the van der Waals equation becomes the ideal gas law (or equation)
as these two correction terms approach zero. The van der Waals model offers a
164
reasonable approximation for real gases at moderately high pressures. Additional models
have been subsequently introduced to more accurately predict the behavior of non-ideal
gases.
Worked Example
Determine the root – mean – square speed of the molecules of carbon (iv) oxide at 273K.
Take the density of hydrogen at STP to be 𝜌 = 9.0 𝑥 10h) kg𝑚 hY and pressure, =
1.01 𝑥 10o 𝑁𝑚 h) .
Solution
3𝑅𝑇
𝑉ƒ•~ = 𝐶) =
𝑀
3𝑃𝑉 3𝑃
= =
𝑀 𝜌
Since RT = PV and V/M = 1/ρ
3 𝑥 1.01 × 10o
=
9.0 × 10ho
= 1.84 × 10Y 𝑚𝑠 hM
Worked Example
Calculate the root – mean – square speed of an oxygen molecule at 00C. Take the
molecular mass of oxygen 𝑀 = 32 × 10h) kg.
Solution
3𝑅𝑇
𝑉ƒ•~ = 𝐶) =
𝑀
3 × 8.314 × 273
=
32 × 10h)
= 257.9 𝑚𝑠 hM
Worked Example
Calculate the kinetic energy of translation of a molecule of nitrogen gas at STP moving
with the most probable speed. At STP T = 273℃, P = 1.013 × 10o and V =
22.4 𝑥 10hY 𝑚 Y .
Solution
165
3𝑃𝑉
𝑉ƒ•~ = 𝐶) =
𝑀
3 × 1.013 × 10o ×22.4 𝑥 10hY

=
28 × 10h)
= 294.7 𝑚𝑠 hM
But maximum speed Vm is related to root – mean –square speed Vm by the relation
𝑉ƒ = 2
3 𝑉™ƒ~
𝑉ƒ = 0.817𝑉™ƒ~
Therefore,
𝑉ƒ = 0.817 × 294.7
= 240.8 𝑚𝑠 hM
Mean of one nitrogen molecule
28
𝑚= 𝑔
6.02 x 10)Y
= 4.65 x 10h)x 𝐾𝑔
Kinetic energy associated with a nitrogen molecule moving with maximum speed is
1
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑉ƒ)
2
1
= × 4.65 x 10h)x × 403)
2
= 3.78 𝑥 10h)M 𝐽
3.78 𝑥 10h)M
= = 0.0236 eV
1.60 x 10h)M
Worked Example
Calculate the average kinetic energy of the molecules of a gas at 1000C?
Solution
Absolute temperature corresponding to 1000C = 373K. Average kinetic energy at this
temperature is thus;
3
𝐾𝐸 = 𝐾𝑇
2
3
= × 1.38 x 10h)Y × 373
2
= 7.72 ×10h)M 𝐽
Worked Example
What is the average velocity of the molecules in a sample of oxygen at 1000C? The mean
mass of an oxygen molecule is 5.3 × 10h)x 𝑘𝑔.
Solution
166
1 )
3
𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚𝑉1W• = 𝐾𝑇
2 2
3𝐾𝑇
𝑉1W• =
𝑚
3𝐾𝑇 3 × 1.38 x 10h)Y ×373

𝑉1W• = =
𝑚 5.3 ×10h)x
= 540𝑚𝑠 hM
Worked Example
Carbon dioxide gas (1.00 mole) at 373 K occupies 536 mL at 50.0 atmosphere pressure.
What is the calculated value of the pressure using (i) Ideal gas equation (ii) Van der
Waals equation? [Data - Van der Waals constants for carbon dioxide: a = 3.61 L2 atm.
mol-2; b = 0.0428 L mol-1] Calculate the % deviation of each value from that observed.
167
CHAPTER FOUR
HAET TRANSFER AND THERMODYNAMICS
4.1 The Concept of Heat

Heat refers to energy in transit from one body or system to another because of a
temperature difference. Heat can do work, for example through expansion of steam in a
steam engine. Heat is therefore a form of energy called heat or thermal energy. Addition
and subtraction of heat from a body increases and reduces the temperature of a body,
except in the event of a change of state.
The total energy stored in the particles of a body is called Internal energy. The internal
energy of a body is a measure of the kinetic energy due to the random motion of the
particles and the potential energy due to the interactive forces among the particles. Recall
that temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of particles. When a body is
heated up, its particles gain more kinetic energy and hence, its internal energy increases.
A change in state will also result in a change in internal energy. When a liquid is
changed to gas, for example, the separation of its particles is increased greatly, leading to
an increase in potential energy of the particles. Thus the internal energy of the object also
increases. We cannot measure the internal energy of a body directly. What we can
measure is its change in internal energy. This may be equal to the amount of heat
transferred to the body in the process of heating, or the energy supplied to the body in the
process of fusion or vaporization. Both heat and internal energy are measured in Joule
(J).
4.2 Specific Heat Capacity of a Material

The specific heat capacity of a substance is the quantity of heat required to raise the
temperature of a unit mass (1kg) of the substance through a unit temperature (10C or 1k).
It is observed experimentally that the quantity of heat (Q) received by a body is
proportional to its mass (m), and temperature change (θ) − θM ) and also depend on the
nature of the material making up the body.
Q ∝m (θ) − θM ) 4.1
Q = c m (θ) − θM ) Joules (J) 2.6.1.2

H
c = 2.6.1.3
ý "H h "¯
Unit of c = Jkg-1K-1
c = specific heat capacity
When m = 1kg, (θ) − θM ) = 1k then c = Q (Definition of specific Heat capacity)
168
If we consider the entire mass of a body instead of 1kg, and we raise its
temperature by 1K, so that θ) − θM = 1k, then the quantity of heat C ⇒ Q = cm. This
quantity is called the heat capacity of the body.
Therefore, the heat capacity of a body is the heat required to raise the temperature of a
body of a given mass through 1k. The unit is (J/K).
Heat capacity = Specific heat capacity x Mass of the body
Q=cm
Quantity of heat = Heat capacity x Temperature rise
Q = c m ∆θ but, c m = C
⇒ Q = C∆θ
Worked Example
Calculate the heat required to raise the temperature of 10kg of brass by 10k. c = 380J/Kg
k for brass.
Solution
Q = C∆θ ; But C = c mQ = c m ∆θ
= 380 x 10 x 10
= 38000J or 38KJ
4.3 Calorimetry and Phase Changes
Calorimetry is a Greek word which means measuring of heat. A calorimeter is a
container used in measuring the quantity of heat possessed by a body. The most common
method employed in calorimeter experiments is known as the method of mixtures (others
are heat flow and mechanical methods). In the method of mixture hot substances are
missed with cold substances until they reach equilibrium (the same temperature), and we
can then say.
Heat lost by hot substances = heat gained by cold substances 4.2
This is true only when no heat is lost to the surroundings. Losses are possible by
conduction, convection, radiation and evaporation. Heat losses by conduction and
radiation are reduced considerably by insulating the calorimeter with a poor conductor of
heat such as cotton wool. The losses due to convection and evaporation are reduced by
providing the calorimeter with a lid. The process of reducing heat losses is called
lagging. The electrical method is another common method employed in calorimeter
experiments.
169
We use the term phase to describe a specific state of matter, such as a solid, liquid or gas.
A transition from one phase to another is called a phase change or phase transition. For
any given pressure, a phase change takes place at a definite temperature, usually
accompanied by absorption or emission of heat and a change of volume and density. The
graph of temperature versus time for a specimen of water initially in the solid phase (ice)
is shown below. Heat is added to the specimen at a constant rate. The temperature
remains constant during each change of phase, provided that the pressure remains
constant.
Fig. 4.1: The graph of temperature versus time for a specimen of water initially in the
solid phase (ice).
Know these terms: fusion or melting (conversion from gas to liquid); vaporization
(conversion from liquid to gas); condensation (conversion from gas to liquid); freezing
or solidification (conversion from liquid to solid), deposition (conversion from gas to
solid without an intermediate liquid phase) and sublimation (conversion from solid to gas
without an intermediate liquid phase – the reverse of sublimation).
Worked Example on Calorimetry (Mixture Method)

In an experiment to determine the specific heat capacity of solid, the following
measurements were made: Mass of calorimeter = 40g = 0.04kg; Mass of calorimeter +
water = 0.24kg; Mass of calorimeter + water + solid = 0.74kg; Original temperature of
water = 150C; Temperature of mixture = 210C; and Temperature of hot solid before
mixing = 1000C. Calculate the specific heat capacity of the solid, if the specific heat
capacity of the calorimeter is 400 J/Kgk.
170
Solution
Let the specific heat capacity of the solid be cÍ
Heat lost by solid = mÍ cÍ ∆θÍ
= (0.74 – 0.24) x cÍ x (100 - 21)
= 0.50 x c x 79 = 39.5cÍ J
Heat gained by water = mK cK ∆θK

= (0.24 – 0.04) x 4200 x 6
= 0.2 x 4200 x 6 = 5040J
Heat gained by calorimeter = mô cô ∆θô
= 0.004 x 400 x 6
= 96J
Total heat gained = 5040 + 96 = 5136J
Assuming no heat was lost to the surrounding

Heat lost = Heat gained
⇒ 39.5cÍ = 5136
oMYx
∴ cÍ = = 130 JKg-1 k-1
Y¦.o
Worked Example on Calorimetry (Electrical Method)

An electric heater rated at 50-Watt is used to heat 100g of water in a calorimeter from
500C to 1000C. Calculate the time for which the current flowed. Neglect the specific heat
capacity of the calorimeter. Take cK as 4200 JKg-1k-1.
Solution
Energy supplied to water = power x time
= 50 x t J
= 50t J
Heat energy gained by water = mK cK ∆θK = 100 x 10-3 x 4200 x 50
Assuming no heat has been lost to the surroundings
50t = 100 x 42 x 5
M^^ ò f) ò o
∴t= = 420 seconds
o
171
4.4 Latent Heat
Latent heat is defined as hidden heat. Here, application or subtraction of heat to a
substance does not result in a change in temperature. Latent heat of fusion is the heat
required to convert a substance from its solid form to its liquid form. The specific latent
heat of fusion of a substance is the quantity of heat required to convert a unit mass of a
substance from solid to liquid without a change of temperature.
If Lf is latent heat of fusion
Q is quantity of heat (Joules) and
m is mass of substance (kg)
Q = mLf 4.3
Q
∴ Lf = m (J/kg) 4.4
Latent heat of vaporization is the heat required to convert the substance from its liquid
state to its gaseous state or vapour.
Specific latent heat of vaporization of a substance is the quantity of heat required to

change a unit mass from liquid to vapour without a change of temperature.
If Lv is latent heat of vaporization
Q = mLv 4.5
Q
∴ Lv = M (J/kg) 4.6
Worked example
If 1.13 x 106 J of heat energy is required to convert 0.5kg of steam to water. Calculate the
specific latent heat of vaporization of steam.
Solution
Q = mLv
H M.MYò M^º
∴ Lv = =
1 ^.o
= 2.26 x 106 J/kg

4.5 Mechanism of Heat Transfer
Heat can be transferred through conduction, convection and radiation. The three (3)
methods of heat transfer above find application in a Thermos flask.
172
4.5.1 Conduction
Conduction of heat is the process by which heat is passed along a stationary solid
material, the heated particles remaining in the position. There are good and bad
conductors of heat. Water and wood are bad conductors of heat. Generally, metals are
good conductors while non-metals are poor conductors. The knowledge of conduction
finds applications in pots/pot handles. Heat transfer occurs only between regions that are
at different temperature, and the direction of heat flow is always from higher to lower
temperature.
If a rod of conducting material with cross-sectional area, A and length, L with one end,
A, at a higher temperature, TH and the other end B at a lower temperature, Tc; heat will
flow from A to B.
Fig. 4.2 Conduction of heat in a rod
When a quantity of heat dQ is transferred through the rod in a time dt, the rate of heat
flow is dQ/dt. If the rate of heat current is denoted by H, then H = dQ/dt.
Experiments show that the heat current denoted by H is proportional to the cross-
sectional area, A of the rod and the temperature difference (𝑇L − 𝑇e ) and inversely
proportional to the rod length, L. Introducing a proportionality constant, K which is
called the thermal conductivity of the material, we have that,
}n MN h MO
𝐻= = 𝐾𝐴 4.7
}• ?
The above formula is for heat current in conduction. The quantity (𝑇L − 𝑇e ) 𝐿 is the
temperature difference per unit length; it is the magnitude of the temperature gradient.
The numerical value of K depends on the material of the rod. Materials with large K are
goods conductors of heats, whereas materials with small K are poor conductors of heat or
insulators. The heat current equation above also gives the heat current through a body
with a uniform cross-sectional area, A perpendicular to the direction of flow. L is the
length of the heat-flow path.
173
The SI unit of heat current is Watt (W) or joules, per second(𝐽 𝑠). The SI unit of thermal
conductivity (k) is 𝑤𝑚 hM 𝐾 hM .
In general, if we introduce a coordinate x along the length, then;
}n }M
𝐻= = − 𝐾𝐴 4.8
}• }4
The negative sign shows that heat will always flow in the direction of decreasing
temperature.
Worked examples
A steel bar 0.1m long of cross – sectional area 0.02𝑚 ) has one end heated to 100^ 𝐶 by
placing it in contact with steam and the other free end maintained at 0^ 𝐶, by placing it in
contact with Ice. Find the total rate of heat flow. Take 𝐾~•‚‚‡ = 50.2 𝑊𝑀 hM 𝐾 hM
Solution
𝑇L − 𝑇e
𝐻 = 𝐾𝐴
𝐿
(100 − 0)
= 50.2 𝑥 0.02
0.1
= 20.1𝑊
4.5.2 Convection
Convection is the process by which heat energy is transferred in a liquid or a gas by
actual movement of the heated fluid. The circulation of the liquid/gas is called
convection current. Convection finds application in land and sea breeze.
Convection is a very complex process, thus, there is no mathematical equation or model

that satisfactorily describes it. However, the following are few experimental facts about
this method of heat transfer (i. e convection).
1. The heat current as a result of convection is directly proportional to the surface
area.
2. The viscosity of fluids slows natural convection.
3. The heat of current due to convection is approximately proportional to the 1.25th
power of the temperature difference between the surface and the main body of
the fluid.
4.5.3 Radiation
Radiation is the process by which heat is conveyed from one place to another without
heating the intervening medium. It finds application in shinning aluminum roofs that
174
reflect heat during the day and keep the interior cool, avoidance of the wearing of black
clothes during a sunny day.
The rate of energy of radiation from a surface is proportional to the surface area, A. The
rate of increase varies rapidly with temperature, depending or on the fourth power of the
absolute (Kelvin) temperature. The rate is also dependent upon the nature of the surface.
The dependence on the nature of the surface is ascribed to a quantity called emissivity,
denoted by e. Emissivity is dimensionless and it could range from 0 to 1. It represents the
ratio of the rate of radiation from a particular surface to the rate of radiation from an
equal area of an ideal radiating surface at the same temperature. Emissivity also depends
on temperature. Hence, heat current H = dQ/dt due to radiation from a surface area, A,
with emissivity, e, at absolute temperature T can be expressed as,
𝐻 = 𝐴𝑒𝜎𝑇 f 4.8
Where H is heat current in radiation 𝜎 is the fundamental physical constant

called the Stefan-BoHzman constant. This relationship is called the Stefan-BoHzman
law.
𝜎 ≈ 5.67 x 10h¡ 𝑊𝑚 h) 𝐾 hf
Emissivity is often large for darker surfaces than lighter ones. e for the shiny surface like
silver is about 0.3 while that for a black surface could be 1 (or unity). A body that is a
good absorber of heat is also a good emitter. An ideal radiator with emissivity of unity is
also an ideal absorber. Such an ideal surface is called an ideal black body or in short,
black body. On the other hand, an ideal reflector that absorbs no radiation at all is also a
very poor radiator.
Radiation and absorption

While a body at absolute temperature 𝑇p is radiating heat, its surroundings at
temperature 𝑇… , are also radiating heat, and the body absorbs some of this radiation. If the
body is in a thermal equilibrium with its surroundings, thus, 𝑇p = 𝑇… and the rates of
radiation and absorption must be equal. For this to be true, the rate of absorption must be
given generally by 𝐻 = 𝐴𝑒𝜎𝑇…f . Then the net rate of radiation from a body at
temperature 𝑇p with surroundings at temperature 𝑇… is
𝐻•‚• = 𝐴𝑒𝜎𝑇pf − 𝐴𝑒𝜎𝑇…f = 𝐴𝑒𝜎(𝑇pf − 𝑇…f ) 4.9
In this equation a positive value of 𝐻 means a net heat flow out of the body. Equation
2.6.4.4 shows that for radiation, as for conduction and convection, the heat current
depends on the temperature difference between two bodies.
175
Worked example
A thin square box made of silver has sides of 0.1m. if this box is heated to a temperature
of 8000C, what is the total rate of radiation of energy take e of silver to be 0.6.
Solution
𝐻 = 𝐴𝑒𝜎𝑇 f 𝐴 = 2𝐿) = 2 𝑥 0.1) = 0.02𝑚 )
= 0.02 𝑥 0.6 𝑥 5.67 𝑥 10h¡ 𝑥 1073f
= 900𝑊
Worked Example
If the total surface area of the human body is 1.20m2 and the surface temperature is 300C
(303K), find the total rate of radiation of energy from the body. If the surroundings are at
a temperature of 200C (293K). What is the net rate of heat loss from the body by
radiation? Assume the emissivity of the human body is very close to unity, irrespective
of skin pigmentation.
Solution
We must take into account both the radiation that the body emits and the radiation that
the body absorbs from its surrounds. Assuming e = 1, the body radiates at a rate
𝐻 = 𝐴𝑒𝜎𝑇 f
= 1.20 1 5.67 x 10h¡ (303)f
= 574 𝑊
This loss is partly offset by absorption of radiation, which depends on the temperature of
the surroundings. The net rate of radiative energy transfer is given by,
𝐻•‚• = 𝐴𝑒𝜎(𝑇pf − 𝑇…f )
= 1.20 1 5.67 x 10h¡ x [(303 )f − 293 )f
= 72 W
The value of Hnet is positive because the body is losing heat to its colder surroundings.
4.6 Global Warming and Greenhouse

Global warming is the gradual increase in the overall temperature of the earth’s
atmosphere generally attributed to the greenhouse effect caused by increased levels of
carbon dioxide, chlorofluorocarbons, and other pollutants. In short, it is the gradual
heating of the earth’s surface, oceans and atmosphere. It is observed that the earth
average temperature has risen by 1.40F (0.80C) over the past century, according to the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
2.6.1 The Greenhouse Effect

Global warming begins with the greenhouse effect, which is caused by the interaction
between earth’s atmosphere and incoming radiation from the sun. Solar radiation
(strongly energetic) penetrates the atmosphere to the surface of the Earth. The solar
176
radiation is partly absorbed and partly reflected or radiated upward as infrared radiation
[or heat] (weakly energetic). Gases in the Earth’s atmosphere absorb about 90% of this
infrared radiation [or heat] and radiate it back to the surface (since it is weak and cannot
escape back into space) which is warned up to a life-supporting average of 590F (15C).
This very helpful process is called the greenhouse effect.
4.6.2 Greenhouse Gases

The greenhouse gases are: water vapor, carbon (IV) oxide (CO2), methane (CH4),
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and Nitrogen (I) oxide (N2O). The most prevalent
greenhouse gas is CO2.
4.6.3 Effect of Global Warming

- Rise in sea level through the melting of ice at poles.
- Gradual extinction or melting of glaciers
- Flooding
- Intense hurricanes (or storm surge), since hurricanes get their energy from the
temperatures difference between the warm tropical ocean and cold upper
atmosphere. This temperature difference is enhanced by global warming.
4.6.4 How to address Global Warming

- Reduce emissions of greenhouse gases and stabilizing levels of these gases in the
atmosphere (encourage afforestation/discourage deforestation).
- Adapting to the climate change already happening.
4.7 Laws of Thermodynamics

4.7.1 First Law
In physics, the first law of thermodynamics deals with energy conservation. The law
states that internal energy, heat and work energy are conserved. The initial internal
energy in a system, Ui, changes to a final internal energy, Uf, when heat Q, is absorbed or
released by the system and the system does work, W, on its surroundings (or the
surroundings do work on the system), such that;
Uf – Ui = ∆U = Q – W 4.10
Mathematically, the law says the change in internal energy of a system is equal to the
heat added to the system minus the work done by the system.
Note: The quantity of heat transferred, Q, is positive when the system absorbs heat and
negative when the system releases heat. The quantity, W, (work) is positive when the
system does work on its surroundings and negative when the surroundings does work on
the system.
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Hence: The system absorbs heat Q > O
The system releases heat Q < O
The system does work on the surroundings W > O
The surrounding does work on the system W < O
Worked Example
A motor does 2,000-Joules of work on its surroundings while releasing 3,000-Joules of
heat. By how much does it internal energy change?
Solution
Q = 3000 J and W = 2000 J
∴ ∆U = -3000 – 2000 = - 5000 J (Decrease in internal energy)
Worked Example
What will be the internal energy of a system that absorbs 3000-Joules of heat and the
surrounding performs a work of 4000-Joules on the system.
Solution
Q = + 3000 J and W = - 4000 J
∴ ∆U = Q - W = 3000 – (- 4000) J
= 7000 J
First law finds application in a steam engine and heat pumps. Work done by a
thermodynamics system (a gas confined by a piston in a cylinder) at constant pressure is
U
W = P∆V or W = P U H dV. If the gas is heated, it will expand and push the piston up,
¯
thereby doing work on the piston. If the piston is pushed down, on the other hand, the
piston does work on the gas and the gas does negative work on the piston. This is an
example of how work is done in a thermodynamic system.
Worked Example
A gas in a cylinder with a volume of 2m3 is confined by a piston at constant pressure of
1.0145× 105 Pa. The gas is heated, expanding and moving the piston up. If the volume
occupied by the gas doubles, how much work has the gas done?
Solution
W = P∆V
W = 1.0145× 10o ×2 = 2.029 × 10o J
4.7.2 Second Law

The second law of thermodynamics can be stated thus, in terms of heat engine: it is
impossible to extract an amount of heat, Q û from a hot reservoir and use it all to do
work, W. Some amount of heat, Q ô must be exhausted to a cold reservoir. This prompts
(precludes) a perfect heat engine. Carnot engine is synonymous to a perfect engine.
178
In terms of refrigerator: it is not possible for heat to flow from a colder body to a warmer
body without any work having been done to accomplish this flow. This prevents a
perfect refrigerator.
In terms of entropy: the entropy of a cyclic/reversible process will either increase or

remain the same (order to disorder). Second law finds applications in heat or automobile
engine, refrigerator and air conditioners. Work done by a heat engine during one cycle
equals the net heat flowing into the engine:
W = Qû − Qô 4.11
Q û = heat/energy absorbed
Q ô = heat/energy expelled
The thermal efficiency, e, of a heat engine is defined as the ratio of the net work
done to the heat absorbed during one cycle of the process:
W HY
e= =1- 4.12
HX HX
In terms of a refrigerator or an air conditioner (both shear the same thermodynamic

working principle, i.e. electrical work is done for heat to be removed or absorbed from
an enclosure): Coefficient of performance, Cp, is defined by the ratio of heat absorbed,
Qc, to the work done. A good refrigerator or air conditioner has high Coefficient of
performance.
⇒ Cp = Qc/W, Where Qc, is the heat absorbed

However, the efficiency of a heat pump (heater) is defined in terms of its coefficient of
performance, Cp, which is the ratio of heat expelled or transferred at high temperature,
QH, to the work done by pump. A good heat pumps a has high Coefficient of
performance. Note: the heat pump is the reverse of the refrigerator or air conditioner in
terms of thermodynamic working principle.
⇒ Cp = QH/W, Where QH, is the heat expelled or transferred.
/HZ † /HZ
In terms of entropy, 𝑑𝑆= or ∆S = = 0
(reversible path) 4.13
0
Q õ = heat added/removed
T = absorbed temperature
Worked Example
An automobile engine has an efficiency of 20% and produces an average of
2300J of mechanical work per second during operation. What is the heat output from this
engine per second?
179
Solution
Heat output is Q ô
e = 20% = 0.20
HY HY
Hence e = 1 - ;∴1−e= = 1 − 0.20 = 0.80
HX HX
W
But e = ; So, in one second
HX
W )Y^^
⇒ Qû = = = 1.15× 10f J
ö ^.)
Thus Q ô = 0.80 Q û = 0.80 ×1.15× 10f = 9.20× 10Y J
The engine puts out 9200J/S = 9200Watts
Worked Example
An ice cube of mass 60g is taken from a storage compartment at 0℃ and placed in a
paper cup. After a few minutes, exactly half of the mass of the ice cube has melted,
becoming water at 0℃. Find the change in entropy of the ice/water. L for ice is 79.7
Cal/g
Solution
Q = mL = 30 ×79.7 = 2400Cal
Since temperature remains constant in the process
Q 2400
∆S = = = 18.8 Cal/K
T 273
Exercises
1. System A is in equilibrium with system C. System B is in equilibrium with system C.
System A is in equilibrium with system B according to which law of thermodynamics.
(Answer = Zeroth law of thermodynamics)
2. Gas A is in thermal equilibrium with gases B and C. Which of the following is a valid
conclusion?
(a) Thermal equilibrium of gas B is directly proportional to that of gas C.
(b) Gases B and C are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
(c) Gases A and B has equal amounts of entropy.
(d) Thermal equilibrium of gas B is indirectly proportional to that of gas C.
(e) No conclusion can be drawn. (Answer = b)
3. The lower and upper fixed points of a thermometer are 30cm apart. On a certain day,
the length of the mercury column in the thermometer rises to 9cm above the lower fixed
point(0℃). What is the temperature recorded in?
(a) Celsius scale (b) Kelvin scale and (c) Fahrenheit scale (Answers = 30℃, 303.15K
and 86℉)
180
4. The reading on the pressure scale at the steam and ice points are 800mm and 300mm
respectively. Determine the equivalent temperature when it reads 450mm in centigrade.
(Answer = 30℃)
5. If iron rails of 8m long are laid close up end to end when the temperature is 30℃,
what gap will be provided between consecutive rails when the temperature rises to 60℃?
(Take linear expansivity of iron = 1.2×10ho 𝐾 hM ). (Answer = 0.003m)
6. A Brass square sheet has each side 15cm long at 20℃. What will be the new are of the
sheet when the temperature rises to 80℃? (Take linear expansivity of Brass = 1.8×
10ho 𝐾 hM . (Answer = 225.49cm2)
7. If a square plate of side 15cm is made of a metal of linear expansivity, 2×10ho 𝐾 hM , if
the thickness of the plate is 5mm and the plate is heated from 25℃ to 80℃. What is the
cubical increase? (Answer =0.37cm3)
8. Calculate the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 5kg of copper from
25℃ to 100℃. Take specific heat capacity of copper =390J(KgK)hM . (Answer 146250J)
9. 200g of water at 100℃ is poured into a copper calorimeter containing 150g of water at
10℃. The temperature of the mixture is 45℃. Calculate the thermal capacity of the
vessel. Specific heat capacity of copper = 400J(KgK)hM and specific heat capacity of
water = 4200J(KgK)hM . (Answer = 690𝐉𝐊 h𝟏 )
10. An electric heater rated 60W is used to heat a 20kg metal block for 5minutes.
Calculate the specific heat capacity of the metal block if the temperature rises by 20℃.
(Answer = 45𝐉(𝐊𝐠𝐊)h𝟏 )
11. Calculate the quantity of heat required to change 10g of ice at 0℃ to water at 50℃.
Latent heat of fusion of ice = 336Jg hM and specific heat capacity of water = 4.2J(g℃)hM .
(Answer = 5460J)
12. 2,000-Joules of heat leaves the system and 2,500-Joules of work is done on the
system. What is the change in internal energy of the system? (Answer = 1000J)
13. 2,000-Joules of heat is added to a system and 2,500-Joules of work is done on the
14. 3,000-Joules of heat is added to a system and 2,500-Joules of work is done by the
181
15. The volume of gas in a cylinder expanded by 2m3 confined by a piston at a constant
pressure of 1.0145× 105 Pa when heated. How much work was done by the gas?
(Answer = 𝟐. 𝟎𝟐𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 J)
16. A heat pump has a coefficient of performance of 3.0 and it is rated to do work at
1500W. How much heat can it add to a room per second? (Answer = 4500J)
17. If the total surface area of a sphere is 1.20𝑚 ) and the surface temperature is 30^ 𝐶,
find the total rate of radiation of energy from the body. Take the emissivity of this body
to be one (unity). (Answer H = 574W)
18. A box was used to keep water cold. The total area of the wall of the box is
0.08𝑚 ) and the thickness of the wall of the box is 0.02𝑚. What is the rate of heat flow
into the box, if the temperature of the surrounding or room temperature is 30^ 𝐶 and the
interior of the box was assumed to be 0^ 𝐶. Take K to be 0.01W/MK for the box
material. (Answer H = 1.2W).
19. Determine the root – mean – square speed and average speed of the molecules of a
gas of mass 3 × 10h)Y Kg at STP. Take the density of the gas at STP to be 6.0 𝑥 10h)
kg𝑚 hY , temperature to be 273K and pressure to be 1.01 𝑥 10o 𝑁𝑚 h) . (Answer 𝑉™ƒ~ =
2.25×10Y 𝑚𝑠 hM and 𝑉1W• = 19.4𝑚𝑠 hM )
20. Calculate the average kinetic energy of the molecules of a gas at 00C? (Answer
𝑲𝑬𝑨𝒗𝒈 = 𝟓. 𝟔𝟓×𝟏𝟎h𝟐𝟏 𝑱)
182
SECTION 3
GEOMETRICAL OPTICS
183
CHAPTER ONE
REFLECTION AND REFRACTION
1.1 Reflection of Light

Generally, objects are seen moreover by the light they emit or by the light they reflect
from nearby objects. Objects that emit their own light are said to be luminescent.
Instances are the sun, candle light, electric light bulbs etc. Whereas, non-luminous
objects do not emit their own light. They are seen only when light from other sources fall
on them and is reflected back to our eyes. For example, the moon does not emit light
shines in the night because it reflects light falling on it from the sun and not because it is
luminous object. A thin line represents a ray of light while a collection of rays of light
represent a beam of light. A beam of light could either be convergent or divergent (Fig
1.1a-c). Reflection of light is the change in direction of light rays at an interface between
two different media so that the light rays returns into the medium from which it
originated.
(a) (b) (c) (c)

Fig. 1.1: (a) A ray of light (b) Beam of light (c) Convergent beam (d) divergent
beam
1.1.1 Types of Reflection of Light

There different kinds of reflection of light and are briefly stated as follows;
(i) Regular reflection is also called as specular reflection
(ii) Diffused reflection
(iii) Multiple reflection
Regular/ Specular Reflection

Specular Reflection refers to a clear and sharp reflection; like in the case of a plane
mirror. This reflective surface reflects almost all the light incident on it uniformly. There
is no much variation in the angles of reflections between various points. This means that
the reflection follows a regular pattern and the blurring of image are almost entirely
eliminated.
184
Fig. 1.2: Regular and Diffused Reflection
Diffused or Irregular Reflection

The reflective surface other than mirrors, in general, has a very rough surface. This may
be due to wear and tear such as scratches and dents or dirt on the surface. Sometimes
even the material of which the surface is made of matters. All this leads to a loss of both
the brightness and the quality of the reflection. In the case of such rough surfaces, the
angle of reflection when compared between points is completely haphazard. For rough
surfaces, the rays’ incident at slightly different angles on the surface is reflected in
completely different directions. This type of reflection is called diffused or irregular
reflection and is what enables us to see non-shiny objects.
Multiple Reflection
In this type of reflection, a single source of light can be reflected multiple times. This
multiple reflection is imaginable until the intensity of light becomes low such that it
becomes invisible. This means that infinite multiple reflections are observable. Images
are formed at every individual reflection. This means that each image is the result of an
image or an image of an image. The number of images formed is dependent largely on
the angle between the two mirrors.
1.1.2 Laws of Reflection

When light waves are incident on a smooth, flat surface, they reflect away from the
surface at the same angle as they arrive. Regardless of whether light is acting as particles
or waves, the result of reflection is the same. The reflected light produces a mirror
image. Consider a ray of light OA incident on a plane surface PQ at an angle of incident i
to the normal ON. The reflected ray OB makes an angle r with the normal ON.
185
N
A B
𝒊 𝒓
P Q
O
Fig. 1.3: Reflection at plane surface
Where OA = incident ray

OB= reflected ray
ON = normal
PQ plane surface
i = incident angle: The angle of incidence, i, is the angle between the normal and
incident ray.
r = reflected angle: The angle of reflection, r, is the angle between the normal
and reflected ray.
Thus, the laws of reflection can be stated as follows;

1. The first law of reflection states that incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at
the point of incident to the normal all lie in the same plane.
2. the second law states that the angle of incidence is equals to the angle of reflection
i = r.
1.1.3 Reflection at Curve Surfaces

When light is incidence on a polished such as a plane mirror surface. For a plane mirror
the image of the object appears to lie behind the mirror. For a flat polished surface, the
image of the object appears to lie behind the mirror at a distance equal to the distance of
the object from the mirror (Fig. 1.3).
186
D
Observer
Object, O Image, I
Polished
plane surface
Fig. 1.4: Formation of an image by a plane mirror
In figure 1.3, the light source is the object O, and the point on O sends out rays in all
directions. The two rays that strike the mirror at B and C, are reflected as the rays BD
and CE. To an observer in front of the mirror, these rays appear to come from the point I
behind.
1.1.4 Image Formation by Plane Mirror

A real image is the one formed through actual intersection of light rays, and can be
captured on a screen while a virtual image is that formed by imaginary intersection of
light rays and cannot be captured on the screen (Fig. 1.5).
3600
n= −1
θ
1.1
I B
Real image, I
Virtual image, I
Fig. 1.5: Formation of image
187
1.1.5 Characteristics of images formed by plane mirror
(i) It is upright, that is, the image is in the same direction as the object.
(ii) It is virtual, that is, it cannot be capture on the screen.
(iii) It is of the same size as the object.
(iv) It is laterally inverted.
1.1.5 Reflection at Curved Surfaces

When light is incident on a curved surface of a mirror, the reflected rays either diverge or
converge depending on the direction of curvature of the surface. A curved surface
produced by cutting out a part of a hollow spherical shell. A concave mirror is a curved
surface in which the reflecting surface is curved inward while a convex mirror is a
curved surface in the reflecting surface is curved outward (Fig. 1.6a) and (Fig. 1.6b)
respectively. Therefore, a concave or converging mirror reflect light from its inside while
a convex or diverging mirror reflect light from its outside.
Reflective
surface
P F C
(a) (b)
Fig. 6: (a) concave mirror (b) convex mirror
Where, C is the Centre of curvature, F is the principal focus and P is the pole.
1.1.6 Images Formed by Curved Mirrors

The nature and position of the images formed by curved mirrors depends on the relative
position of the object and this can be shown using ray diagrams (Fig. 7). The following
facts are the principal rays;
188
(i) A ray parallel to the principal axis passes through the principal focus after reflection
(Fig. 1.7a).
(ii) A ray that pass through the center of curvature is reflected back along its path (Fig.
1.7b).
(iii) A ray that passes through the principal focus is reflected parallel to the principal axis
(Fig. 1.7c).
The points to which these reflected rays converge or from which they appear to diverge
represent the required image. In practice however, the tracing of only two of these rays
will enable us to find the position of the image.
Image formed by concave mirror
P P F C O
P F C O
F C O
Principal axis
Principal axis
Principal axis
(b) (c)
(a)
Fig. 1.7: Images formed by concave mirror.
Figure 1.8a shows an image formed by a concave mirror when an object is placed before
the center of curvature C while figure 1.8b shows the image formed by a concave mirror
when the object is placed between the center of curvature C and the principal focus F.
f F
P
v C O F O C
I
r I
u
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.8: Image form by concave mirror (a) object before C (b) object between F
and C
189
Figure 1.8c shows the image formed by a concave mirror when the object is place
between the mirror and the principal focus F.
(a) Characteristics of the image
i. The image is inverted
ii. The image is diminished
iii. The image is real
(b) Characteristics of the image

i. The image is real
ii. The image is magnified
iii. The image inverted.
P O F C
(b)
Fig. 1.8c: Image formed by concave mirror with object between the mirror and F.
(c) Characteristics of the image

i. The image is formed behind the mirror
ii. The image is virtual
1.1.7 Magnification
Magnification is defined as the ratio of the height of an image to the height of an object.
It is also given in terms of image distance and object distance. It is equal to the ratio of
image distance to that of object distance.
hi DI v
m= = =
ho DO u
1.2
Where; hi = image height
ho = object height
v = image distance
190
u = object distance
m = magnification
1.1.8 Basic Terms for spherical mirrors

Centre of Curvature C: The point which is in the centre of the mirror surface passes
through the curve of the mirror and has the same tangent and curvature at that point.
Radius of Curvature r: Radius of curvature is twice the focal length, r = 2f. It is

considered as the linear distance between the pole and the centre of curvature.
Principal axis: An imaginary line that passes through the optical centre and from the
centre of curvature of a spherical mirror.
Pole P: The midpoint or the centre point of the spherical mirror. It is represented by
capital P. All the measurements are made from it only.
Aperture: An aperture of a mirror is a point from which the reflection of light actually
takes place or happens. It also gives an idea about the size of the mirror.
Principal Focus: It is the point on the axis of a mirror where the rays of light parallel to
the principal axis converge or appear to converge or diverge after reflection.
Focus: It is any given point on the principal axis where light rays parallel to the principal
axis will converge or appear to converge after getting reflected from the mirror.
1.1.9 Mirror Formula

The derivation of the mirror formula or spherical mirror formula is one of the most
common formulas in optics. The mirror formula can be termed as the formula in which
the relationship between the distance of the object is represented as u and the distance of
the image is represented as v, and the focal length of the mirror given as f (Fig. 1.9). The
formula is applicable for both, plane mirrors as well as spherical mirrors including
convex and concave mirror.
M
Q
I
O P
C F
𝒇
A
𝒗
N
D
Fig. 1.9: Concave Mirror
191
The relationship between the object distance (u), image distance (v) and the focal length
(f) is shown in (Fig. 1.9). The two right-angled triangles AIF and MPF are similar.
IA IF
=
PM FP
IA IF
=
OQ FP
∴ PM = QO 1.3
∠QPO = ∠APO
∴ PM = Q
IA IP
= 1.4
OQ OP
Comparing equation (1.3) and (1.4) we have that;
IF IP − FP IP
= =
FP FP OP
⇒ IP = −v
FP = − f
OP = −u
−v+ f −v
=
f −u
v− f v
=
f u
Rearranging, we have that;
1 1 1
+ = 1.5
v u f
Assumptions are:
The following considerations are taken in order to derived the mirror formula derived:
1. The object and image distance are being measured from the pole of the mirror.
2. According to the sign convention, the negative sign indicates all the distances which
are measured in the direction opposite to the incident ray whereas the positive sign
indicates all the distances which are measured in the direction of the incident ray.
3. The distance below the axis is taken to be negative whereas the distance above the axis
is taken to be positive.
192
Solve Numerical Problems
Q1. A man has a concave mirror with focal length of 40 cm. How far should the mirror
be held from his face in order to give an image of two-fold magnification? Solution f =
40 cm (positive) Two-fold magnification means m = 2. The man’s face is the object.
Therefore, one is required to calculate the object distance u. To get a magnification of 2,
first we apply the mirror formula;
1 1 1
+ =
v u f
v
m= =2
u
v
=2
u
v = 2u
Substituting 2u for v in the mirror formula, we have that;
1 1 1 1
+ = =
2u u f f
2 +1 1
=
2u 40
3 1
=
2u 40
2u = 120
u = 60cm
Image formed by convex mirror
Figure 1.10 shows the ray diagram for the formation of an image by a convex mirror. O
is the object while I represent the image. Note that all other conditions associated with
the formation of images by curved mirrors applies.
O I F C
Fig. 1.10: Image formed by convex mirror
193
Characteristics of image formed by a convex mirror
i. The image is upright
ii. The image is virtual;
iii. The image is diminished
NOTE: The characteristics of the image stated above are true for the convex mirror,
irrespective of the position of the object the mirror. Thus, convex have a very wide field
of view. Therefore, the image formed by a convex mirror is erect, consequently, convex
mirror is always use in motor vehicle as side mirror.
Q2. A diverging mirror of 50.0 cm focal length produces a virtual image of 25.0 cm from
the mirror. How far from the mirror should the object be placed?
Solution
A diverging mirror is a convex mirror, and therefore, its focal length is negative. f = -
50.0 cm. Similarly, since the image is virtual it indicates that v = - 25.0 cm.
Applying the mirror formula
1 1 1
+ =
v u f
1 1 1
= −
u f v
1 1 1
= −
u − 50 25
1 −1+ 2 1
= =
u 50 50
u = 50cm
Sign Convention for Spherical Mirrors

If the object is placed on the left side of the principal axis from the mirror, then the
object distance is taken to be negative while on the right side it is taken to be positive.
The sign of focal length depends on the type of the mirror in use. For a concave mirror it
is negative and for a convex mirror it is positive. Heights above the principal axis are
positive and below are negative.
1.2 Refraction at Plane Surfaces

Light rays change direction when they move from one transparent medium into another,
or travel through a medium whose composition is continuously changing. When light is
traveling in one transparent medium meets a boundary with a second transparent medium
(e.g., air and glass), a part of the light is reflected and part of it is transmitted into the
second medium. As the transmitted light moves into the second medium, it changes its
direction of travel and that is called refraction (Fig. 1.11).
194
Incident ray N
reflected ray
A B
𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟐
air 𝒗𝟏 𝒏𝟏
P Q
glass 𝒗𝟐 O 𝒏𝟐
refracted ray
M C
Fig. 1.11: Refraction of Light
Therefore, refraction is defined as the change in speed and direction of light when it
travels from one medium to another of different densities.
1.2.1 Laws of Refraction

The law of refraction, also known as Snell’s law, describes the relationship between the
angle of incidence (θ1) and the angle of refraction (r2), measured with respect to the
normal NO. Snell was the first to established the relationship between angle of incidence
and angle of refraction.
First Law of Refraction

The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal at the point of incidence, all lie in the
same plane.
Second Law of Refraction

The ratio of the sine of angle of incidence (i) to the sine of angle of refraction r is a
constant for two given pair of media and this is called Snell’s Law of refraction.
Mathematically, it can be expressed as;
sin i
µ= = a constant 1.6
sin r
sin i v1
µ= = 1.7
sin r v2
195
Consider two pairs of media with refractive indices µ1 and µ2 and angle of incidence and
refraction θ1 and θ2 respectively. Let the speed of light in medium one be v1 and the
speed in medium two be v2. Thus. according to Snell’s law of refraction;
µ1 sin θ1 v1
= = 1.8
µ 2 sin θ 2 v2
µ1 sin θ1 = µ2 sin θ2, where µ1 and µ2 are the index of refraction of the first and second
media, respectively. The index of refraction for any medium is a dimensionless constant
equal to the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to its speed in that medium.
Nevertheless, when light travels from one medium to another, its frequency remains
unchanged but its wavelength changes. Recall the fundamental wave equation, we have
that;
v = fλ 1.9
Since the frequency in medium one and two remains unchanged, therefore, its follows
that;
v1 λ1
∴ = 1.10
v 2 λ2
v1λ2 = v2λ1 1.11
1.2.2 Critical Angle and Total Internal Reflection

As we increase the angle of incidence, we reach a point where the angle of refraction
is 900 and the refracted ray travels along the boundary of the two media. This angle of
incidence is called the critical angle. The critical angle is the angle of incidence where
the angle of refraction is 900. Light must travel from an optically denser medium to an
optically less dense medium. If the angle of incidence is greater than this critical angle,
the refracted ray will not emerge from the medium, but will be reflected back into the
medium. This is called total internal reflection (Fig. 1.12).
Fig. 1.12: Critical angle and total internal reflection
196
The conditions for total internal reflection are:
i. Light must be travelling from an optically denser medium (higher refractive index) to
an optically less dense medium (lower refractive index).
ii. The angle of incidence must be greater than the critical angle.
It is possible to calculate the critical angle at the surface between two media using Snell's
Law.
Recall that;
µ1 sin i1 = µ2 sin r2
Where µ1 is the refractive index of medium 1, µ2 is the refractive index of medium 2, i1 is
the angle of incidence and r2 is the angle of refraction. For total internal reflection to
occur the angle of incidence must be equal to the critical angle. Thus, i1= θc. However,
the angle of refraction at the critical angle is becomes 900. Consequently, r2 = 900, then
Snell’s becomes;
µ1 sin θ c = µ 2 sin 90 0 1.12
µ2
sin θ c = 1.13
µ1
sin 90 0 = 1
µ2
θ c = sin −1 1.14
µ1
Solved numerical problem

Given that the refractive indices of air and water are 1.00 and 1.33 respectively.
Calculate the critical angle.
Solution
Recall that;
µ1 sin θ c = µ 2 sin 90 0
µ2
θ c = sin −1
µ1
⎛ 1 ⎞
θ c = sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ = 48.8
0
⎝ 1.33 ⎠
1.2.3 Applications of Total Internal Reflection

i. It is used in many optical instruments like binoculars.
197
ii. Total internal reflection is the principle behind fiber optics. In Fiber optics, light can
be transmitted with without losses. A beam of such light fibers is called light pipe, which
can be used in medicines and communication.
iii. In telecommunication, optical fibers are used in place of copper cables. They can
carry a much greater number of telephone calls in compare to copper electrical cables.
iv. Images can effortlessly be transferred from one point to another.
v. In surgery, these fiber optic devices are very useful to locating inaccessible internal
organs of the body. Vi. Total internal reflection is used in submarine periscope.
198
CHAPTER TWO
REFRACTION AT SPHERICAL SURFACES
AND DISPERSION OF LIGHT
2.1 Refraction at Spherical surfaces

It is a common observation that some people use spectacles for reading. The watch
repairer uses a small magnifying glass to see tiny parts of a watch. We can study
formation of images of objects placed around spherical surfaces such as glass marbles,
water drops, glass bottle, etc. For measuring distances from spherical refracting surfaces,
we use the same sign convention as applicable for spherical mirrors (Fig. 2.1).
Fig. 2.1: Refraction at spherical surface
SPS′ is a convex refracting surface separating two media, air and glass. C is its centre of
curvature. P is a point on SPS′ almost symmetrically placed called the pole. CP is then
the principal axis. O is a point object. OA is an incident ray and AB is the refracted ray.
Another ray OP falls on the surface normally and goes un-deviated after refraction. PC
and AB appear to come from I. Hence, I is the virtual image of O. Let ∠OAN = i, the
angle of incidence and ∠CAB = r, the angle of refraction. Using the proper sign
convention, we can write,
PO = −u
PI = −v
Pc = + r
Let α, β, and γ be the angles subtended by OA, IA and CA, respectively with the
principal axis and h the height of the normal dropped from A on the principal axis. In
ΔOCA and ΔICA, we have that;
i =α +γ 2.1
r = β +γ 2.2
199
From Snell’s law, recall that,
sin i
µ=
sin r
Where µ is the refractive index of the glass surface with respect to air. For a surface of
small aperture, P will be close to A and so i and r will be very small (sin i ~ i, sin r ~ r).
The above equation, therefore, becomes;
i = µr 2.3
Substituting the values of i and r in Eqn. (2.3) from Eqns. (2.1) and (2.2) respectively, we
get
α + γ = µ(β + γ )
αµ − µβ = γ (µ −1) 2.4
As α, β and γ are very small, we can take tan α ~ α, and tan β ~ β, and tan γ ~ γ. Now
referring to ΔOAM in Fig. 20.11, we can write
AM AP h
α ≈ tan α = = =
MO PO − u
AM AM h
β ≈ tan β = = =
MI PI −v
AM AM h
γ ≈ tan γ = = =
MC PC r
Substituting for α, β and γ in Eqn. (2.4), we have that;
h µh h
− = (µ − 1)
−u v r
µ 1 µ −1
− = 2.5
v u r
This important relationship correlates with the object and image distances to the
refractive index µ and the radius of curvature of the refracting surface.
200
2.1.1 Refraction at concave spherical surface
Fig. 2.2: From rare to a denser medium concave spherical surface
Fig. 2.3: From a denser to a rarer medium
201
2.1.2 Refraction at convex spherical surface
Fig. 2.4: From a denser to a rarer medium convex spherical surface
Note that µ1, is the refractive index of the medium in which the light is originally
traveling before it gets into medium with refractive index µ2. It is to be noted that that we
must use sign conventions if we are to use this equation to a variety of cases. The side of
the surface in which light rays originate defined as the front side. The other side is called
as the back side. Real images are formed by refraction in back of the surface in contrast
with the mirrors, where real images are formed in front of the reflecting surface. Because
of the difference in location of real images, the refraction sign conventions for v and r are
opposite the reflection sign conventions.
Solved numerical example

One end of a cylindrical glass rod of refractive index 1.5 is a hemispherical surface of
radius of curvature 20 mm. An object is placed on the axis of the rod at 80 mm to the left
of the vertex of the surface (a) Determine the position of the image (b) Determine the
position of the image if the rod is immersed in water of refractive index 1.33.
Solution
The object distance u = 80 mm
The radius of curvature r = 20 mm
µ1 u µ 2 − u1 1 1.5 1.5 − 1
+ = = + =
Applying the formula u v r 80 v 20
r = 120mm
202
Since the glass rod is now immersed in water (µ1 = 1.33), therefore
µ1 u µ 2 − u1 1.33 1.5 1.5 − 1

+ = = + =
u v r 80 v 20
v = −184.6mm
The negative sign indicates a virtual image.
2.2 Dispersion of Light

Dispersion of Light can be defined as the splitting of white light when it passes through a
glass prism into its constituent spectrum of colors (i.e. violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow,
orange and red). Dispersion symbolically means distribution. The white light splits into its
constituent colors at various frequencies and various angles.
2.2.1 Refraction of Light Through Prism

When light travels from one medium to another, the speed of its propagation changes, as
a result, it ‘bends’ or is ‘refracted’. Now when light passes through a prism, it is refracted
towards the base of the triangle. Refraction of light through prism is well illustrated in
(Fig. 2.5). The different colours in the spectrum of light have different wavelengths.
Therefore, the speed with which they all bend varies depending on this wavelength,
where violet bends the most, having the shortest wavelength and red bends the least,
having the longest wavelength. For this reason, the dispersion of white light into its
spectrum of colours takes place when refracted through a prism.
Fig. 2.5: Triangular prism
If a ray OP is incident on the face AB (Fig. 2.5), it is observed that the emergent ray QR
is not parallel to OP. The original ray has been deviated from its original direction by the
glass prism by an angle of deviation d. The angle between the original direction and the
203
final direction of the ray is called angle of deviation. It can be deduced from Figure 2.5
that;
A = r1 + rr2 2.6
The angle of prism is equal to the angle between two straight lines equals to the angle
between their normal. Therefore, the angle of deviation can be obtained by;
d = δ1 + δ 2 2.7
δ1 = i1 − r1
But
δ 2 = i2 − r2
δ1 = (i1 − r1 ) + (i2 − r2 ) 2.8
At minimum deviation the light passes symmetrically through the prism

i1 = i2 and r1 = r2
Then Eq. (2.6) becomes
A = r1 + r2 = r + r = 2r
A = 2r 2.9
Also, we know from Eq. (2,8), that is
d = i1 – r 1 + i2 – r 2
⇒ dmin. = i – r + i - r = 2i – 2r
dmin. = 2i – A 2.10
From equation 2.9, we have that;

A + d min
i= 2.11
2
Applying the expression for refractive index
sin i
µ= 2.12
sin r
Substituting the values of r and i from Eq. (2.9) and Eq. (2.11) in Eq. (2.12), we get the
expression for refractive index
⎛ A+ d ⎞
sin ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
µ= 2.13
⎛ A⎞
sin ⎜ ⎟
⎝2⎠
Eq. (2.13) is the expression for the refractive index in terms of minimum deviation and
refracting angle A. Since i1 = i2 at minimum deviation, it means that minimum deviation
value is for only one angle of incidence.
204
2.2.2 Recombination of white light
Newton found that when an inverted prism is placed in the path of dispersed light then
after passing through the prism, they recombine to form white light. Issac Newton: He
was the first, who obtained spectrum of sunlight by using glass prism. He tried to split
the spectrum of white light more by using another similar prism, but he could not get any
more colours. He repeated the experiment using second prism in inverted position with
respect to the first prism. It allowed all the colours of spectrum to pass through second
prism. He found white light emerges on the other side of second prism (Fig. 2.6).
Source V
Dispersion is caused
by prism P1
Fig. 2.6: Light recombination
2.2.3 Rainbow
It is the spectrum of sunlight in nature. It is formed due to the dispersion of sunlight by
the tiny water droplet, present in the atmosphere.
Formation of the rainbow: The water droplets act like small prism. They refract and
disperse the incident sunlight, then reflect it internally, and finally refract it again when it
comes out of the raindrop. Due to the dispersion of light and internal reflection, different
colours reach the observer’s eye. Red colour appears on top and violet at the bottom of
rainbow. A rainbow is always formed in a direction opposite to that of Sun (Fig.2.6).
At ‘A’ – Refraction and dispersion take place.
At ‘B’ – Internal reflection takes place.
At ‘C’ – Refraction and dispersion take place.
205
Fig. 2.6: Formation of rainbow
206
CHAPTER THREE
THIN LENS AND ABERATIONS
3.1 Introduction
If the thickness of a lens is negligible in comparison to the radii of curvature of its curved
surfaces, the lens is referred to as a thin lens. Consider the different types of thin lenses
in figure 3.1.
Fig. 3.1: types of thin lenses
3.2 Terminologies in Thin Lenses

Principal axis: Is the line joining the centres of curvature of two surfaces of the lens.
Optical centre: Is the point at the centere of the lens situated on the principal axis. The
rays passing through the optical centre do not deviate.
Principal focus: Is the point at which rays parallel and close to the principal axis
converge to or appear to diverge. It is denoted by F (Fig. 3.2a) Rays of light can pass
through a lens in either direction. So every lens has two principal focii, one on its either
side.
Focal length: This is the distance between the optical centre and the principal focus. In
Fig. 3.2b, OF is focal length (f). As per the sign convention, OF is positive for a convex
lens and negative for a concave lens. Focal plane is the plane passing through the focus
of a lens perpendicular to its principal axis
207
Fig. 3.2: (a) concave lens (b) concave
3.3 Lens Maker’s Formula and Magnification

Note that the focal length must be related to the radius of curvature and the refractive
index of the material of the lens. Suppose that a thin convex lens L is held on an optical
bench (Fig. 3.2). Let the refractive index of the material of the lens with respect to air be
µ and the radii of curvatures of its two surfaces be R1 and R2, respectively. Let a point
object be situated on the principal axis at P. C1 and C2 are the centres of curvature of the
curved surfaces 1 and 2, respectively.
Fig.3.3: Point image of a point object for by a thin double convex lens
A ray from P strikes surface 1 at A. C1 N1 is normal to surface 1 at the point A. The ray
PA travels from the rarer medium (air) to the denser medium (glass), and bends towards
the normal to proceed in the direction AB. The ray AB would meet the principal axis C2
C1 at the point I ′ in the absence of the surface 2. Similarly, another ray from P passing
through the optical centre O passes through the Point I ′. I ′ is thus the virtual image of
the object P. Then object distance OP = u and image distance OI ′ = v1 (say).
208
Recall that;
µ 1 µ −1
− = 3.1
v1 u R1
Due to the presence of surface 2, the ray AB strikes it at B. C2 N2 is the normal to it at
point B. As the ray AB is travelling from a denser medium (glass) to a rarer medium
(air), it bends away from the normal C2 N2 and proceeds in the direction BI and meets
another ray from P at I. Thus, I is image of the object P formed by the lens. It means that
image distance OI = v. Considering point object O, its virtual image is I ′ (due to surface
1) and the final image is I. I ′ is the virtual object for surface 2 and I is the final image.
Then for the virtual object I′ and the final image I, we have, object distance OI′ = u′ = v1
and image distance OI = v.
Recall also that;
i = µr 3.2
On applying Eqn. (3.2) and considering that the ray AB is passing from glass to air, we
have that;
1/ µ 1 1/ µ
+ =
v v1 R2
Alternatively,
1 1 1− µ
− =
µv v1 µR2
Multiply both sides by µ, we have that;
1 1 1− µ
− = 3.3
v v1 R2
Adding equation (3.1) and (3.3), we have that;

1 1 ⎛1 1 ⎞
− = (µ − 1)⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟ 3.4
v v1 ⎝ R1 R2 ⎠
If u = ∞, that is the object is at infinity, the incoming rays are parallel and after refraction
will converge at the focus (v = f). Then Eqn. (3.4) reduces to
1 ⎛1 1 ⎞
= (µ − 1)⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟ 3.5
f ⎝ R1 R2 ⎠
209
The focal length of a lens depends on the radii of curvature of spherical surfaces. Focal
length of a lens of larger radii of curvature will be more. Focal length of a lens is smaller
if the refractive index of its material is high.
3.4 Formation of Images by Thin Lenses

The following properties of the rays are used in the formation of images by lenses:
1. A ray of light through the optical centre of the lens passes un-deviated.
2. A parallel ray, after refraction, passes through the principal focus.
3. A ray of light through F or F′ is rendered parallel to the principal axis after refraction.
Any two of these rays can be chosen for drawing ray diagrams.
To know the formation of image by lenses, we need to know the behavior of light
rays when they meet a lens. Though we know that the lens has two surfaces; while
drawing ray diagrams, we can consider the lens as a single surface element because
we assume that the thickness of the lens is very small and show the net refraction at
only one of the surfaces, as shown in the figure 3.4(a) and 3.4(b).
C F F C C F F C
2 2 1 1 1 1 2 2
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.4 Formation of Image by lenses
Behaviour of certain light rays when they are incident on a lens

The behaviour of a light ray when it passes through a lens can be understood by
observing its behaviour in the following situations:
CASE I: Ray passing along the principal axis Any ray passing along the principal axis
is un-deviated (Fig. 3.5a-b).
C F F C
2 2 1 1 C F F C
1 1 2 2
Fig. 3.5a-b
210
CASE II: Ray passing through the optic centre. Any ray passing through the optic centre
un-deviated (Fig. 3.6a-b).
C F F C C F F C
2 2 1 1 1 1 2 2
Fig. 3.6a-b:
CAS3 III: Rays travelling parallel to the principal axis. We know that the rays passing
parallel to the principal axis converge at the focus or appear to diverge from the focus
as shown in figure 3.7(a) and 3.7(b).
C F C C F F C
2 2 F 1 1 2 2
1 1
Fig. 3.7a-b:
CASE IV: Ray passing through focus. Light rays obey the principle of least time.
Hence the ray passing through the focus will take a path parallel to principal axis after
refraction. (Fig. 3.8a-b)
C F F C C F F C
2 2 1 1 1 1 2 2
Fig. 3.8a-b:
3.5 Rules to draw ray diagrams for image formation by lenses

Let us learn a few basic rules to draw ray diagrams to locate the position of images.
For drawing a ray diagram to find position and size of the image formed by lens for
any position of an object on the principal axis you need to follow the rules mentioned
211
below: For locating a position and to find the size of image, we need two rays out of
four rays that were mentioned in case I - IV.
i. Select a point on the object placed at a point on the principal axis.
ii. Draw two rays that were chosen by you from rays mentioned in situations I to IV.
iii. Extend both rays to intersect at a point. This point gives position of the image.
iv. Draw a normal from point of intersection to the principal axis.
v. Length of this normal represents the size of the image.
Observe the following diagrams. They represent image formation by a convex lens for
various positions of the object.
1. Object placed beyond the centre of curvature on the principal axis
F C
1 1
C F Image
2 2
The image is real, inverted and diminished.
2. Object placed at the centre of curvature
Object F C
1 1
C F Image
2 2
The image is real, inverted and same size as the object
212
3. Object placed between the centre of curvature and focal point
Object F C
1 1
C F
2 2 Image
The image is real, inverted and magnified
4. Object located at the focal point
Object F1 C1
C2 F2
Image at
infinity
The image is formed at an infinity
5. Object placed between focal point and optic centre
Image
F C1
1
C2 F2
The image is virtual, erect and magnified.
3.6 Lens Formula

The ray, starting at OI and moving parallel to the principal axis and which
falls on the lens, should pass through the focal point F1 as shown in figure
(3.9). To locate the point of image (II) for the object point (OI), consider
another ray that passes through the optic centre P. We know that any ray
passing through the optic centre P will not deviate.
213
The ray starting from OI and passing through optic centre P, will meet the
refracted ray (first ray) at the point II. This point is the image of the point
OI of the object. Similarly, the image of the point O on the principal axis
is formed at point I on the principal axis (Figure 3.9).
O‘ P‘
F
1 I
O F P
2
I‘
Fig. 3.9
We get the inverted image III of object OOI. PO, PI and PF1 are the object
distance, image distance and focal length respectively. From figure 3.9,
triangle PPIF1 and triangle F1III are similar triangles,
B PPI/III = PF1/F1I 3.6

But from the figure 3.9,
F1I = PI – PF1
substituting F1I in equation (1) above, we get
PPI/III = PF1/ (PI – PF1) 3.7

I
We have another set of similar triangles OO P and PII’.
From these triangles we get, OOI/III = PO/PI.
But from figure (19), OOI = PPI, hence we
have
PPI/III = PO/PI 3.8

From (3.7) and (3.8), we get
PO/PI = PF1/(PI-PF1)
PI/PO = (PI-PF1)/PF1
PI/PO = PI/PF1 – 1
On dividing the equation by PI, we get
1/PO = 1/PF1 -1/PI
1/PO + 1/PI = 1/PF1 3.9
214
The above equation is derived for a particular case of the object while
using a convex lens. To convert this into a general equation, we need to
use the sign convention.
According to the sign convention

PO = -u; PI = v; PF1 = f
Substituting these values in equation 3.9, we get
1 1 1
− = 3.10
v u f
This equation is called lens formula. It can be used for any lens. But remember to use
the sign convention while using this equation.
3.7 Power of a Lens

A practical application of lenses is in the correction of the defects of vision. You may
be using spectacles or seen other learners, parents and persons using spectacles.
However, when asked about the power of their lens, they simply quote a positive or
negative number. What does this number signify? This number is the power of a lens
in diopter. The power of a lens is defined as the reciprocal of its focal length in metre:
1
P= 3.11
f
The S1 unit of power of a lens is m–1. Diopter is only a commercial unit generally used
by opticians. The power of a convex lens is positive and that of a concave lens is
negative. Note that greater power implies smaller focal length. Using lens maker’s
formula, we can relate power of a lens to its radii of curvature:
⎛1 1 ⎞
P = (µ − 1)⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟ 3.12
⎝ R1 R2 ⎠
3.8 Defects in image formation

Lenses and mirrors are widely used in our daily life. It has been observed that they do
not produce a point image of a point object. This can be seen by holding a lens against
the Sun and observing its image on a paper. You will notice that it is not exactly
circular. Mirrors too do not produce a perfect image. The defects in the image
formation are known as aberrations. The aberrations depend on (i) the quality of lens
or mirror and (ii) the type of light used. Two major aberrations observed in lenses and
mirrors, are (a) spherical aberration and (b) chromatic aberration. These aberrations
produce serious defects in the images formed by the cameras, telescopes and
microscopes.
215
3.9 Spherical Aberration
This is a monochromatic defect in image formation which arises due to the sphericity
and aperture of the refracting or reflecting surfaces. The paraxial rays and the marginal
rays form images at different points In and Im respectively (Fig. 3.13).
Fig. 3.13: Spherical aberration in (a) spherical mirror, and (b) lens. Ip is image
formed by the paraxial rays and Im that formed by the marginal rays
The spherical aberration in both mirrors and lenses can be reduced by allowing only
the paraxial rays to be incident on the surface. It is done by using stops. Alternatively,
the paraxial rays may be cut-off by covering the central portion, thus allowing only the
marginal or peripheral rays to form the image. However, the use of stops reduces the
brightness of the image. A much-appreciated method is the use of elliptical or
parabolic mirrors.
The other methods to minimize spherical aberration in lenses are: use of Instruments
plano convex lenses or using a suitable combination of a convex and a concave lens.
3.10 Chromatic Aberration in Lenses

A convex lens may be taken as equivalent to two small-angled prisms placed base to
base and the concave lens as equivalent to such prisms placed vertex to vertex. Thus, a
polychromatic beam incident on a lens will get dispersed. The parallel beam will be
focused at different coloured focii. This defect of the image formed by spherical lenses
is called chromatic aberration. It occurs due to the dispersion of a polychromatic
incident beam (Fig. 2.14). Obviously the red colour is focused farther from the lens
while the blue colour is focused nearer the lens (in a concave lens the focusing of the
red and blue colours takes place in the same manner but on the opposite side of it).
216
Fig. 3.14: Chromatic aberration
To remove this defect, we combine a convergent lens of suitable material and focal
length when combined with a divergent lens of suitable focal length and material.
Such a lens combination is called an achromatic doublet. The focal length of the
concave lens can be found from the necessary condition for achromatism given by;
ω1 ω2
= 3.13
f1 f2
3.11 Combination of Lens

Consider two thin convex lenses A and B having focal lengths f1 and f2, respectively.
They are combined with each other to form a common principal axis. A point object O,
is placed on the common principal axis of the lenses (Fig. 3.15).
Fig. 3.15: two thin converging lenses in contact
Note that lens A forms the image of object O, at I1. This image serves as the virtual
object for lens B and the final image is thus formed at I. Let v be the object distance and
v1 the image distance for the lens A, then using the lens formula, we have that;
217
M M M
− = 3.14
W¯ V †
If v is the final image distance for the lens B, then;
M M M
− = 3.15
W W¯ †H
Note that in writing the above expression, we have taken v1 as the object distance for the
thin lens B. Adding Eqns. (3.14) and (3.15), we have that;
M M M M
− = + 3.16
W V †¯ †H
If the combination of lenses is replaced by a single lens of focal length F such that it
forms the image of O at the same position I, then this lens is said to be equivalent to both
the lenses. It is also called the equivalent lens for the combination. For the equivalent
lens, we can write
M M M
− = 3.17
W V š
M M M
= + 3.18
š †¯ †H
If P is power of the equivalent lens and P1 and P2 are respectively the powers of
individual lenses, then
P = P1 + P2 3.19
Note that Eqns. (3.18) and (3.19) derived by assuming two thin convex lenses in contact
also hold good for any combination of two thin lenses in contact (the two lenses may
both be convex, or concave or one may be concave and the other convex).
Example: Two thin convex lenses of focal lengths 20cm and 40cm are in contact with
each other. Calculate the focal length and the power of the equivalent lens.
Solution:
The formula for the focal length of the combination
M M M
= +
š †¯ †H
M M M Y
= + =
š )^ f^ f^
218
f^
𝐹= = 13.3𝑐𝑚 = 0.133𝑚
Y
Power of the equivalent lens is given by;
M M
𝑃= = = +7.5 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑟𝑒
š ^.MYY
Solved numerical problems

Question 1: What is the image distance in case of convex mirror if the object distance
is 12 cm? It is given that the focal length of the mirror is 12 cm.
Solution:
1 1 1
+ =
v u f
1 1 1
+ =
v − 12 12
1 1 1
= −
v 12 − 12
1 1 1
= +
v 12 12
1 2
=
v 12
1 1
=
v 6
v = 6cm
Question 2: What is the image distance in case of concave mirror if the object distance
is 4 cm? It is given that the focal length of the mirror is 2 cm.
Solution:
1 1 1
+ =
v u f
u = -4cm, v =? f = -2 cm, substituting, we have that;
1 1 1
+ =
v −4 −2
1 1 1
= −
v −2 −4
219
1 1 1
= +
v −2 4
1 −2 1
= +
v 4 4
1 −1
=
v 4
v = −4cm
Question 4: Find out the focal length with sign in case of concave mirror with a radius
of curvature 20 cm.
Solution:
Recall that R = 2f
Where R= radius of curvature of concave mirror, f= focal length of concave mirror
R= 2f
R 20
f = = = 10cm
2 2
Exercises
Q1. What is the image distance in case of convex mirror if the object distance is 16
cm? It is given that the focal length of the mirror is 16 cm.
Q2. What is the image distance in case of concave mirror if the object distance is 16
Q3. What is the image distance in case of concave mirror if the object distance is 30
4Q. A man wants to get a picture of a zebra. He photographed a white donkey after
fitting a glass, with black stripes on to the lens of his camera. What photo will he get?
Explain.
Q5. Two converging lenses are to be placed in the path of parallel rays so that the rays
remain parallel after passing through both lenses. How should the lenses be arranged?
Explain with a neat ray diagram.
Q6. The focal length of a converging lens is 20cm. An object is 60cm from the lens.
Where will the image be formed and what kind of image is it?
220
Q7. A double convex lens has two surfaces of equal radii ‘R’ and refractive index n = 15.
Find the focal length ‘f’.
Q8. Write the lens maker’s formula and explain the terms in it.
Q9. How do you verify experimentally that the focal length of a convex lens is increased
when it is kept in water?
Q10. How do you find the focal length of a lens experimentally?
221
CHAPTER FOUR
OPTICAL INSTRUMENT AND THE HUMAN EYE
4.1 INTRODUCTION
We make use of optical instruments in our everyday life. From when we put on a
pair of sunshades to when we use contact lenses; from the click for photographs
to the times when we look peep through twin binoculars. In this section, we
examine the operating principles of these conventional optical instruments.
Recall that light can behave as a particle and as a wave. For a greater part, we
will base our analysis on the conventional laws of reflection and refraction.
Howbeit, at some point, we may just steal one or two principles on the wave
nature of light.
4.2 THE SIMPLE CAMERA

The single - lens photographic camera is the most common optical instrument.
The simple camera consists of an opaque box, a convex lens, and a photographic
film behind the lens to receive images from the converging lens. As you already
know, the image received would be a real image. In modern digital cameras, the
photographic film has been replaced with complementary metal - oxide
semiconductor (CMOS) sensors and charge - coupled devices (CCD). The CCD
and the CMOS image sensors both convert images into digital form.
Figure 4. 1: A simple camera
222
To focus a camera, the distance between the lens and the sensor is varied using
bellows attached to the device. The amount of adjustment required for a sharp
image (the lens -sensor distance) is dependent on the focal length of the lens as
well as the object distance. The shutter, a mechanical device located between the
lens and the screen, is used to control the exposure time (also known as shutter
speed). Moving objects are normally photographed by using short exposure times
while dark scenes require long exposure times. Typical shutter speeds are 1/30 s,
1/60 s, 1/125 s, and 1/250 s. Stationary objects are often shot with a shutter speed
of 1/60 s. The aperture is used to control the intensity of light reaching the sensor.
The brightness of any image formed on the sensor depends on the light intensity
(I) related to the focal length and lens diameter by equation 4.1.
𝟐
𝑫𝟐 𝟏
𝑰= = 𝒇 4.1
𝒇𝟐
𝒅
The ratio f/d is the f-number and is usually used to describe a lens’ speed. A lens
with a low f - number is a “fast” lens. Camera lenses are often marked with a
range of f - numbers, such as 1.4, 2, 2.8, 4, 5.6, 8, and 11. Any one of these
settings can be selected by adjusting the aperture, which basically toggles the D-
value. Increasing an f - number from a lower higher value (say - from 1.4 to 2.8)
decreases the area of the aperture by a factor of 2.
A higher f - number allows for larger field depth i.e objects at a wide range of
distances from the lens form reasonably sharp images on the sensor. In other
words, the camera doesn’t have to be focused. Most cameras with variable f -
numbers adjust them automatically.
For most simple cameras, aperture size is usually fixed with an f - number of 11.
This high f - number allows for a larger field depth i.e. objects at longer distances
from the lens would still form reasonably sharp images on the sensor.
4.3 The simple magnifier

The simple magnifier is regarded as the most basic of all optical instruments.
This is due to the fact that it is made of just a converging lens. As the name
implies, the instrument is used to increase the apparent size of an object.
Assuming an object is placed at some distance d from the eye as shown in Figure
2, the size of the image formed at the retina would be dependent on the angle (α)
subtended by the object at the eye. This means that as the distance between the
object and the eye becomes smaller, the image will get larger (since α would
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increase). Don’t forget that a normal eye cannot focus on an object closer than 25
centimeters (near point of the eye)!
Figure 4. 2: How the eye observes an object

Now let us plant a converging lens is placed at a point X between that object and
the eye (Figure 3). If the object is just inside the focal point (F) of the lens, a
virtual, upright and enlarged image would be formed behind the object. By
increasing α, the lens gives us the impression that it has pulled the object closer to
the eye. The level to which an object can be magnified by a magnifying lens
depends on its angular magnification. Angular magnification m is the ratio
between the angle α that an object subtends with the eye when the lens is used
and the angle α0 subtended when the object is placed on the near point and no
lens is used (Equation 2).
𝛂
𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 4.2
𝛂𝟎
Figure 4.3: How the eye observes an object with the aid of a lens
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Angular magnification is maximum when the image formed by the lens is at the
near point of the eye corresponding to v=-25 cm (take note of the geometry!). The
object distance corresponding to this v can be calculated using the conventional
lens equation:
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
+ = 4.3
𝒅 (h𝟐𝟓𝒄𝒎) 𝒇
𝟐𝟓𝒇
𝒅= 4.4
𝟐𝟓I𝒇
where f represents focal length of the magnifying lens in centimeters.

From Figures 2 and 3, it can be observed the ray lines describe a right-angled
triangle. Making use of small-angle approximations;
𝒉 𝒉
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜶𝟎 ≈ 𝜶𝟎 ≈ 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜶 ≈ 𝜶 ≈ 4.5
𝟐𝟓 𝒅
The maximum angular magnification at the near point of the eye then becomes;
𝜶 𝒉 𝟐𝟓 𝟐𝟓
𝒅
𝒎𝒎𝒂𝒙 = =𝒉 = = 𝟐𝟓𝒇
𝜶𝟎 𝒅
𝟐𝟓 (𝟐𝟓I𝒇)
𝟐𝟓𝒄𝒎
𝒎𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟏 + 4.6
𝒇
Although a normal eye can focus on an image formed anywhere between the eyes
near point and infinity, it is most relaxed when the image is at infinity. For an
image formed by the magnifying lens to appear at infinity, the object must be
placed at the focal point of the lens such that d=f. In that case, Equation 5
becomes;
𝒉 𝒉
𝜶𝟎 ≈ 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝜶 ≈ 4.7
𝟐𝟓 𝒇
and the angular magnification becomes;

𝜶 𝟐𝟓𝒄𝒎
𝒎𝒎𝒂𝒙 = = 4.8
𝜶𝟎 𝒇
Single lenses can achieve angular magnifications up to about 4 without

aberrations.
Quiz 1
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The sun subtends an angle of 0.5oat the surface of the earth. Calculate the
diameter of an image formed by a camera with a lens of focal length 500 cm.
Solution: Diameter of the image=500tan0.5 = 4.4cm
Quiz 2
What is the maximum angular magnification of a lens with a focal length of 20.0
cm?
Solution: Using equation 10,
𝟐𝟓
𝒎𝒆 = = 1.25 cm
𝟐𝟎
4.4 The Compound Microscope

While the simple lens is revered for its simplicity and portability, its performance
is limited when dealing with small objects or when minute detail is required. The
compound microscope combines two lenses to achieve greater magnification as
shown in figure 4.
Figure 4.4: Compound Microscope

The first lens called the objective is characterized by very short focal length fo
(normally less than 1cm) while the other is the ocular lens (or eyepiece) with a
larger focal length fe of a few centimeters. The two lenses are separated by a
distance L which should be much greater than fo and fe
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Suppose an object O is placed just outside the focal length of the objective, a real,
enlarged and inverted image should be formed at A, just inside the focal point of
the eyepiece (Figure 4). The eyepiece, which serves as a simple magnifier, then
picks the image formed at A as its object and correspondingly produces an image
at B. This is the image that would be seen by the eye and it would be virtual,
inverted and many times enlarged.
The lateral magnification of the objective is;
𝒂 𝒅
𝒎𝒐 = − ≈ − 4.9
𝒃 𝒇𝟎
The angular magnification of the eyepiece for the object (corresponding to the
image at A) would be;
𝟐𝟓𝒄𝒎
𝒎𝒆 = 4.10
𝒇𝒆
The overall magnification of a compound microscope is basically the product of

the lateral and angular magnifications. This is given in Equation 11;
𝒅 𝟐𝟓𝒄𝒎
𝒎 = 𝒎𝒐 𝒎𝒆 = − 4.11
𝒇𝟎 𝒇𝒆
where the negative sign indicates that the image is inverted with respect to the
object.
The optical microscope has been one of the helpful scientific inventions as it has
greatly opened the paths to the understanding of incredibly small objects. Its
capabilities have also been steadily on the rise especially with improvements in
lens grinding precision. Therefore, just like for the simple lens, we may wish to
know the operating limit of a microscope. For example, could a microscope be
made powerful enough to allow us to see an atom? The short answer to this
question is no. Well, as long as visible light is used to illuminate the object. This
is because light does not only operate as a particle but also as a wave. The ability
of an optical microscope to view an object depends on the size of the object
relative to the wavelength of the light used to observe it. That means that to be
seen, the object under a microscope must be at least as large as a wavelength of
light. The dimension of an atom (≈0.1 nm) is many times smaller relative to the
wavelength of light (≈500 nm). Hence, it will never be possible to observe atoms
or molecules with an optical microscope. Howbeit, it mysteries can be probed via
other techniques example those of the electron microscope. For the electron
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microscope, the visible light is replaced with a beam of electrons (with much
smaller dimensions) while the lenses are replaced with electromagnets through
which the beams travel.
Quiz 3
A certain microscope contains an objective lens with focal length of 0.20cm and
an eyepiece lens with focal length of 2.5 cm. If the length of the microscope is 18
cm, what is the magnification of the telescope?
Solution: Using equation 11,
M¡ )o
m=− =900
^.) ).o
4.5 The Telescope

The telescope is an optical instrument used to observe very distance objects such
as other planets, sun and other objects in the solar system. There are two
fundamentally different types of telescope. The refracting telescope uses a
combination of lenses (like the compound microscope) to form an image while
the reflecting telescope, leveraging on the concept of reflection uses a curved
mirror and a lens to form an image.
Figure 4.5: Refractive telescope

For the reflection telescope, two lenses –the objective and the eyepiece are
arranged in an optical system. As before, the image formed by the objective
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becomes the object for the eyepiece. The image formed by the objective is real,
an inverted image of the distant object and is formed at proximity to the focal
point of the eyepiece. This image is at the focal point of the objective since the
object is essentially at infinity (very far off). The eyepiece then uses the image as
its object to form a more enlarged version of the image at B. The two lenses are
separated by the sum of the equivalents of their focal lengths i.e d=fo + fe.
Figure 4.6: Reflective telescope
From the triangles described in Figure 5, and for small angles, we have
229
𝒉s 𝒉s
𝜶𝟎 ≈ 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝜶𝟎 ≈ 4.12
𝒇𝒆 𝒇𝟎
where αo is the angle subtended by the object at the objective.

If α is the angle subtended by the final image, the angular magnification of the
telescope can be expressed as
𝒉s
𝜶 𝒇𝒆 𝒇𝟎
𝒎= = 𝒉s = 4.13
𝜶𝟎 𝒇𝒆
𝒇𝟎
Equation 13 implies that the angular magnification of a telescope equals the ratio
of the objective focal length to the eyepiece focal length. In most applications —
example, the observation of relatively nearby objects such as the Moon, the Sun,
or planets, angular magnification of the telescope is very vital. Bodies like Stars
are however, so far away that they always appear as small points of light
regardless of how much angular magnification is improved. More also, from
Equation 13, it is obvious that large research telescopes used to study very distant
objects would need very large lenses and must have great diameters. Apart from
the space cost of installing such a large instrument, it is immensely difficult and
expensive to manufacture such large lenses for refracting telescopes.
Additionally, the weight of the large lenses can lead to sagging, which is major
cause of spherical aberration.
The above problems can be partially overcome by replacing the objective lens
with a concave reflecting mirror. The mirror can be designed into a parabolic
shape to avoid spherical aberration (figure 6). The reflecting telescope adopts this
design.
Incoming light rays passing down the telescope’s barrel are reflected by the
parabolic mirror at the base and converge toward point C (where an image can be
formed on a photographic plate). However, before the image is formed, a small,
flat mirror at M reflects the light toward an opening in the side of the tube
passing into the eyepiece. As light does not pass through glass in reflecting
telescopes, problems associated with chromatic aberration (encountered when
observing stars with refraction telescope) are virtually eliminated.
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4.6 The Human Eye
The human eye can be described as a fluid-filled quasi-spherical structure. Anatomically
the eye consists essentially of three tissue layers: an outer fibrous layer (the sclera and
cornea), an inner layer consisting largely of the retina, but including also parts of the
ciliary body and iris, and an intermediate vascular layer made up of the choroid and
portions of the ciliary body and iris
The human eye is an optical instrument that enables us a wide view of all the objects around
us and it is a very complex organ. In the study of the structure of the human eye many
components are of interest. The white protective membrane seen when looked into the eye
directly is a Sclera. It is tuff, opaque and fibrous outer layer of the eyeball.
The circular part is the Iris. The color of the eye is determined by the color of the iris. The
center transparent area of the iris is the Pupil. The iris works like the shutter of the camera.
It absorbs most of the light falling on it and allows it to pass through the pupil.
The amount of light that enters the inner part of the eye depends on the size of the pupil. In
bright light, the iris contracts the pupil to restrict the light, whereas in low light it widens the
pupil to emit more light into the eye. The eyeball is spherical in shape. The retina of the eye
is able to detect the light and its color because of the presence of senses known as rods and
cones.
Light entering the human eye is first refracted by the cornea. The refracted light is then
incident on an iris. The lens is just behind the iris and light after refracted through the pupil
falls on it and forms a sharp image. Image formation exactly on the retina enables us to see
the object clearly.
4.6.1 Optical Structure of the Eye

The human eye is an adaptive optical structure consisting of a cornea and crystalline lens
that changes its shape and size to focus objects over a great rang of distances on the retina.
The individual optical structures combine with each other to attain optical performance. The
individual optical structure or components of the human eye are as presented in Figure 4.10.
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Fig. 4.10: The Human Eye
The Cornea
It is the transparent front part of the eye; the cornea plays the most important part in
refraction. The cornea is accounting for approximately two-thirds of the eye's total
optical power. It is almost spherical with an outer radius of curvature of about 8 mm. In
humans, the refractive power of the cornea is approximately 43 diopters. The cornea has
a fixed focusing power, contrary, the curvature of the lens can be adjusted depending on
the distance of the object.
The pupil
The pupil is the black central spherical opening located in the iris, and it is collection of
smooth muscles that contract and dilate the pupil. In the optical system of the eye, the
pupil function as an aperture that controls the amount or intensity of light that forms
images on the retina. Consequently, it is an important element of the optical system.
Additionally, the pupil also determines the quality of the image through its influence on
aberration, ocular depth-of-focus, and diffraction. The pupil has a black appearance and
the reason is that the pupil retains the light that enters the eye.
Lens
The eye lens is thicker at the center than at the edges, yet they are not unavoidably
spherical. The lens is made up of fine hexagonal fibers that stretch in the interior of the
posterior pole of the lens. The lens is bi-convex with a reflective index of about 1.38 at
the center and 1.41 at the edges. The eye lens can regulate its shape by the action the
ciliary muscles, which causes eye accommodation, hence maintaining focus on the retina
for objects at varying distances. The lens is the only optical component of the eye that
uninterruptedly grows with age. The focal length can be adjusted in order to focus
objects over a wide range of distances through a process known as accommodation.
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Retina
The retina is that light-sensitive part of the optical system of the eye basically where
image formation takes place. It is connected to the brain through the optic nerve. The
retina enhances the performance of the eye by wave guiding on-axis and off-axis via its
curvature. It is made up of cones and rods, where the rods are sensitive to vision of low
light levels, but they cannot distinguish colors.
4.6.2 Chambers of the Eye

Basically, there are three sections of the eye as an optical instrument. These are;
i. The anterior chamber: This is the space between the cornea and iris, which contains
aqueous humour.
ii. The posterior chamber: This is the space between the iris, the ciliary body and the
lens, which contains aqueous humour
iii. The vitreous chamber: This is the space between the lens and the retina, which
contains a transparent gel called the vitreous humour.
4.6.3 Principle of the Eye as an Optical System

Light rays on entering the eye via the cornea, light is refracted by the cornea and lens.
Accommodation is the process by which the shape of the lens can be altered to transform
its power when the eye needs to focus at various distances. The iris is directing the
number of light rays that enters into its opening called the pupil by its aperture stop
mechanism. This aperture stop is a very important component of an optical system that is
affecting a wide range of optical procedures. The image on the retina is inverted
comparable to a camera and it is connected to the brain by the optic nerve.
4.6.4 Optical Power of the Eye

Owing to the curvature of the cornea, utmost all the refraction occurs in the cornea,
nevertheless optical power of the eye is at the boundary between the cornea and outside
air. Especially, the index of refraction between the cornea and the outside air also causes
the refraction to happen in the cornea. Moreover, the eye lens similarly offers an
adaptable further lens power. The equivalent power of the eye is the measure of the
capacity of the eye optical system to bend or deviate light rays. The higher the power, the
greater is the capacity to diverge light rays. The equivalent power of the eye is defined
by the relation;
𝒏¾
𝑭= 4.14
𝑷¾𝑭¾
Where;
P’ = is the second principal point, just inside
F’ = is the second focal point. Light entering the eye from the distance is imaged at F’
n’ = is the refractive index of the vitreous
The average power of the eye is 60 m-1 or 60 dioptres (D)
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4.7 Eye Defects and their Corrections
The nearby distance a normal eye can focus an object clearly without accommodation is
called the near point or the least distant of distinct vision. The near point is the closest
distance for which the lens can accommodate to focus light on the retina. This distance is
equivalent to 25 cm for a normal eye while the far point or farthest distance is at infinity.
4.7.1 Myopia
This defect is also called nearsightedness and it is referring to impaired vision where a
person sees clearly near objects, but distant objects are blurred. The defect is caused by
the elongation of the eyeball or excessive curvature of the cornea. The defect can be
corrected by a divergent lens which refocuses the image on the retina.
To correct this defect, a convex is placed Infront of the eye. This will aid in converging
the incoming rays before they enter the eye. By so doing the time the lens in the eye
converges them, they would exactly fall on the retina (Fig. 4.11).
Near point
Object, O Image, I formed behind the retina
Fig. 4.11a: Farsightedness
Convex lens
Image, I formed at the retina
Near point
Object, O
Fig. 4.11b: Correct farsightedness using convex lens
4.7.2 Hypermyopia
The defect is also called farsightedness and it is the opposite of shortsightedness and it is
a defect in vision where a person sees near objects with blurred vision, but distant objects
are clearly visible. The defect occurs when the eyeball is also short or when the focal
length is too great. The problem is corrected by using a converging lens of the required
focal length.
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Rays coming from far point
Image, I formed before the retina
Fig. 4.12a: Nearsightedness
Parallel rays coming

from far point
Image, I formed
at the retina
Fig. 4.12b: correct nearsightedness using concave lens
4.7.3 Astigmatism
This eye defect occurs when the rays of light do not converge to a single focal point on
the retina, either in front or behind. The problem is caused by an irregular curvature of
the cornea. The condition is corrected by using a special spherical cylindrical lens.
4.7.4 Presbyopia
This defect is associated with an eye whose capacity to focus objects gets diminished. As
the age of a person progresses, the power of accommodation decreases due to the
weakening or flagging of the ciliary muscles. The problems can be corrected by using bi-
focal lens.
4.8 Biophysics of Vision

The color of vision of the human eye is very complex because it involves simultaneous
interaction of the two eyes, the brain, receptors and a network of neurons or nervous
systems. The eye is sensitive to wavelength, and the human eye has three receptors and
each senses color which is absorbed at different wavelengths. Therefore, the wavelength
determines the color, while the amplitude determines the brightness of the light.
235
4.9 Photoreceptors
The electrophysiological process that sends visual message to the brain starts when the
receptors absorb light. The receptor types are the rods and the cones.
i. The rods are the optical system that are connected with vision at low light levels. They
reach their maximum density at about 20º from the fovea.
ii. Cones are the optical system associated with vision at higher light levels, including
colour vision. They dominate in the fovea which is about 1.5 mm across. Their density is
a maximum at the pit at the foveola in the middle of the fovea.
4.10 Stereopsis
Stereopsis is a Greek word meaning stereo- solid, and opsis-sight. This is a term that is
most frequently used to refer to the perception of depth and 3-dimensional structure
attained base on visual information originating from two eyes by individuals with
generally established binocular vision. For the reason that the eyes of humans, and many
animals, are located at different lateral positions on the head, binocular vision results in
two slightly different images projected to the retinas of the eyes. The differences are
mainly in the relative horizontal position of objects in the two images. These positional
differences are referred to as horizontal disparities or, more generally, binocular
disparities. Disparities are processed in the visual cortex of the brain to yield depth
perception.
Solved numerical examples

Question: A man cannot see clearly objects beyond 100 cm from his eye. Calculate the
power of the lens he needs to see distant object clearly.
Solution
Since the man cannot see beyond 100 cm, it implies that he is shortsighted and would
need a diverging lens for correction.
u=∞
v = - 100 cm (negative sign because lens is concave)
f =?
Using the lens formula
M M M M M
= + =− +
† W V M^^ u
M M
=− +0
† M^^
f = -100 cm
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Therefore, power
M^^ M^^
𝑃= = = −1.0 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠
† hM^^
Question 2: Determine the power of a concave lens with focal length 20 cm.
Solution
M
𝑃=
†
M^^ M^^
𝑃= =−
† )^
𝑓 = −5 𝑐𝑚
Exercises
1. A camera with shutter speed of 0.02 seconds and lens of focal length 60
mm is used to photograph a car 100 meters away and moving a speed of
50 m/s. By how much will the image formed on the photographic plate be
blurred?
2. A simple two lens refracting telescope has a magnifying power of 15
when the telescope is in normal adjustment. The focal length of the
objective is 75 cm. What is the separation between the objective and the
eye piece?
3. Your friend shows you the image of an amoeba through an optical
microscope. He then tells you that the microscope has an objective with
a0.5 cm focal length and an eyepiece with a 5.0 focal length. The
resulting magnification is 250, 000. Are these values viable for a
microscope? Give your reasons.
237
CHAPTER FIVE
WAVE THEORY OF LIGHT
1.1 Introduction
Light is a form of energy which stimulates our sense of vision. About 1600 Newton
proposed that particles or corpuscles, were emitted from a luminous object. The particle
or corpuscular theory of light was adopted by many scientists of the day owing to the
authority of Newton, but HUYGENS, a Favour Dutch scientist, proposed in about 1680
that light energy travelled from one place to another buy means of wave motion.
The wave theory of light correct, light should bend around a corner, just as sound travels
around a corner. The experimental evidence for the theory in Huygens, time was very
small and the theory was dropped for more than a century. In 1801, however Thomas
Young obtained evidence that light could produce wave effect such as interference and
he was among the first to see clearly the close analogy between sound and light wave. As
the principle of the subject became understood, other experiment was carried out which
showed that light could spread round corners, and Huygens, wave theory of light was
revived, Newton’s corpuscular theory was rejected since it did not agree with
experimental observation. The wave theory of light is an important part in the
development of the subject.
1.2 Huygens’s wave theory

In about 1679 – 1680, Christian Huygens, proposed the wave theory of light. According
to the theory each point in a source of light send out wave in all direction in hypothetical
medium called ether. Ether was assumed to be continuous medium which pervades all
space. Huygens, theory was able to explain reflection, refraction, simultaneously
reflection and refraction, total internal reflection, dispersion, double refraction, etc.
however, it fails to explain the recti-linear propagation of light, diffraction and
polarization.
1.3 Wave front

The explanation of any phenomenon of light by wave theory is based on the geometrical
construction (in terms of wave front) known as Huygens, principle, it is important to
mention here about the wave front of any source. According to wave theory, a point
source of light when placed in an isotropic medium (same properties in all direction)
emits light wave in all directions.
As the surrounding medium: The Ether is homogenous and isotropic, these waves are
spread out uniformly in the form of ever-increasing concentric spheres with a velocity of
3 x 108 m/s. the disturbance will reach simultaneously to all particle lying on the surface
238
with the point source at the center. Such a sphere is called a wave front. Thus, a wave
front at any time is defined as a continuous locus of all the neighboring particles
vibrating in the same phase that is, the shape of the wave front depends upon the shape
of the light source used. It is generally of three types:
1. Spherical wave front: Consider the case when light spread from a liquid source
O in an isotropic medium as shown fig 1a. the light wave travel the same
velocity in all directions and hence arrive simultaneously at all point lying on the
sphere having O as its center. Every spherical surface will be in a spherical wave
front as all the particles of this surface will be in the same phrase.
2. Cylindrical wave front: when the source of light in linear like OO (fig 1b) then
in all isotropic medium wave front takes the cylindrical shape. Every particle of
such a cylindrical surface will be in the same phrase.
3. Plane wave front: of a point or linear source is placed at infinity, then the
portion of spherical or cylindrical wave front is a limited or small region is
simply a plane and is called a plane wave front as shown in fig 1c
DRAWING FIG 1, a b c
Fig 1a Fig 1b Fig 1c
It should be remembered that the direction of propagation of light is always

perpendicular to the wave front at its every point. A line drawn perpendicular to the
wave front is called a RAY.
1.4 Huygens, principle of propagation of wave front

Huygens principle provides a geometrical method of finding the shape and position of
the wave front at a certain instant from its shape and position of some earlier instant,
Huygens, principle stated in the following two parts:
239
1. Each point of the wave front act as a centre of new disturbance and emits its own
sets of spherical waves called secondary wavelets. These secondary wavelets
travel in all direction with the velocity of light so long as they move in the same
medium.
2. The envelop or the focus of these wavelets in the forward direction gives the
position of the new wave fronts at any subsequent time.
1.5 Reflection
A ray is a mathematical line drawn perpendicular to the wave front of a light wave. It
shows the direction of propagation of the wave front of a light wave. It shows the
direction of electromagnetic energy. In mirror reflection, the angle of meldence (Өi)
equals the angle of reflection (Өr), as shown in the diagram below. Furthermore, the
incident ray, reflected ray and normal to the surface all lie in the same place called the
place of incidence; this statement forms the law of reflection.
Fig. 5.2: Reflection of light
1.6 Speed of Light (c)

As ordinary measured varies from material to material. Light travels faster in vacuum,
where the speed is c = 2.998 x 108 ms-1. Its speed in air is c/1.0003. in water its speed is
c/1.33, and in ordinary glass it is about c/1.5. nonetheless, on a microscopic level light is
composed of photons and photons exist only at speed c.
Index of Refraction (n): the absolute index of refraction of a material is defined as;
~Å‚‚} ˆ† ‡=•v• =• W€vVVƒ v
n = = 5.1
~Å‚‚} ˆ† ‡=•v• =• •v‚ ƒ€•‚™=€‡ «
For any two materials, the relative index of refraction of material – 1, with respect to
material – 2 is
240
•M
Relative index = 5.2
•)
Where n1 and n2 are the absolute refractive indices of the two materials.
1.7 Refraction
When a ray of light is transmitted obliquely through the boundary between two materials
of unlike index of refraction, the ray bends. This phenomenon, called refraction, is
shown below. nt > ni, the ray refracts as shown below, it bends towards the normal as it
enters the second materials. If nt < ni, however the ray reflected from the normal.
Fig. 5.3: Refraction of wave
Snell’s Law: the way in which a ray refracts at an interface between materials with
indices of refraction ne and nt is given by Snell’s law
Ne Sin ϴi = nt sin ϴt
•‚ ÍÎÏ w•
=
•• ÍÎÏ w‚
~=•wM eM
N2 = =
ÍÎÏ w) e)
241
Exercises
1. Using Huygens, principle of secondary wavelets explains, making use of the

diagram, from a refracted wave front is formed when a beam of light travels in a
glass, crosses the glass – air boundary. Show how the sines of the angles of
incidence and refraction are related to the speed of light in air and glass.
2. State Snell’s law of refraction and define refractive index. Show how refraction
of light at the plane interface can be explain on the basics of the wave theory of
light.
Light when travelling through a pool of water in a parallel beam is incident on
the horizontal surface, if speed in water is 2.2 x 108ms-1. Calculate the maximum
angle which the beam can make with the vertical if light is to escape into the air
where its speed is 3.0 x 108ms-s, at this angle in water, how with the path of the
beam be affected in a thick layer of oil of the refractive index 1.5, is floated on
the surface of the water?
3. Refraction occurs when wave pass from one medium into another of different
refractive index. The table below gives data for sound and light waves.
a. Plane waves travelling in air meet a plane water surface.
i. Use this data in the table above to calculate the angle of refraction in the water for light
waves and for sound waves if the angle of incidence of the plane wave is 100
i. Explain what happens in each case when the angle of incidence is 150.
a. Submarine detection helicopter are fitted with transmitters which sent out sound
waves. The reflected signal identifies the location of the submarine. Explain why
it is common for the transmitter to be suspended from the helicopter by a wire so
that it is under water.
4. What is Huygens, principle?
Draw and explain diagrams which shows the position of light wave front at
successive equal time intervals when
a. Parallel light is reflected from a plane mirror, the angle of incidence being about
600.
b. Monochromatic light originating from a small source in water is transmitted
through the surface of the water into the air.
Describe an experiment and add the necessary theoretical explanation to show that in air
the wave length of blue light is less than that of red light.
5a. Explain Huygens, wave theory of light what is wave front.
242
b. Explain clearly Huygens, principle of wave propagation and apply it to explain the
refraction of plane wave front from a plane surface and prove the laws of reflection of a
plane wave at a plane
Objective Type Questions

1. The properties of light can be explained by
a. Wave theory
b. Particle theory
c. Both wave and particle theories
d. None of the above.
2. Light appears to travel in a straight line because
a. It consists of small particles
b. The velocity of light is very small
c. The wave length of light is very small
d. Light is reflected by surroundings
3. Newton postulated his corpuscular theory on the basic of:
a. Newton’s ring
b. Rectilinear propagation of light.
c. Colours through thin films
d. Dispersion of white light into colour.
4. The idea of quantum nature of light has emerged in an attempt to explain:

a. Radioactivity
b. Thermionic emission
c. Thermal radiation of black bodies.
d. Interference of light.
5.Huggens, conception of secondary waves
a. Allows us to find a focal length of a thick lens
b. Gives us the multiplying power of microscope
c. Is a geometrical method to find the position of a wave front?
d. is used to determine the velocity of light.
6. In Huygens, wave theory, the locus of all point in the same state of vibration is called:
a. Half period zones

b. A wave fronts
c. A ray
d. Vibrator
243
7. Light wave are
a. Electromagnetic waves in nature
b. Cosmic lays
c. Infra-red rays
d. Invisible in atmosphere
8. The electromagnetic wave travel with a velocity
a. Final to the velocity of sound
b. Equal to the velocity of light
c. Less than the velocity of light
d. Greater than the velocity of light
9. Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory of light suggested that the light consists of
oscillation of;
a. Magnetic vector alone
b. Electric vector alone
c. Electric and magnetic vectors perpendicular to each other.
d. Paralleled electric and magnetic vectors.
10. Quantum nature of light is not supported by the phenomenon of;
a. Compton effect
b. Photo – electric effect
c. Emission and absorption spectrum
d. Interference of light.
244
CHAPTER SIX
INTERFERENCE, DIFFRACTION
AND POLARIZATION OF LIGHT
6.1 Interference of light waves, constructive interference

Suppose two sources of light, A, B, have exactly the same wavelength and magnitude of
amplitude, and then vibrations are always in phase with each other, as shown below. The
two sources A and B are therefore coherent sources
Fig. 6.1: Interference
Their combine effect at a point is obtained by adding algebraically the displacements at

the point due to the source individually. This is known as the principle of super position.
So, their resultant effect at X, for example, in the algebraic sum of vibrations at X due to
the sound A along and, the vibrations at X due to the source B alone. If X is equidistance
from A and B, the vibrations at X due to the sources are always in phrase as
i. The distance AX travelled by a wave starting from A is equal to the distance
BX travelled by the wave starting from B.
ii. The sources, A and B are assumed to have the same wave length and to be
always in phase with each other
iii.
(i) due to A
(ii) due to B
The above figures for (i) and (ii), illustrate the vibration at X due to A and B, which have
the same amplitude.
245
Destructive interference
(iii) Resultant
Questions
1. In a Young’s slit experiment, the separation between the first and fifth bright
fringe is 2.5mm when the wave length used is 6.2 x 10-7m. the distance from the
slits to the screen is 0.80m. calculate the separation of the two slits.
2. Air wedge film is formed by placing aluminum foil between two glass sides at a
distance of 75mm from the line of contact of the slides. When the air wedge is
illuminated normally by light of wave length, 5.60 x 10-7m, interference fingers
are produced parallel to a line of contact which have a separation of 1.20mm,
calculate the angle of the wedge and the thickness of the foil.
Question
1. A single slit of width D = 0.10mm is illuminated by parallel light of wave length
600nm, and diffraction bands are observed on a screen 40cm from the slit. How
far is the third dark band from the central bright band?
2. Green light of wave length 540nm is diffracted by grating ruled with 2000
lines/cm
a. Complete the angular elevation of the third order image
b. Is a 10th – order image possible?
3. Two light sources send identical light wave of 20cm wavelength out along the
+x – axis. At what separations of the sources will a man on the axis beyond them
detect the light waves
a. The brightest and
b. The weakest light
6.2 Diffractions of light waves

Diffraction of light waves is the spreading or bending of light waves as they pass through
an aperture or round the edge of a banner. The diffracted waves subsequently interfere
with each other producing regions of reinforcement and weakening. The phenomenon
gives considerable support to the wave theory of light. Diffraction also occurs with
streams of particles because of the quantum- mechanical wave nature of such particles.
The simplest form of the diffraction of light is Far field or Fraunhofer diffraction. It is
observed on a screen that is far away from the aperture or obstacle which is obstructing
246
an incident stream of plane waves. Diffraction places a limit on the size of details that
can be observed optically.
Fraunhofer diffraction: when parallel rays of light of incident of wavelength are

normally upon a slit of width D, a diffraction pattern is observed beyond a slit. On a
faraway screen complete darkness is observed at angles ϴm to the straight – through
beam, where
M’λ = D Sin ϴm‫׳‬ 6.1
Here, m‫ = ׳‬+1, +2, +3, ……, is the order number of the diffraction dark band.
Diffraction grating equation: a diffraction grating is a repetitive array of aperture or

obstacles that alter the amplitude or phrase of a wave. It usually consists of a large
number of equally spaced, parallel.
6.3 Polarization of light: the process of confining the vibrations of the electric vector of
light wave to one direction. In polarized light the electric field vibration in all direction
perpendicular to the direction of propagation. After reflection or transmission through
certain substances (Polaroid) the electric is confined to one direction and the radiation is
said to be plane – polarized light.
The plane of polarized light can be rotated when it passes through certain substances.
Polaroid is an artificial crystalline material which can be made in thin sheets. It has the
property of allowing only light wave due to vibrations in a particular plane to pass
through.
Suppose two Polaroid’s P and Q are placed one behind the other in front of a window,
and the light passing through P and Q is observed,
247
The figure above shows when the Polaroid’s have their axes and is parallel, the light
passing through Q appears slightly darker.
i. if Q is now rotated showing about the line of vision with its plane parallel to P
the light passing through Q becoming darker and darker and disappear at
one stage. In this axes A and B are perpendicular.
ii. When Q is rotated further the light reappears and becomes brightest when the
axes a, b is again parallel.
This simple experiment leads to the conclusion that light waves are transverse waves,
otherwise the light emerging from Q could never be extinguished by simply rotating the
Polaroid. Polaroid, because of its internal molecular structure, transmit only those
vibrations of light in a particular plane. Consequently,
a. Plane: polarized light is obtained beyond the crystal p.

b. No light emerges beyond Q when its axis is perpendicular to that of P.
6.4 APPLICATIONS OF POLARIZED LIGHT

1. Polaroid’s: Polaroid’s are used in many practical applications of polarized light.
For example, they are used in sunglasses to reduce the intensity of incident
sunlight and to eliminate reflected light.
2. Photo elasticity: also called photo- elastic stress analysis, used polarized light.
Under mechanical stress, certain isotropic substances such as glass and celluloid
become doubly pass through crossed Polaroid’s
3. In films, it is possible to give the illusion of three dimension or 3-d by
projecting two over lapping pictures, with slightly different views, on the same
screen.
4. Saccharimetry: it is the measurement of the concentration of sugars, these
solutions rotate the plane of polarization of plane polarized light as the light
248
passes through solids such as quartz produce the same effect, which is called
optical activity
Question
1. Explain what is meant by the statement “that beam of light in plane – polarized”.
Describe one experiment in each instance
To demonstrate
a. Polarization by reflection
b. Polarization by double refraction
c. Polarization by scattering
249
SECTION 4
WAVES AND SOUND
250
CHAPTER ONE
CIRCULAR MOTION
1.1 Introduction
Circular motion is rotation along a circular path or a movement of an object along the
circumference of a circle. Circular motion can be either uniform or non-uniform. For
uniform circular motion, the angular rate of rotation and speed will be constant while
during non-uniform motion the rate of rotation keeps changing. In a circular motion, the
distance between the body and a fixed point on the surface remains the same. Examples
of circular motion include; a ceiling fan’s blades rotating around a hub, an artificial
satellite orbiting the Earth at a constant height, a car turning through a curve in a race
track, a stone that is tied to a rope and is being swung in circles, a gear turning inside a
mechanism, an electron moving perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field, etc. An
important feature of circular motion is that the direction of motion is changing
continuously unlike in the case of linear motion. Thus, circular motion is described in
terms of angular variables. In describing circular motion, angles are usually measured in
radians.
A radian is the angle subtended at the centre of the circle by an arc equal to the radius.
One radian is approximately equal to 57o18’. The number of radians subtended at the
centre of a circle is given as the ratio of length of arc to the radius of the circle.
øöÏùúû ,- ÷õô (Í)

i.e. = 𝜃
õ÷/ÎÿÍ ,- úûö ôÎõôøö(õ)
~
Therefore, = 𝜃 or 𝑠 = 𝑟𝜃
™
Since the circumference of a circle =2𝜋𝑟, angle subtended at centre by circumference =

)y™
= 2𝜋 = 360
™
1.2 Uniform Circular Motion

Uniform circular motion describes the motion of a body moving a circular path at a
constant speed. The body’s distance from the axis of rotation remains constant at all
times since it describes circular motion. Although the body's speed is constant;
its velocity is not constant. This is because velocity which is a vector quantity depends
on both the body's speed and its direction of travel. This changing velocity is due to the
presence of acceleration known as centripetal acceleration. This centripetal
acceleration which is produced by centripetal force is of constant magnitude and directed
at all times towards the axis of rotation.
251
1.2.1: Angular Velocity
The rate of change of angle with respect to time is known as angular velocity. It is
measured in radians per second, (rad/s). The symbol for angular velocity is ω
(pronounced “omega”). ⍵ is given by
Œ
⍵= 1.1
•
If an object is moving in a circular path at constant speed, it accelerates. This is because

its velocity is changing, while its speed is constant. Velocity in this context is the speed in
a given direction. So if direction is changing, the velocity is changing, even though
speed, therefore the object will accelerate.
1.2.2: Relationship between Linear Speed (v) and Angular Velocity (ω)
From equation 1, 𝜃 (in radians) is expressed as

~
𝜃= 1.2
™
Divide equation 1.2 by t
Œ ~
= 1.3
• ™•
𝜃 𝑠
𝑏𝑢𝑡 ⍵ = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 =
𝑡 𝑡
W
𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠, ⍵ = 1.4
™
Cross multiplying gives; 𝑣 = ⍵𝑟 1.5
Equation 1.5 gives the relationship between linear speed (v) and angular velocity (ω)
The rate of change of linear velocity gives acceleration. This acceleration is called
centripetal acceleration. Centripetal Acceleration is the acceleration of a body moving
towards the centre of a circle. The centripetal acceleration is expressed as
WH
𝑎v = 𝑟𝜔 ) = (since 𝑣 = ⍵𝑟)
™
1.6
The force acting towards the centre required to keep an object moving in a circle is
called centripetal force and it has a magnitude of
ƒW H
𝑓v = = 𝑚𝑟⍵ 1.7
™
252
Since f = ma
If the average angular acceleration is constant, it can be shown that the following
equations of circular motion hold.
M
Average 𝜔 = (𝜔 + 𝜔ˆ )
)
𝜃 = 𝜔𝑡
𝜔 = 𝜔ˆ + 𝛼𝑡
M
𝜃 = 𝜔ˆ 𝑡 + 𝛼𝑡 )
)
𝜔 ) = 𝜔ˆ) + 2𝛼𝜃
The table below is some equations of linear motion and their corresponding circular
motions with angular acceleration.
Table 1
Linear motion equations and their corresponding circular motions equations
linear motion with constant acceleration, a Circular motions with constant angular
acceleration, 𝛼
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 𝜔 = 𝜔ˆ + 𝛼𝑡
1 ) 1 )
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 𝜃 = 𝜔ˆ 𝑡 + 𝛼𝑡
2 2
𝑣 ) = 𝑢 ) + 2𝑎𝑠 𝜔 ) = 𝜔ˆ) + 2𝛼𝜃
(𝑢 + 𝑣) 𝜔ˆ + 𝜔
𝑠= 𝑡 𝜃= 𝑡
2 2
1.3 Non-uniform circular motion

We already studied Uniform Circular Motion, which is the motion of an object with a
constant angular velocity. If the angular velocity of an object remains constant, the
angular acceleration of the object is zero, the tangential acceleration of the object is zero,
and its motion is commonly referred to as Uniform Circular Motion. The motion of an
object in non-uniform circular motion is along a circle, but the speed of the object is not
constant. Examples of non-uniform circular motion are Motion of a body on vertical
circle, vertical circle with a string and bob, roller coaster, Motion of the Earth around the
Sun, motion of cyclists on a circular track etc. The following point is particularly true:
• The object’s velocity vector is always tangent to the circle.
• The speed and angular speed of the object are not constant.
• The angular acceleration of the object is not zero.
253
• The acceleration vector will not point towards the center of the circle.
Also because the acceleration vector does not point to the center of the circle, it is
generally helpful to divide it into two components: aR, which is radial (towards the center
of the circle), and aT, which is tangent to the circle (and perpendicular to the radial
component). The radial component is "responsible" for the change in velocity direction
that causes the item to go in a circle. The magnitude of the radial acceleration is same to
that of uniform circular motion:
WH
𝑎™ = = 𝑟𝜔 1.8
™
where the speed is no longer constant in time. The tangential component of the
acceleration is responsible for changing the magnitude of the velocity of the object:
}W
𝑎M = = 𝑟𝛼 1.9
}•

1. An electrically powered wheel rotates about its axis at 900 revolutions per minute.
When the power is turned off, it comes to a complete stop in one minute. Determine the
wheel's angular deceleration in rad/s2.
Solution
We know from the laws of motion in the case of rotational motion that, 𝜔 = 𝜔^ + 𝑎𝑡
)y
Where, 𝜔 = 0; 𝜔^ = 900 x , and t = 60seconds
x^
𝜔 = 𝜔^ + 𝑎𝑡
)y
0 = 900 x + 𝑎 x 60
x^
-30 𝜋 = 60𝑎
𝜋
𝑎= − 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑠 h)
2
𝜋
∴ 𝑎= 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑠 h)
2
2. A bus is traveling at a speed of 10m/s on a circular track with a radius of 1000cm. A
100cm long light rigid rod suspends a pendulum from the bus's roof. Determine the angle
formed by the rod and the track. (Take g=10m/s2)
Solution
r = 1000cm = 10m, v = 10m/s and g = 10m/s2
254
𝑣)
tan 𝜃 =
𝑟𝑔
10)
tan 𝜃 =
10 x 10
tan 𝜃 = 1
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛hM 1 = 45°
3. in order to avoid skidding, what is the minimum velocity with which a car driver must
navigate a curve with radius 150m and coefficient of friction 0.6?
Solution
ƒW H
Substitute N = mg in the equation = 𝜇𝑁
™
ƒW H
= 𝜇𝑚𝑔
™
)
𝑣 = 𝜇𝑟𝑔
𝜇 = 0.6, 𝑟 = 150𝑚, 𝑔 = 10𝑚𝑠 h)
𝑣 ) = 0.6 x 150 x 10
𝑣 = 900
𝑣 = 30 𝑚𝑠 hM
4. What is the angular velocity of an object in a circular orbit that rotates 200 times per
minute?
Solution
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
)^^
𝜔 = 2 x 3.142 x
x^
𝜔 = 20.95 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
5. Consider a particle that is moving in a simple harmonic motion with velocity of the
particle at position y1 is u1 and y2 is u2. Prove that the ratio of period and amplitude is
M 6HH h 6¯H
= 2𝜋
1 V¯ 6HH h VHH 6¯H
H
255
Solution
Using 𝑣 = 𝜔 𝐴) − 𝑥 ) 𝑜𝑟 𝑢 = 𝜔 𝐴) − 𝑦 ) ,
We have, 𝑢 ) = 𝜔 ) (𝐴) − 𝑦 ) )
∴ at position y1, we have that, 𝑢M ) = 𝜔 ) (𝐴) − 𝑦M) ) (1)
Also, at position y2, we have that, 𝑢) ) = 𝜔 ) (𝐴) − 𝑦)) ) (2)
Subtracting (2) from (1), gives
𝑢M ) − 𝑢) ) = 𝜔 ) 𝐴) − 𝑦M) − 𝜔 ) (𝐴) − 𝑦)) )
𝑢M ) − 𝑢) ) = 𝜔 ) (𝑦)) − 𝑦M) ) (3)
V¯ H h VH H
Making 𝜔 ) subject of formula , we have 𝜔 ) = (4)
6HH h 6¯H
V¯ H h VH H
Thus, 𝜔= (5)
6HH h 6¯H
)y V¯ H h VH H
But, 𝜔= = (6)
M 6HH h 6¯H
6HH h 6¯H
∴ 𝑇 = 2𝜋 (7)
V¯ H h VH H
Dividing (1) by (2), we have,
V¯ H } H (1H h 6¯H ) V¯H 6HH h VHH 6¯H

= ≡ 𝐴= (8)
VH H } H (1H h 6HH ) W¯H h WHH
M 6HH h 6¯H
Dividing equation (7) by (8), gives; = 2𝜋 (9)
1 V¯ 6HH h VHH 6¯H
H
Exercise
1. A 900 kg car traveling at 10 m/s makes a turn around a circle of radius 25.0 m.
Calculate the (a) acceleration and (b) net force acting on the car. Ans.: (a) 4ms-2
(b) F = 3600N
2. On the football field, a 95-kg halfback makes a turn. The halfback sweeps out a path
that is a portion of a 12-meter-radius circle. If in 2.1 seconds, the halfback completes a
256
quarter-circle turn. Determine the halfback's speed, acceleration, and net force. Ans.: v
= 8.97m/s; a = 6.71m/s2; F = 637 N
3. Calculate the centripetal force acting on a 40 kg child who completes 10 revolutions

around the Cliffhanger in 29.3 seconds. The barrel has a radius of 2.90 meters. Ans.:
F = 533N
4. A 2 kg ball on a string is rotated around a 10 m radius circle. The maximum tension

that can be applied to the string is 50 N. What is the ball's maximum speed? Ans.: v
= 15.8 m/s
5. A satellite is said to be in geosynchronous orbit if it rotates once per day around the
Earth. All geosynchronous orbiting satellites must rotate at a distance of 4.23x107 meters
from the earth's center. What is the magnitude of a geosynchronous satellite's
acceleration? Ans.: a = 224 m/s2
6. The completion of a vertical loop on a motorcycle is a popular daredevil trick.

However, this trick is dangerous because if the motorcycle does not travel fast enough,
the rider will fall off the track before reaching the top of the loop. What is the minimum
speed required for a rider to successfully complete a 10m vertical loop? Ans.:
𝒗𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 9.9 m/s
7. A nurse measured a patient's average heart rate and reported it to the doctor in terms of
time as 0.8s. The patient's heart rate should be expressed in terms of the number of beats
per minute. Ans.: f = 75 beats per minute.
257
CHAPTER TWO
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
2.1 Fundamental concepts

Oscillation is the repeated change of a quantity about a central value (often a point of
equilibrium) or between two or more distinct states, generally in time. Oscillations are
motions that are repeated at regular intervals of time. Mechanical oscillation is mostly
described by the term vibration. A swinging pendulum and mass on a spring are two
well-known examples of oscillation. They are said to be periodic if the varying physical
quantities are repeated in equal time interval. Periodic motion occurs when an object
repeats its motion along a certain path, around a specific point, at a set interval of time.
The swing of a pendulum, the motion of a spring, the vibrating of a guitar string, the
rotation of the Earth on its axis, the revolving of the Earth around the Sun, the revolving
of the Sun around the center of the Galaxy, and so on are all examples of periodic
movements.
Simple harmonic motions which is a very important type of periodic motion is defined as
follows:
Simple harmonic motion (abbreviated SHM) is a type of periodic motion in which the
restoring force on the moving item is directly proportional to the magnitude of the
object's displacement from its equilibrium position and acts in the direction of the
object's equilibrium position. It generates an oscillation that, if not disrupted by friction
or other kinds of energy dissipation, can persist indefinitely. It is simply a to and fro
motion of particles, objects or points. A displaced simple pendulum and a vibrating mass
on a spiral spring are two well-known examples of objects that perform simple harmonic
motion. However, if the mass is displaced from the equilibrium position, the
spring exacts a restoring elastic force that obeys Hooke’s law.
Mathematically, the restoring force F is given by
𝐹 = −𝑘𝑒 2.1
where F is the restoring elastic force exerted by the spring (in N), k is the Spring constant
(Nm-1 or Kg/s2) and x is the displacement from the equilibrium position (m).
The motion of such a system is referred to as simple harmonic motion (SHM). We may
use Newton's second law (F = ma) to calculate the motion.
}H4
−𝑘𝑒 = 𝑚 = 𝑚𝑥 2.2
}• H
The solution of this equation gives the displacement, x as a function of time, t. The
general solution is of the form
𝑥 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + ∅)
258
where ϕ which is called the phase, angle defines the initial displacement 𝑥 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛∅
}4 }H4
thus, 𝑥 = = −𝜔𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + ∅) and 𝑥 = = −𝜔 ) 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + ∅)
}• }• H
}H4
therefore, −𝑘𝑒 = 𝑚 = 𝑚𝑥 becomes −𝑘𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 + ∅) = 𝑚{−𝜔 ) 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 + ∅ }
}• H
ž
𝑘 = 𝑚𝜔 ) 𝑜𝑟 𝜔 = 2.3
}
After a period, T, the motion repeats again, resulting in

𝑥 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜔𝑇 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 − 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
We can answer this problem if we set
)y
𝜔𝑇 = 2𝜋 ≡ 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
M
Where 𝜔 = angular frequency
2.2: Simple pendulum and Mass on a spring

A simple pendulum is a form of simple harmonic oscillator. A simple pendulum is a tiny
mass hung by a light wire or thread. When a basic pendulum is shifted out of balance, it
swings in an arc. The length of the displacement is referred to as the arc length and is
denoted by the symbols. When displacement occurs, a restoring force is generated in the
direction of the equilibrium position. This restoring force is proportionate to the
displacement. Two factors influence the period of a simple pendulum, which is the
length of time it takes for one oscillation to occur. The length of the rope or wire is one
element, while gravity's acceleration is another. The time T is almost completely
independent of amplitude and mass.
A pendulum is a basically a harmonic oscillator for especially for tiny displacements. A

simple pendulum is an item with a tiny mass, commonly known as the pendulum bob,
hanging from a light wire or thread, as shown in Figure 1. By delving deeper into the
basic pendulum, we can uncover the conditions under which it executes simple harmonic
motion and obtain an intriguing equation for its period.
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FIG. 2.1. Simple Pendulum – Harmonic Oscillation
FIG. 2.2: A simple pendulum has a small-diameter bob and a string
Figure 2 shows that the net force on the bob is tangent to the arc and is equal to
−𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃. Where the weight 𝑚𝑔 is resolved into components 𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 along the string
and 𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 tangent to the arc. Tension in the string exactly cancels the component
𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 parallel to the string. This leaves a net restoring force back toward the
equilibrium position at θ = 0.
Simple harmonic oscillation can be used to show that the restoring force is directly
proportional to the displacement. In trying to do this, if we have a simple harmonic
oscillator, we should note that for small angles (less than 15o), 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝜃. For such small
angle(s), 𝐹 = −𝑚𝑔𝜃.
The displacement s is directly proportional to θ. When θ is expressed in radians, the arc
length in a circle is related to its radius, r, by:
~
𝑠 = 𝑟𝜃 ≡ 𝜃 =
™
For small angles, the restoring force is expressed as follows:
𝑚𝑔
𝐹 ≈ − 𝑠
𝑟
260
This expression is of the following form:
𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥 2.4
ƒ•
𝑘 is force constant is given by 𝑘 = and the displacement 𝑥 is represented using 𝑠.
™
The restoring force is directly proportional to the displacement for angles less than 150,
thus the simple pendulum is a simple harmonic oscillation.
We can use this equation to determine the period of a pendulum with amplitudes smaller
than 15o. The expression for simple pendulum is:
𝑚
𝑇 = 2𝜋 𝑚𝑔
𝑟
‡
Therefore, 𝑇 = 2𝜋 2.5
•
The only factors that affect the period of a basic pendulum are its length and gravity's
acceleration. Other parameters, such as mass, have no effect on the period. The period,
T, of a pendulum, like that of simple harmonic oscillators, is virtually independent of
amplitude, especially if, is less than approximately 15o. Furthermore, when the
displacement is highest in either direction, the speed is zero since the velocity must now
shift direction. This means that the body comes to a momentary rest. The displacement
of an object performing SHM is zero at equilibrium, the speed is maximum, and the
acceleration is zero.
2.2.1 Mass on a spring

The case of a mass on the end of a spring, is a common example of an objecting
oscillating back and forth with a restoring force directly proportional to the displacement
from equilibrium (obeying Hooke's Law). Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) is the name
given to oscillatory motion for a system when the net force can be represented by
Hooke's law. We can now compute the period and frequency of an oscillating mass at the
end of a spring. Knowing just the mass, m, and the force constant, k, the time T may be
calculated:
ƒ
𝑇 = 2𝜋 2.6
ž
T, is the period of the spring, m is the mass, and k is the spring constant. The period of a
spring-mass system is proportional to the square root of the mass and inversely
proportional to the square root of the spring constant.
M
When using 𝑓 = , the frequency is expressed as
M
M ƒ
𝑓= 2.7
)y ž
261
We can clearly grasp the dependency of these equations on m and k. If the mass of an
oscillating spring system with a given k is raised, the inertia increases, causing the
acceleration due to the restoring force F to decrease (recall Newton's Second Law: F =
ma). This will increase the oscillation time while decreasing the frequency. Increasing
the force constant k, on the other hand, will increase the restoring force according to
Hooke's Law, causing the acceleration at each displacement point to rise as well. This
shortens the time while increasing the frequency. The largest deviation from equilibrium
is referred to as the amplitude.
2.2.2 Characteristics of SHM

1. Repetitive motion through a central equilibrium point.
2. Period of each cycle is constant.
3. Symmetry of maximum displacement
4. Force directly proportional to the displacement from equilibrium
5. The motion is caused by a force that is directed toward the equilibrium point
2.2.3 Illustrative Examples

1. What is the acceleration due to gravity in a region where a simple pendulum having a
length 75 cm has a period of 1.7 s?
Solution
‡
We use the formula 𝑇 = 2𝜋
•
‡
Making g the subject of formula, we have 𝑔 = 4𝜋 )
MH
75 𝑐𝑚
𝑔 = 4𝜋 )
(1.7 𝑠))
0.75 𝑐𝑚
𝑔 = 4𝜋 )
(1.7 𝑠))
𝒈 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟑 𝒎𝒔𝟐
2.3: Velocity and energy of Simple harmonic oscillation

The velocity of a simple harmonic oscillation is zero after it has reached its maximum
displacement position. There is no kinetic energy in this position since all of the energy
is in the potential form. The potential energy decreases and the kinetic energy increases
as the restoring force causes the oscillation to move towards equilibrium. Both share
energy, but the total energy remains constant. When the oscillation approaches
equilibrium, its velocity reaches a maximum.
262
Maximum velocity is determined by three factors:
The maximum velocity is proportional to the amplitude.
The maximum velocity of stiffer objects is higher.
The maximum velocity of larger-mass objects is lower.
A simple harmonic oscillator possesses both potential and kinetic energy. When an
object is deformed and not moving, it has potential energy stored in it. A simple
harmonic oscillator possesses kinetic energy since it has no dissipative forces. Therefore,
as an undammed simple harmonic motion occurs, the energy oscillates between kinetic
and potential energy. A spring's oscillations are an example. All energy is held as
potential energy when it is totally compressed and not moving. The elastic potential
energy in the spring is transferred to kinetic energy when it decompresses. Both share
energy, but the overall energy remains constant. When the oscillation approaches
equilibrium, its velocity reaches a maximum.
2.4: Amplitude, period and frequency of simple harmonic motion

Amplitude is the maximum displacement of a body from its equilibrium position. The
amplitude and displacement of objects, such as a metal coiled spring, are measured in
meters (m), although sound oscillations are measured in pressure units.
Period (T) is the time required to make one complete revolution about a reference point.
The period is the amount of time it takes for one oscillation to complete. A period can
indicate a single occurrence as well as recurring oscillations. A unit of
period measurement is seconds.
Frequency (f) is the number of complete oscillations in one second. The SI unit of
frequency is cycles per second, which is often referred to as hertz (Hz). One cycle
corresponds to one oscillation. Oscillations repeat regularly for a number of cycles.
M
Frequency is the reciprocal of period, i.e. 𝑓 =
M
2.5: Energy in a Simple Harmonic Oscillator

In a simple harmonic motion, total energy is the constant sum of potential and kinetic
energies. To investigate the energy of a simple harmonic motion, we must first
examine the different types of energy. Remember that the potential energy (PE) stored in
a spring obeying Hooke's Law is. It is given as
M
𝑃. 𝐸 = 𝑘𝑥 ) 2.8
)
where 𝑃. 𝐸 denotes potential energy, k is the spring constant, and x represents the
magnitude of displacement or deformation. Because a simple harmonic oscillation has no
263
dissipative forces, kinetic energy is the other essential type energy (KE). The energy
conservation for these two forms is as follows:
𝑃. 𝐸 + 𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
M M
which can be expressed as: 𝑘𝑥 ) + 𝑚𝑣 ) = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 2.9
) )
This assertion of energy conservation is true for all simple harmonic oscillations, even
those involving gravitational pull. For a simple pendulum, for example, we replace the
ƒ•
velocity term with 𝑣 = 𝐿𝜔, the spring constant with 𝑘 = , and the displacement term
?
with 𝑥 = 𝐿𝜃. Thus:
M M
𝑚𝑔𝐿𝜃 ) + 𝑚𝐿) 𝜔 ) = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 2.10
) )
The concept of conservation of energy may be used to derive an equation for velocity v.
When we start our simple harmonic motion with zero velocity and maximum
displacement (x=X), the total energy is
M
𝐸= 𝐾𝑋 ) 2.11
)
This total energy is constant and alternates between kinetic and potential energy, which
is usually shared by both. In equation form, the energy conservation for this system is
thus:
M M M
𝑘𝑥 ) + 𝑚𝑣 ) = 𝐾𝑋 )
) ) )
Solving this equation yields v:
ž
𝑣= ± (𝑋 ) − 𝑥 ) ) 2.12
ƒ
𝑘 𝑥)
𝑣= ± 𝑋 1− )
𝑚 𝑋
Thus,
4H
𝑣 = ±𝑣ƒ€4 1 − 2.13
ƒH
ž
Where 𝑣ƒ€4 = 𝑋
ƒ
We can observe from this formula that the velocity reaches a maximum (𝑣ƒ€4 ) at x=0.
It's worth noting that the maximum velocity is determined by three variables. It is
proportional to the amplitude. As you may expect, the higher the maximum velocity, the
greater the maximum displacement. It is also higher for firmer systems since they apply
more force per unit displacement. This is seen in the formula for 𝑣ƒ€4 , which is
264
proportional to the square root of the force constant k. Finally, because maximum
velocity is inversely related to the square root of m, maximum velocity is less for objects
with higher masses. Objects with large masses accelerate more slowly for a given force.
A comparable calculation for a basic pendulum yields the same conclusion, that is:
𝑔
𝜔ƒ€4 = 𝜃
𝐿 ƒ€4
2.6: Summary of formulae for simple harmonic motion

The equations below can be used to solve problems involving simple harmonic motion.
• •=ƒ‚ •€ž‚•
1. Period, 𝑇 = =
• •Vƒu‚™ ˆ† ˆ~v=‡‡€•=ˆ•~
• •Vƒu‚™ ˆ† ˆ~v=‡‡€•=ˆ•~
2. Frequency, 𝑓 = =
• •=ƒ‚ •€ž‚•
Œ }
3. 𝜔 = 4. 𝑣 = 𝜔𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑣 = 𝜔𝐴 5. 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 𝑜𝑟 𝑓 = 6. 𝑇 =
• )y
)y
}
7. 𝑎 = 𝜔 ) 𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑎 = 𝜔 ) 𝐴 8. 𝑎 = 𝛼𝑟 9. 𝑣 = 𝜔 𝐴) − 𝑥 )
M M
10. 𝑇 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑓 = and 360o = 2𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑
† M
2.7 Illustrative examples

1. A particle moves in a circular orbit of radius 0.04m. if the speed of the object is
1.20 ms-1, calculate its frequency in cycles per second.
Solution
Radius, r = 0.04m and linear speed, v = 1.20 ms-1
W M.)^
using 𝑣 = 𝜔𝑟, we obtain 𝜔 by using 𝜔 = = = 30𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑠 hM 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
™ ^.^f
𝜔 44
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 = ∴𝑓= = 7.00𝑠 hM
2𝜋 2𝜋
2. An object moving with simple harmonic motion in a straight line has velocity, v, and
acceleration, a, when the instantaneous displacement, x in cm, from its maximum
position is given by 𝑥 = 3.0𝑠𝑖𝑛0.6𝜋𝑡, where t is in seconds. Calculate the magnitude of
velocity and acceleration.
Solution
𝑥 = 3.0𝑠𝑖𝑛0.6𝜋𝑡 is the same with the equation 𝑥 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 which represents the motion
of an object undergoing simple harmonic motion, thus both equation is compared as
follows:
𝑥 = 3.0𝑠𝑖𝑛0.6𝜋𝑡
𝑥 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
Hence, amplitude, a or radius, r = 3cm = 0.03m and angular speed, 𝜔 = 0.6𝜋𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑠 hM
Velocity, 𝑣 = 𝜔𝑟 = 0.6𝜋 x 0.03 = 1.8𝜋 x 10h) 𝑚𝑠 hM
265
Acceleration, 𝑎 = 𝜔 ) 𝑟 = 0.6) x 0.03 = 10.8 x 10h) 𝑚𝑠 h)
3. The period of oscillation of a particle executing simple harmonic motion is 3𝜋
seconds. If the amplitude of oscillation is 2.0m, calculate the maximum speed of the
particle.
Solution
𝑣 = 𝜔𝑟
)y )y
But 𝜔 = = = 0.67𝑠 hM
M Yy
𝑣 = 𝜔𝑟 = 0.67 x 2.0 = 1.34 m𝑠 hM
2.8 Energy of a simple harmonic motion

When the motion of a loaded spiral spring is considered, the energy of a simple harmonic
motion is derived. In addition to the previous equations, the following equations can be
used to solve problems involving a loaded spiral spring and the energy of simple
harmonic motion.
ƒ fyH ƒ ¤ M ¤ ¤
1. 𝑇 = 2𝜋 𝑜𝑟 𝑇 ) = 2. 𝜔 = 3. 𝑓 = or 𝑓) =
¤ ¤ ƒ )y ƒ fyH ƒ
M M
4. 𝐹 = 𝐾𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑔 5. 𝑤 = 𝐾𝐴) = 𝑚𝜔 ) 𝐴)
) )
‚ ) fyH •
𝑇 = 2𝜋 𝑜𝑟 𝑇 =
• •
A = amplitude of motion (m)

T = period (s)
m = mass of the body (kg)
f = frequency of motion (Hz or s-1)
e = extension of spring (m)
g = acceleration due to gravity (ms-1)
F = force, weight or load (N)
W = energy stored in spring or total work done by the spring (J)
𝜔 = angular speed or velocity (ms-1)
K = force constant of the spring (m)
2.9 Illustrative example

A 100g body suspended from the end of a spiral spring that obeyed Hooke's law
produced a 5cm extension. If the mass is pulled down a distance of 3cm and
released, calculate;
266
i. the spring’s force constant
ii. the frequency of oscillation
iii. the body’s angular speed
iv. the period of oscillation
solution
m = 100g = 0.1kg, e = 5cm = 0.05m, g = 10ms-1
š ƒ• ^.M ò M^
i. recall that 𝐹 = 𝐾𝑒 ≡ 𝐾 = = = = 20𝑁𝑚hM
‚ ‚ ^.^o
M ¤ M )^ M
ii. frequency, 𝑓 = = = 200 = 2.25𝐻𝑧
)y ƒ )y ^.M )y
ž )^
iii. angular speed, 𝜔 = = 14.14 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑠 hM
ƒ ^.M
M M ƒ ^.M
iv. period, 𝑇 = = = 0.444𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑇 = 2𝜋 = 2𝜋 = 0.444𝑠
† ).)o ¤ )^
2. A block of mass, m=4 kg is attached to a spring and performs a simple

harmonic motion with a period of T=0.35 s. The system's total energy is E=2.5 J.
What is the spring's force constant and the motion's amplitude?
Solution
)y )y
The motion's angular frequency is 𝜔 = = = 17.95 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑠/𝑠
M ^.Yo
ž
Now, for a mass on a spring, 𝜔 = . This formula can be rearranged to produce
ƒ
𝑘 = 𝑚𝜔 ) = 4 x 17.95)
the spring's force constant, 𝑘 = 1289.1 𝑁𝑚 hM
€H ž
A system executing simple harmonic motion has a total energy of 𝐸 = . This
)
)œ ) ò ).o
formula, when rearranged, yields; 𝑎 = =
ž M)¡¦.M
∴ the motion¾ s amplitude, 𝑎 = 0.06228𝑚
2. A mass of 2 kg oscillating on a spring with a force constant of 4 N/m travels through

its equilibrium point at a velocity of 8 m/s. What is the system's energy at this point?
Determine the mass's maximum displacement, xm, based on your answer.
267
Solution
There is no potential energy stored in the spring when the mass is at its equilibrium
point. As a result, the entire system's energy is kinetic and easily calculable as:
M M
𝑘𝑒 = 𝑚𝑣 ) = x 2 x 8) = 64𝐽
) )
We can use this answer to calculate the maximum displacement of the mass because it is
the total energy of the system. When the block is sufficiently displaced, it is at rest, and
the entire system's energy is stored as potential energy in the spring, as defined by 𝑈 =
M )
𝐾𝑥ƒ . Because energy is conserved in the system, we can relate the answer for energy
)
at one position to energy at another.
𝐸† = 𝐸^
M ) M
𝐾𝑥ƒG 𝑚𝑣 ) = 64
) )
xf xf
𝑥ƒ = = = 4𝑚
¤ f
2.10 Damped Oscillations

In the actual world, most basic harmonic oscillators — mechanical oscillators, electrical
oscillators, and so on – are damped. A damped oscillation means an oscillation that fades
away with time. We suppose that a linear in velocity damping force is supplied to the
harmonic oscillator. This might be a frictional force in the case of a mechanical oscillator
or a resistive element in the case of an electrical oscillator. Dissipative forces (non-
conservative forces) in actual systems delay oscillatory motion by causing amplitude to
decrease. As a result, the mechanical energy of the system decreases with time. Thus, the
oscillatory motion of the system is damped. In contrast to free oscillations, the amplitude
of a damped oscillation decreases over time. The involvement of resistive forces such as
friction causes the oscillations' amplitude to decay. As a result of the frictional forces,
energy is wasted. Hence the amplitude of damped oscillations decreases continuously
and finally comes to a stop.
Damping is an effect within or upon an oscillatory system that reduces or prevents its
oscillation. Damping in physical systems is caused by processes that dissipate the energy
contained in the oscillation. Viscous drag (the ability of a liquid's viscosity to impede an
oscillating system, causing it to slow down) in mechanical systems, resistance in
electrical oscillators, and light absorption and scattering in optical oscillators are some
examples. Damping that is not based on energy loss can be useful in other oscillating
systems, such as those found in biological systems and bikes. Contrary to friction, this is
a dissipative force operating on a system. Friction can cause or contribute to damping.
The most common kind of damping, which is generally assumed, is seen in linear
systems. This is an example of exponential damping, where the outside envelope of the
consecutive peaks is an exponential decay curve. That is, when the maximum point of
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each consecutive curve is connected, the result resembles an exponential decay function.
The generic equation for an exponentially damped sinusoid is as follows:
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 h… cos (𝜔𝑡 − ∅) 2.14
where:
𝑦 𝑡 = the instantaneous amplitude at time t;
𝐴 = the initial amplitude of the envelope;
𝜆 = the decay rate, in the reciprocal of the time units of the independent
variable t;
∅ = the phase angle at t = 0;

𝜔 = angular frequency
2.10.1: Expression for the decay of the amplitude in damped oscillation

Consider a simple harmonic oscillator system that has been dampened by viscous
damping forces. The damping force is proportional to the system velocity. As a result,
the damping force is given by
}6
𝑓} = −𝑏 2.15
}•
Here, b is a constant that relies on the medium and the structure of the body. Thus, the
equation for the damped simple harmonic oscillator may be derived by adding the
damping force element to Hooke's law.
}H6 }6
𝑚 = −𝑘𝑦 − 𝑏 2.16
}• H }•
}H6 }6
𝑚 + 𝑏 + 𝑘𝑦 = 0 2.17
}• H }•
Equation (2.4) could be written as
}H6 u }6 ž
+ + 𝑦=0
}• H ƒ }• ƒ
2.18
}H6 }6
+ 𝛾 + 𝜔ˆ) 𝑦 = 0 2.19
}• H }•
ž u
Where 𝜔ˆ = is the natural frequency of the system and 𝛾 = and called damping
ƒ ƒ
coefficient. The auxiliary equation might be expressed as follows:
u ž
𝐷) + 𝐷+ 𝑦=0 2.20
ƒ ƒ
The roots of the above equation may be expressed as
hu M
𝐷M = + 𝑏 ) − 4𝑚𝑘 2.21
)ƒ )ƒ
𝑎𝑛𝑑
269
hu M
𝐷) = − 𝑏 ) − 4𝑚𝑘 2.22
)ƒ )ƒ
As a result, the generic solution to equation 2.5; may be written as

·¶ ¯ ·¶ ¯
I u H hfƒž • h u H hfƒž •
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑀𝑒 H¢ H¢ + 𝑁𝑒 H¢ H¢ 2.23
For small damping, the equation (2.9) might be simplified to
·¶
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 H¢• cos (𝜔𝑡 − ∅) 2.14
Equation 2.10 which is the same as equation 2.1 is the general equation of damped
hu
oscillation. Where 𝜆 = 𝑡 is the decay of the amplitude in damped oscillation. The
)ƒ
·¶
u
frequency of damped oscillations, 𝜔 = 𝜔^) − ( )) and 𝐴𝑒 H¢• is the amplitude of
)ƒ
damped oscillation which decreases with increase in time. The natural frequency (𝜔) is
smaller than the frequency of the damped oscillations.
Figure 2.3: Over, Under, Critical damping
2.10.2: Types of damped oscillation
Over Damping: When the system reaches equilibrium slowly and without oscillations,
the oscillations are said to be excessively damped or heavy damped. The excessive
damping condition is supplied by b2 > 4mk.
Under damping: Oscillations are considered to be inadequately damped or weakly

damped if the retarding force is greater than the restoring force. The amplitude of
oscillations diminishes with time. b2 < 4mk is the condition for damped oscillations.
270
Critical Damping: The process through which a system rapidly reaches equilibrium
without oscillations is known as Critical Damping. The critical damping condition is
provided by b2 = 4mk.
2.10.3: damping ratio

The damping ratio is a quantity that characterizes the frequency response of a second-
order ordinary differential equation. It is commonly represented as (Greek letter zeta).
It's also crucial in the harmonic oscillator. In general, systems with larger damping ratios
exhibit more damping. The value of under-damped systems is less than one. Critically
damped systems have a damping ratio of one or extremely near to one.
The damping ratio is a mathematical expression for the degree of damping in a system in
relation to critical damping. It may be defined as the ratio of the damping coefficient in
the system's differential equation to the critical damping coefficient for a damped
harmonic oscillator with mass m, damping coefficient c, and spring constant k:
𝑐 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝜁= =
𝑐v 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔
where the system's equation of motion is
}H4 }4
𝑚 +𝑐 + 𝑘𝑥 = 0 2.24
}• H }•
the equivalent critical damping coefficient is

ž
𝑐v = 2 𝑘𝑚 𝑜𝑟 𝑐v = 2𝑚 = 2𝑚𝜔•
ƒ
ž
Where 𝜔• =
ƒ
The damping ratio has no unit since it is the ratio of two coefficients with the same units.
2.11: Force vibration

When an oscillatory system is operated upon by an external force, the system is said to
be driven (or forced). An external force is provided to compensate for the energy loss in
the system caused by the retarding forces in a damped system. This force operates in the
oscillator's motion direction and provides positive work on the system. As a
consequence, when the energy input per cycle accurately equals the energy loss owing to
damping, the amplitude of motion remains constant. Forced oscillation occurs in the
system that oscillates in this manner. A forced vibration is the tendency of an object to
coerce another nearby or attached object into vibrational motion. Forced oscillations are
oscillations that emerge as a consequence of an external periodic force. The system
oscillates with the frequency of the external periodic force during forced oscillations.
Sonometer wire subjected to oscillations using a tuning fork or electromagnet are two
271
examples of forced oscillations. The air column of resonance is another example of
forced vibration.
Aside from forced vibration the other types of vibrations that mechanical systems
exhibits are free and damped vibrations. When a mechanical system is set in motion
with an initial input and allowed to vibrate freely, free vibration occurs. Pulling a child
back on a swing and letting it go, or striking a tuning fork and letting it ring, are also
examples of this sort of vibration. The mechanical system vibrates at one or more of its
inherent frequencies before becoming stationary. Vibrations are considered to be
damped when the energy of a vibrating system is progressively lost by friction and other
resistances. The vibrations gradually diminish, alter in frequency or strength, or stop
completely, and the system returns to its equilibrium state. The vehicle suspension,
which is softened by the shock absorber, is an example of this sort of vibration.
During forced oscillations, the forces acting on the system are.
1. Restoring force operating in the opposite direction of displacement.

2. Damping force caused by a viscous medium
3. The system is subjected to an external periodic force.
Consequently, the differential equation oscillations might be represented as
}H6 }6
𝑚 = −𝑘𝑦 − 𝑏 + 𝑓ˆ cos (𝜔𝑡) 2.25
}• H }•
}H6 }6
𝑚 + 𝑏 + 𝑘𝑦 = 𝑓ˆ cos (𝜔𝑡) 2.26
}• H }•
Equation (2.12) could be expressed as

}H6 u }6 ž †Æ
+ + 𝑦= cos (𝜔𝑡)
}• H ƒ }• ƒ ƒ
2.27
}H6 }6 †Æ
+ 𝛾 + 𝜔ˆ) 𝑦 = cos (𝜔𝑡) 2.28
}• H }• ƒ
u ž
where 𝛾 = and 𝜔ˆ) = are the damping and the natural frequency respectively,
ƒ ƒ
†Æ
cos (𝜔𝑡) is the periodic force applied and ω is the frequency of the periodic force
ƒ
applied. Equation (2.28) can be expressed in the complex exponential form as
}H6 }6 †Æ
+ 𝛾 + 𝜔ˆ) 𝑦 = 𝑒 =}• 2.29
}• H }• ƒ
let us assume the following solution for equation (2.29)
𝑧 = 𝐴𝑒 =(}•h ∅) 2.30
Substituting equation 2.16 in the equation 2.15, we get
272
†Æ
−𝜔 ) 𝐴 + 𝑖𝛾𝜔𝐴 + 𝜔 ) 𝐴 𝑒 = }•h ∅
= 𝑒 =}• 2.31
ƒ
†Æ
𝜔ˆ) − 𝜔 ) 𝐴 + 𝑖𝛾𝜔𝐴 = 𝑒 =(}•h ∅)
ƒ
Simplifying, we get
†Æ
𝜔ˆ) − 𝜔 ) 𝐴 + 𝑖𝛾𝜔𝐴 = 𝑒 =∅ 2.32
ƒ
Equation 2.18 can be re-written as
†Æ
𝜔ˆ) − 𝜔 ) 𝐴 + 𝑖𝛾𝜔𝐴 = (cos∅ + isin∅) 2.33
ƒ
Equating real and imaginary parts of LHS and RHS of equation 2.19, we get
†Æ †Æ
𝜔ˆ) − 𝜔 ) 𝐴 = cos∅ (2.33) and 𝛾𝜔𝐴 = sin∅ 2.34
ƒ ƒ
Squaring and adding the equations 2.33 and 2.34, gives
ŸÆ
¢
𝐴= 2.35
H
}ÆH h } H Iˆ} H
Dividing equation 2.21 by 2.20 we obtain

ˆ}
𝑡𝑎𝑛∅ = 2.36
}ÆH h } H
Forced oscillations under different conditions are discussed below

1. If the applied force's frequency is much lower than the natural frequency If the
applied force frequency is much lower than the natural frequency (𝜔 ≪ 𝜔ˆ ),
the equation 2.35 becomes
†Æ
𝐴= 2.37
ƒ}ÆH
If the frequency of the applied force is much lower than the natural frequency, the
†Æ
system oscillates with frequency, and its amplitude is dependent on but independent of
ƒ
𝜔. Equation 2.37 is transformed into
ˆ}
𝑡𝑎𝑛∅ = 2.38
ƒ}ÆH
As a result, the displacement and phase would be approximately in phase.

2. If 𝜔 = 𝜔ˆ; then, equation 2.37 decreases to
†Æ †Æ
𝐴= = 2.39
ƒˆ}Æ u}Æ
When compared to the preceding instance, the amplitude of the oscillations is maximum
here since there is no square for 𝜔 in the denominator. This is referred to as resonance.
By inserting 𝜔 = 𝜔ˆ , the equation for phase difference may be derived from equation
273
2.3. Because the denominator is zero, tan∅ = ∞, and so the phase angle between
y
displacement and the applied periodic force is .
)
3. If 𝜔 ≫ 𝜔^ . This situation is only relevant when the damping forces are
extremely tiny (for small). Equation 2.37 can be reduced to equation 2.39
4.
ŸÆ ŸÆ
¢ ¢ †Æ
𝐴= or 𝐴 = = 2.40
(ˆ})H I } É }H ƒ} H
Equation 2.38 becomes
ˆ
𝑡𝑎𝑛∅ = − 2.41
}
Equation 2.41 is 0 for small 𝛾. As a result, 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅ = 0, and the phase difference between
the displacement and the applied periodic force is -𝜋.
FIG. 2.4: Variation of amplitude with driver force frequency
Figure 2.4 is a graph depicting the fluctuation of amplitude as a function of driver

frequency and damping.
2.12: Resonance
When the spring and mass are seen as energy storage components — the mass storing
kinetic energy and the spring storing potential energy – resonance becomes clear. As
previously stated, when there is no external force acting on the mass and spring, they
274
transmit energy back and forth at a rate equal to the natural frequency. To put it another
way, to properly pump energy into both mass and spring, the energy source must feed the
energy in at a rate equal to the natural frequency. Applying a force to the mass and
spring is like to pushing a child on a swing; a push at the right moment is required to
make the swing go higher and higher.
Resonance is a phenomenon of enhanced amplitude that happens when the frequency of

a regularly applied force (or a Fourier component of it) is equal to or near to the natural
frequency of the system on which it operates. When an oscillating force is delivered to a
dynamic system at a resonant frequency, the system oscillates with a greater amplitude
than when the same force is applied at other, non-resonant frequencies. It is defined as
the state of a system in which an abnormally large vibration is produced in response to
an external stimulus, occurring when the frequency of the stimulus is the same, or nearly
the same, as the natural vibration frequency of the system.
Consider a system subjected to forced oscillations where the frequency of the applied
periodic force is changed (tuning). During tuning, if the frequency of the applied periodic
force equals the natural frequency 0 of the system's oscillations, the amplitude of the
oscillations will be maximal, and maximum energy transfer will occur from the driving
system to the oscillating system. This is referred to as resonance. The result of resonance
is always a large vibration. Regardless of the vibrating system, if resonance occurs, a
large vibration result. At resonance, the system will always maintain the same phase as
the supplied periodic force. This is also demonstrated by the following equation 2.29
†Æ †Æ
𝐴= = 2.42
ƒˆ}Æ u}Æ
Examples of resonance in different oscillating systems under forced oscillations are

1. The amplitude of oscillation in a sonometer is greatest when the natural
frequency of the stretched string equals the frequency of the tuning fork.
2. Helmholtz resonator
3. An example of electrical resonance is resonance in LCR circuits.
4. Resonance air column
5. Energy absorption by electrons in atoms.
Other examples of resonance which occurs in our everyday lives are Swing, Guitar,
Pendulum, Bridge and Music system and so on.
2.13 Types of resonance

1. Mechanical Resonance: Mechanical resonance is described as a mechanical
system's proclivity to respond with higher amplitude when the frequency of its
oscillations matches the system's natural frequency of vibration (its resonance
frequency or resonant frequency) than when it responds at other frequencies. The
following formula is used to calculate a spring's resonance frequency:
275
𝟏 𝒌
𝒇𝒐 = 2.43
𝟐𝝅 𝒎
Where, m is the mass of the spring and k is the spring constant

2. Acoustic Resonance: Acoustic resonance is a process in which an acoustic
system amplifies sound waves whose frequency corresponds to one of its own
inherent vibrational frequencies. Acoustic resonance is an essential issue for
instrument designers since most acoustic instruments employ resonators, such as
the length of a flute's tube, the strings and body of a violin, and the form of a
drum membrane. Acoustic resonance is crucial for hearing as well.
3. Electrical Resonance: Electrical resonance occurs in a circuit when the

magnitudes of the inductive and capacitive reactance are identical. The formula
below gives the resonant frequency of an LC circuit
M
𝜔= 2.44
?e
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
F = frequency of the resonance (Hertz)
L = inductance (Henry)
C = capacitance (Farad)
2.10 Exercises
1. A body of mass 0.01kg is fixed to the tip of a fan blade which rotates with angular
velocity of 100 rad𝑠 h) . If the radius of the is 0.2m, what is the centripetal force? Ans.:
20N
2. A mass, m is attached to a light spiral spring is caused to perform simple harmonic
M ¤
motion of frequency, 𝑓 = , where K is the force constant of the spring. If m = 0.30
)y ƒ
-1
kg, k = 30Nm and the maximum displacement of the mass from the equilibrium
position is 0.015m, calculate the maximum (a) kinetic energy of the system (b) tension in
the string during the motion. [take g = 10 ms-1, 𝜋 = 3.142]. Ans.: (a) 3.38 x 10-3J (b)
3.45N
3. A particle in circular motion performs 30 oscillations in 6 seconds. Calculate its

angular velocity. Ans.: 10𝝅 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒔h𝟏
4. When a mass is hung on a spring, the spring stretches 6cm. Determine its period of
))
vibration if it is then pulled down a little and released. [Take 𝜋 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔 = 10𝑚𝑠 h) ].
l
Ans.: 0.49s
276
5. The period of a simple pendulum of length 80.0cm was found to have doubled when
the length was increased by X. Calculate X. Ans.: 240.0cm
6. A block of mass 4.0kg causes a spiral spring to extend by 0.16m from its un-stretched
position. The block is removed and another body of mass 0.50kg is hung from the same
spiral spring. If the spiral spring is stretched and released, what is the angular frequency
of the subsequent motion? (g =10ms-1). Ans.: 𝟏𝟎 𝟓 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒔h𝟏
7. What is the frequency of vibration if the balance wheel of a wrist watch makes 90
revolutions in 25s. Ans.: 3.60Hz
277
CHAPTER THREE
WAVES AND WAVE MOTION
3.1 Introduction
Waves such as sound and light waves provide information about our physical
environment to us. Vibrations and waves are two of the most common kinds of motion in
nature. We see numerous examples of waves and oscillations in our daily lives, such as
Mechanical waves which include sound waves, water waves, and seismic waves;
electromagnetic waves which include radio waves, television waves, X-rays, and
ultrasound waves used in medical diagnosis and treatment.
The following is a very broad definition of a wave that applies to both mechanical and
electromagnetic waves: “a wave is a disturbance that transmits energy from one place to
another in the medium without imparting net motion to the medium through which it
travels.” As a result, the medium's particles are not permanently displaced, but rather
oscillate back and forth about their equilibrium location.
The main point of this definition is that a wave is a disturbance or fluctuation that passes
through a medium. Although the medium through which the wave travels may
experience some local oscillations as it passes, the particles in the medium do not move
with the wave. The disturbance can take a variety of forms, ranging from a limited width
pulse to an indefinitely long sine wave. A travelling wave or wave motion is a
disturbance that goes through space conveying energy without transferring mass. The
energy delivered by waves can be sensed in a variety of ways.
3.2: Classification of waves

There are two methods to classify a wave. They may be categorized depending on
whether or not they required a material medium for propagation, as well as the direction
of propagation.
Classification of waves depending on whether or not they required a material medium for
propagation includes
1. Mechanical waves are waves that require a medium for their propagation.
Examples are seismic waves, sound waves, pulse waves on a rope or string,
waves traveling across the surface of water, and so on.
2. Electromagnetic waves are wave that do not require a medium for propagation.
They propagate energy through the vacuum. Examples are infrared radiation,
visible light, ultraviolet radiation, radio and television waves, gamma rays, X-
rays, ultrasound, etc. These are transverse oscillations of the electric and
magnetic fields. In this situation, we are dealing with field oscillations rather
than material particles.
278
Others are - Matter waves are waves that are related with electrons and other
micro-particles. Examples are protons, neutrons, alpha particles, atoms,
molecules, etc.
In quantum physics, electrons, protons, neutrons, and so on are characterized by
De Broglie waves
Probability waves associated with these micro-particles.
Classification of waves based on the direction of propagation of the wave includes:

a. Longitudinal waves: here, the medium is displaced in a direction that is parallel
to the direction the wave travels. Longitudinal refers to “lengthwise” or “in the
direction of the longest side,” which is synonymous with parallel. Stretched
spring, longitudinal wave in a liquid or gas, sound wave, etc. are examples of
Longitudinal wave.
A compressional oscillation travels along a stretched spring, such as a slinky,

when it is alternately extended or compressed. Compressions are the parts of the
spring where the coils are densely packed, while rarefactions are the areas where
the coils are further apart.
A longitudinal wave is observed in a liquid or gas enclosed in a tube closed at

one end by a stiff wall and open at the other end by a moving piston. A
longitudinal pulse is propagated across the medium when the piston is moved
slightly. The wavelength is the space between two successive compressions or
rarefactions of liquid or gas elements.
Sound waves exist as pressure fluctuations in a medium, such as air in air. They
are caused by an object's vibration, which causes the air around it to vibrate. The
human eardrum vibrates as a result of the vibrating air, which the brain perceives
as a sound. Sound waves in fluids (air, water, etc.) are longitudinal. The
vibrations of a drumhead or loudspeaker impose changing pressure on the
surrounding air. As the pressure rises, the gas molecules become more crowded
and pushed against one another. These molecules, in turn, attack their
surroundings. The compressed air pulse that results travel away from the
pressure source. As the compression process progresses, the individual gas
molecules return to their original places. As a result, while the waves move
longitudinally, the molecules themselves only oscillate back and forth along their
path of propagation.
279
a
Fig. 3.1a&b: Longitudinal waves

b. Transverse and longitudinal waves: If the wave disturbance is produced
perpendicular to the direction of the wave travel, the wave is known as a
transverse wave. A transverse wave is one whose propagation path is
perpendicular to the direction of the medium's disturbance. The term
"transverse" refers to "being in a location or direction that is at a 90° angle to
anything else." Transverse waves include electromagnetic waves such as light,
radio and television waves, and X-rays. Waves on a rope or string is also an
example transverse. Water waves, for example, are neither transverse nor
longitudinal.
Fig. 3.2: Transverse wave

3.3: General representing of a wave
When a graph of transverse waves is plotted, where y represents the direction of
vibration of particles and x represents the direction of wave propagation, a similar
picture of the crest and trough is obtained; similarly, when a graph of longitudinal waves
280
is plotted, where y represents compression and x represents rarefaction, a similar picture
of the crest and trough is obtained. As a result, the graphic below may depict both
transverse and longitudinal waves.
Fig. 3.3: General representation of a wave

3.4: Terms used in wave motion
1. Amplitude (a): Amplitude is the maximum upward and downward displacement of a
wave from its equilibrium or rest position. The unit of amplitude is metres (m).
2. Period (T): The time taken for a wave to perform one complete cycle or oscillations is
known as period. It is measured in seconds.
3. Frequency (f): Frequency is the number of complete cycles or oscillations in one
M
second. It is the inverse of period (ie. f = ). The unit of frequency is Hertz (Hz) or one
M
cycle per second.
4. Wavelength (𝝀): The distance a wave travels after one complete cycle or oscillation is
known as wavelength. It is the distance between successive crest or trough for transverse
wave; and the distance between compression and rarefaction for longitudinal wave.
Wavelength is measured in metres (m).
5. Wave speed (v): The distance which a wave covers in one second is known as wave
speed or wave velocity, v. It is measured in metres per second (ms-1). If a wave covers a
distance x (m) in t (s), the speed of the wave is expressed as
4
𝑉= (𝑚𝑠 hM ) (3.1)
•
The wave speed (v), the wavelength (𝜆) and the frequency of the wave (f) is related by
the equation
𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆 (3.2)
281
M • • …
Recall that 𝑓 = , 𝑓 = and 𝑇 = , thus wave speed can also be expressed as 𝑣 =
M • • M
6. Path and phase difference: Phase is an angle that represents the fraction of progress
through a repetitive cycle in terms of an angle between 0 and 2𝜋, pi,2 radians or 0o and
360o, degrees,360. This progression through the cycle can be measured in terms of
distance 𝜆 (the wavelength) or time T the period.
When two coherent waves superpose, the resulting wave is determined by the phase
difference between them. If the waves were emitted with no phase difference between
the two sources and traveled two different paths to the same point, the phase difference is
proportional to the length difference between the paths, which is known as the path
difference.
3.5: Stationary waves
When two identical, progressive waves of equal amplitudes and wavelengths travel in the
same medium, along the same straight line, but in opposite directions, the resulting wave
is known as a standing wave or a stationary wave.
Characteristics of Stationary Waves

1. Alternately, nodes and antinodes are formed. Some particles in the medium do not
vibrate at all, implying that their amplitude is zero. These are referred to as nodes, while
some particles vibrate with the greatest amplitude and are referred to as antinodes. From
a node to an antinode, the amplitude of vibration gradually increases from zero to
maximum. Points with zero displacement are referred to as nodes, while points with
maximum displacement are referred to as antinodes.
2. The waveform maintains its stationary state. They are formed by the interaction of two
identical progressive waves traveling in opposite directions along a similar path.
Compressions and rarefactions do not travel forward in the same way that progressive
waves do. They alternately appear and disappear in the same location.
…
3. The distance between two consecutive nodes or antinodes is A equal to , whereas the
)
…
distance between a node and its adjacent antinode is A equal to . They don't move
f
forward or backward. Except for those at the nodes, all particles in the medium vibrate
simply harmonically with a time period equal to the component waves. Beyond this
specific region, there is no onward motion of the disturbance from one particle to the
next and so on.
4. Pressure changes are greatest at nodes and least at antinodes. Except for those at the
nodes, all particles execute simple harmonic motions of the same period. The amplitude
of each particle is not the same; it is greatest at the antinodes and gradually decreases to
zero at the nodes. The particles' velocity at the nodes is zero. It rises gradually and peaks
at the antinodes.
282
5. Particles in the same segment vibrate in the same phase, while particles in neighboring
segments vibrate in the opposite phase. There is no progressive change in the segment
from one element to the next. In fact, all particles in a single segment or loop vibrate in
the same phase, whereas particles in two adjacent segments vibrate in opposing phases.
6. There is no energy transfer. During each vibration, all of the particles in the medium
pass through their mean position twice at the same time. The energy in a stationary wave
is not transported from one point to another. There is no net energy transport in the
medium. The total energy associated with a stationary wave is equal to the sum of the
energy of the incident and reflected waves. There is no energy flow along the stationary
waves.
7. The medium splits into several segments in a stationary wave. As a whole, each
segment vibrates up and down. All of the particles in a precise segment vibrate at the
same phase. The crest and trough conditions simply appear and disappear in a fixed
location, followed by the contradictory situation after every half time period.
8. The interference of longitudinal or transverse waves can produce stationary waves.
The amplitude gradually increases from zero at the nodes to maximum at the antinodes.
The distance between two consecutive nodes or antinodes is half the wavelength.
9. At any given time, all particles in a similar loop have the same phase. In a given
segment, the particles accomplish their maximum or minimum velocity and acceleration
at the same instant. The disturbance is confined to a precise region between the wave's
starting and reflecting points.
Fig. 3.4: Stationary waves
Antinodes are points on a stationary wave that oscillate with the greatest possible
amplitude, i.e., a point on a stationary wave where there is maximum displacement of the
medium. Nodes are zero-amplitude points that appear to be fixed, i.e., a point on a
stationary wave where there is no movement of the medium.
283
The following applies for a stationary wave
…
distance between a node and antinode =
)
…
distance between two successive nodes or antinodes =
f
distance between three successive nodes or antinodes = 𝜆
3.6: Equation of wave motion

We can represent a wave mathematically by the equation
𝑦 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 ± 𝑘𝑥) (3.3)

)y
Where A is the amplitude, k is the wave number given as 𝑘 = and 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
…
Substituting the above into equation (3.3), we have

)y4
𝑦 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝜋𝑓𝑡 ± ) (3.4)
…
)y
𝑒quation 3.4 can also be written as 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡) (3.5)
…
Equation 3.3 – 3.5 an be used to solve problems relating to progressive or traveling

wave.
3.7 Illustrative examples

1. The wavelength of ultraviolet radiation is 400nm. If the speed of the light in air is
3x108 ms-2, what will be the frequency of the ultraviolet radiation?
Solution
Speed, v = 3x108 ms-2 and wavelength, 𝜆 = 400nm = 4x10-9 m
W YòM^Ž
Using 𝑓 = , 𝑓 = = 7.5x1014Hz
… f^^òM^·¹
2. A wave has a frequency of 2Hz and a wavelength of 30m. calculate the velocity of the
wave.
Solution
f = 2Hz and 𝜆 = 30𝑐𝑚 = 0.30𝑚
using, v= f 𝜆 gives, v = 2 x 0.30 = 0.60ms-1
3. A boat at an anchor is rocked by waves whose crest are 100m apart and whose
velocity is 25ms-1. At what interval does the wave crest reach the boat?
284
Solution
𝜆 = 100𝑚, 𝑣 = 25𝑚𝑠 hM 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇 = ?
…
𝑣=
M
… M^^
≡𝑇= = = 4𝑠
« )o
4. A progressive wave has a wavelength of 50cm. Calculate the phase difference between
two points at a
distance of 20cm apart.
Solution
𝜆 = 50𝑐𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 20𝑚
)y4 )y 4 )^ fy
Phase difference, ∅ = = = 𝑜𝑟 2.5
… o^ o
5. Radio waves emitted from an antenna are picked up by a radar after reflection from an
aircraft in 4x10-
3
s. How far is the aircraft from the antenna?
Solution
M
V = 3x108s and time, t = (4x10hY ) = 2x10hY 𝑠
)
Distance was halved because the wave was reflected
Distance = vt = 3x108 x 2x10hY = 6x105m

6. The equation of transverse wave travelling along a string is given by y = 0.3sin (0.5x –
50t), where y and x are in cm and t in seconds. Calculate the, (i) amplitude (ii)frequency
(iii) period (iv) wavelength and (v) wave speed of the wave.
Solution
The given equation is compared with the equation of wave motion which is 𝑦 =
)y4
𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜋𝑓𝑡 ± .
…
(i) Amplitude, A = 0.3m
(ii) 2𝜋𝑓𝑡 = 50𝑡;
o^
2𝜋𝑓 = 50; 𝑓= = 7.96𝐻𝑧
)y
M M
(iii) 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 , 𝑇 = = = 0.13𝑠
† l.¦x
)y4 )y
(iv) = 0.5𝑥; 5𝜆 = 2𝜋; 𝜆= = 1.26𝑚
… o
(v) 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆 = 7.96 x 1.26 = 10.03m/s
285
3.8: Properties of a wave
In this section, we will look at wave properties such as reflection, refraction, diffraction,
interference, and polarization.
1. Reflection: The change in direction of a wave at an interface between two different
media that causes the wave to return to the medium from which it originated is referred
to as reflection. Reflection of light, sound, and water waves are common examples. The
angle at which the wave is incident on the surface equals the angle at which it is
reflected, according to the law of reflection. Specular reflection occurs in mirrors.
Reflection causes echoes in acoustics and is used in sonar. It is crucial in the study of
seismic waves in geology. Surface waves in bodies of water are observed to reflect.
Aside from visible light, reflection is observed with many other types of electromagnetic
waves. VHF and higher frequency reflection are critical for radio transmission and radar.
With special "grazing" mirrors, even hard X-rays and gamma rays can be reflected at
shallow angles.
The different types of reflection are: linear or regular reflection, diffuse reflection,
retroreflection, multiple reflections, and complex conjugate reflection. Other types of
reflection are neutron reflection, sound reflection, and seismic reflection.
Fig. 3.5: Reflection of wave
2. Refraction: Refraction of waves involves a change in the direction of waves as they

pass from one medium to another. Refraction, or the bending of the path of the waves, is
accompanied by a change in speed and wavelength of the waves. Although light
refraction is the most commonly observed phenomenon, other waves such as sound and
water waves also experience refraction. The change in wave speed and the initial
direction of wave propagation relative to the direction of change in speed determine how
much a wave is refracted.
The density of a material influences the speed at which a wave is transmitted through it.
In general, the slower light travels through a transparent material, the denser it is.
Because glass is denser than air, a light ray passing through it slows down. When a ray
intersects a boundary at an angle to the normal, it bends towards the normal. The
286
opposite is also true. As a light ray passes through glass and into air, it accelerates and
bends away from the normal by the same angle.
Refraction can cause optical illusions by making light waves appear to come from a
different location than their true source.
Fig. 3.6: Refraction of wave

3. Diffraction: The slight bending of light as it passes around the edge of an object is
referred to as diffraction. The amount of bending is determined by the wavelength of
light's relative size to the opening's size. The bending will be almost imperceptible if the
opening is much larger than the wavelength of the light. However, if the two are close in
size or equal in size, the amount of bending is significant and visible with the naked eye.
Diffracted light is bent around atmospheric particles in the atmosphere, which are most
commonly tiny water droplets found in clouds. Fringes of light, dark, or colored bands
can be produced by diffracted light. The silver lining found around the edges of clouds or
coronas surrounding the sun or moon is an optical effect caused by light diffraction. The
diagram above depicts how light (either from the sun or the moon) is bent around small
droplets in a cloud.
Examples of diffraction are: Single-slit diffraction, diffraction grating, diffraction on a
circular aperture, diffraction on a general aperture, propagation of a laser beam,
diffraction-limited imaging, speckle patterns and Bobbinet’s principle.
The Huygens–Fresnel principle, which treats each point in a propagating wave front as a
collection of individual spherical wavelets, describes the diffraction phenomenon in
classical physics. When a wave from a coherent source (such as a laser) encounters a
slit/aperture that is comparable in size to its wavelength, the characteristic bending
287
pattern is most pronounced. This is due to the addition, or interference, of different
points on the wave front (or, equivalently, each wavelet) that travel to the registering
surface via paths of varying lengths. A complex pattern of varying intensity can result
when multiple, closely spaced openings (e.g., a diffraction grating) are present.
Fig. 3.7: diffraction of wave through wide and narrow gap

4. Interference: This is the phenomenon that occurs when two waves of the same
frequency, amplitude, and wavelength traveling in the same direction in a medium are
superposed as the pass-through a given point. The interference of light waves produces
optical effects caused by diffraction.
The principle of superposition is used to analyze the interference of two or more waves.
The principle of superposition states that when two or more traveling waves combine at
the same point, the resulting position of the mass element of the medium at that point is
the algebraic sum of the individual waves' positions. Many observed waves, such as
waves on a string, sound waves, and surface water waves, exhibit this property.
Electromagnetic waves follow the superposition principle as well, but the electric and
magnetic fields of the combined wave are added instead of the medium's displacement.
Linear waves are those that obey the superposition principle; nonlinear waves are those
that do not obey the superposition principle.
In interference two waves superpose to form a new wave with a greater, lower, or equal
amplitude. Constructive and destructive interference are caused by the interaction of
waves that are correlated or coherent with each other, either because they come from the
same source or have the same or nearly the same frequency. Interference effects can be
seen with any type of wave, including light, radio, acoustic, surface water waves, gravity
waves, and matter waves. Interferograms are the resulting images or graphs.
Constructive interference
Constructive interference occurs when two waves collide and become in phase with one
another. This means that their oscillations at a given point are all pointing in the same
direction, with the resulting amplitude at that point being much larger than the amplitude
of a single wave. The resulting amplitude of two waves of equal amplitude interfering
constructively is twice as large as the amplitude of an individual wave. The resulting
288
amplitude of 25 waves of the same amplitude interfering constructively is 25 times
greater than the amplitude of a single wave. Constructive interference, on the other hand,
can result in a significant increase in amplitude. Constructive interference can be seen
wherever the two interfering waves are displaced upward. However, it can also be seen
when both interfering waves are displaced downward. The diagram below depicts this
for two downwardly displaced pulse
3.8: Constructive interference
Destructive interference
Destructive interference occurs when two waves collide and completely cancel each
other out. When two waves interfere destructively, their amplitudes must be the same in
opposite directions. When more than two waves interfere, the situation becomes a little
more complicated; however, the net result is that they all combine in some way to
produce zero amplitude. In general, when a number of waves collide, the interference
will be somewhere in the middle, rather than completely constructive or completely
destructive. It usually takes just the right set of circumstances to produce interference
that is either completely constructive or completely destructive.
Fig. 3.9: Destructive interference

The interfering pulses in fig 3.8 have the same maximum displacement but in opposite
directions. As a result, when the two pulses completely overlap, they completely destroy
each other. There is no displacement of the medium particles at the instant of complete
overlap. This "destruction" isn't a permanent state. Indeed, claiming that the two waves
destroy each other is partially misleading. When the two pulses are said to destroy each
other, it means that when they overlap, the effect of one of the pulses on the
displacement of a given particle of the medium is destroyed or canceled by the effect of
the other pulse.
289
Fig. 3.10: Constructive and destructive interference
In summary, the amplitude of the resultant displacement (i.e., the peak value of
displacement as it oscillates over time) depends on the phase difference between the two
waves when two coherent waves are superposed.
Ø There is constructive interference when the two waves are in phase: the resultant
amplitude is large, equal to the sum of the two wave amplitudes.
Ø When two waves are out of phase, destructive interference occurs: the resultant
amplitude is small, equal to the difference between the two wave amplitudes.
Ø In general, the two waves are neither in phase nor antiphase with one another.
The resulting amplitude falls somewhere in the middle of the two extremes.
Principle of superposition
When two or more waves intersect at a point, the displacement at that point equals the
sum of the individual waves' displacements. Individual wave displacements can be both
positive and negative. If the displacements are vectors, the sum is computed using vector
addition. Superposition is a fundamental concept that can explain phenomena such as
interference, diffraction, and standing waves. It works for any type of wave (sound
waves, water surface waves, electromagnetic waves, and so on), but only under certain
conditions, which we will discuss below. When the waves cross a point of intersection,
they separate and are unaffected.
Conditions for superposition
The superposition principle can be applied to any type of wave as long as:
290
The waves that are superimposed are of the same type (e.g. all are electromagnetic
waves).
The medium through which the waves are propagating behaves linearly, which means
that when a portion of the medium has twice the displacement, it also has twice the
restoring force. This is typically true when the amplitudes are small. For example, it is a
good approximation for small ripples on a pond whose amplitude is much smaller than
their wavelength for waves on water. If the waves are also coherent, that is, if they all
have the same frequency and a constant phase difference, the superposition resembles
another wave of the same frequency. This case will be discussed further in the following
section.
Coherent
When waves from two sources spread out and cross through a region of space,
superposition occurs at every point, resulting in an interference pattern. The
superposition of waves from two sources can usually result in an observable fixed
(stationary) interference pattern only if the sources are coherent. This means that the
waves from both sources have the same frequency and have a constant phase difference.
This can only be accomplished with electromagnetic waves by dividing waves from a
single coherent source, such as a laser (as in Young's double slit experiment) or
diffracting light from a single bulb to illuminate two slits. This is why we rarely see light
interference in our daily lives. Sound wave sources that are coherent can be easily
created by connecting two or more speakers to the same signal generator.
5. Polarization
Polarization is a transverse wave property that specifies the geometrical orientation of
the oscillations. The oscillation direction in a transverse wave is perpendicular to the
wave's motion direction. Vibrations traveling along a taut string, such as in a musical
instrument like a guitar string, are a simple example of a polarized transverse wave. The
vibrations can be vertical, horizontal, or at any angle perpendicular to the string,
depending on how the string is plucked. Longitudinal waves, such as sound waves in a
liquid or gas, do not exhibit polarization because the displacement of the particles in the
oscillation is always in the direction of propagation. Electromagnetic waves, such as
light and radio waves, gravitational waves, and transverse sound waves (shear waves) in
solids are examples of polarized transverse waves. Light is an electromagnetic wave, and
its electric field oscillates perpendicular to its propagation direction. If the direction of
this electric field fluctuates randomly over time, light is said to be unpolarized.
Unpolarized light is produced by many common light sources, including sunlight,
halogen lighting, LED spotlights, and incandescent bulbs. Polarized light is defined as
having a well-defined electric field direction. A laser is the most common source of
polarized light. Polarized light is classified into three types based on how the electric
field is oriented;
291
Linear or plane polarization: Linear polarization occurs when the electric field of light
is confined to a single plane along the propagation direction. Unpolarized light is defined
as a light wave that vibrates in more than one plane. Unpolarized light can be converted
to polarized light. Polarized light waves are light waves with vibrations that occur in a
single plane. Polarization is the process of converting unpolarized light into polarized
light.
Circular polarization: The electric field of light is made up of two perpendicular linear
y
components that are equal in amplitude but have a phase difference of . The resulting
)
electric field rotates in a circle around the propagation direction and is referred to as left-
or right-hand circularly polarized light depending on the rotation direction.
Elliptical polarization: An ellipse is described by the electric field of light. This is
caused by the interaction of two linear components with different amplitudes and/or a
y
phase difference that is not . This is the most general definition of polarized light, and
)
circular and linear polarized light can be thought of as subsets of elliptically polarized
light.
Method of polarizing light
There are numerous methods for polarizing light. The four methods covered on this page
are as follows:
• Polarization by Reflection
• Polarization by Refraction
• Polarization by Scattering
• Polarization by Polaroid Filter
Polarization by Reflection: Unpolarized light can be polarized by reflection off

nonmetallic surfaces. The degree to which polarization occurs is determined by the angle
at which the light approaches the surface as well as the material of the surface. Metallic
surfaces reflect light in a variety of vibrational directions, resulting in unpolarized
reflected light. Nonmetallic surfaces, such as asphalt roadways, snowfields, and water,
on the other hand, reflect light in such a way that there is a high concentration of
vibrations in a plane parallel to the reflecting surface. If the extent of polarization is
large, a person viewing objects through light reflected off nonmetallic surfaces will
frequently perceive glare.
Polarization by Refraction: Polarization can also occur by the refraction of light.

Refraction occurs when a beam of light passes from one material into another material.
At the surface of the two materials, the path of the beam changes its direction. The
refracted beam acquires some degree of polarization. Most often, the polarization occurs
in a plane perpendicular to the surface. The polarization of refracted light is often
292
demonstrated in a Physics class using a unique crystal that serves as a double-refracting
crystal.
Polarization by Scattering: Polarization can also happen when light is scattered as it

travels through a medium. When light strikes a material's atoms, it frequently causes the
electrons in those atoms to vibrate. The vibrating electrons then generate their own
electromagnetic wave, which is emitted in all directions. This newly generated wave
collides with nearby atoms, causing their electrons to vibrate at the same original
frequency. These vibrating electrons generate another electromagnetic wave, which is
radiated outward in all directions once more. Light waves are scattered throughout the
medium as a result of their absorption and reemission. This scattered light is polarized to
some extent. As light passes through our atmosphere, it exhibits polarization due to
scattering. The scattered light frequently causes a glare in the sky. Photographers are
well aware that partial polarization of scattered light results in photographs with a
washed-out sky. A Polaroid filter can easily be used to correct the problem. The partially
polarized light is blocked and the glare is reduced as the filter is rotated. The physics of
polarization and Polaroid filters are the photographic secrets to capturing a vivid blue sky
as the backdrop of a beautiful foreground.
Polarization by Polaroid Filter: The most common method of polarization is with a

Polaroid filter. Polaroid filters are made of a special material that can block one of an
electromagnetic wave's two planes of vibration. (Remember, the concept of two planes
or directions of vibration is merely a simplification that helps us visualize the
electromagnetic wave's wavelike nature.) In this sense, a Polaroid is a device that filters
out one-half of the vibrations caused by light passing through the filter. When
unpolarized light is passed through a Polaroid filter, it is transformed into polarized light
with one-half the intensity and vibrations in a single plane. Because of the chemical
composition of the filter material, a Polaroid filter can polarize light. The filter is made
up of long-chain molecules that are all aligned in the same direction within the filter. The
long-chain molecules are stretched across the filter during fabrication so that each
molecule is (as much as possible) aligned in the vertical direction. When unpolarized
light strikes the filter, the filter absorbs the portion of the waves that vibrate vertically.
The electromagnetic vibrations that are parallel to the alignment of the molecules are
absorbed as a general rule.
293
Applications of Polarization
1. Reducing Reflective Hot Spots & Glare

2. Improving Contrast and Color Effects
3. Stress Evaluation
4. Chemical Identification
5. Polarization Microscopy
6. Display technologies like liquid-crystal display (LCD)
7. Radio transmission and reception
8. Sky polarization and photography
Exercise
1. A wave travels a distance of 20cm in 3s. The distance between successive crests
of the wave is 4cm. What is the frequency of the wave? Ans.: 1.67Hz
2. A periodic pulse travels a distance of 20.0m. If its frequency is 2.0x103Hz,
calculate the wavelength. Ans.: 0.01m
3. Infrared rays of frequency 1.0x 0 Hz have a wavelength of 3.0x10-5m in
13
vacuum. Calculate the wavelength of X-rays of frequency 5.0x1016Hz in

vacuum. Ans.: 6.0x10-9m
4. A wave frequency 10Hz forms a stationary wave pattern in a medium where the
velocity is 20cm/s. What is the distance between the adjacent nodes? Ans.: 1m
5. A wave is propagated by the equation y = 2sin (0.5x – 200t, where all distances
are measured in centimeters and time in seconds. For this wave, calculate its (i)
amplitude (ii) frequency (iii) wavelength (iv) wave speed. Ans.: (i) 2m
-1
(ii) f = 100Hz (iii) 𝝀 = 𝟒𝒎 (iv) 400ms
6. In a ripple tank experiment, a vibrating plate is used to generate ripples in the
water. If the distance between two successive troughs is 3.5cm and the wave
travels a distance of 31.5cm in 1.5s, calculate the frequency of the vibrator.
Ans.: 6.0Hz
7. A boat is rocked by waves of speed 30m/s whose successive crests are 10m
apart. Calculate the frequency at which the boats receive the waves.
Ans.: 3s-1
294
CHAPTER FOUR
ACOUSTIC SOUND AND MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
4.1 Acoustics
Acoustics is a science that deals with the study of the origin, propagation and auditory
sensation of sound. Sound is a transfer of energy which is produced by vibration of
bodies such as tuning fork, guitar, organ pipes. Sound can propagate through mediums
like solids, liquids and gases. The velocity of sound is higher in solids and lower in
gasses. Sound travels with a velocity which is approximately 330m/s. May be reflected,
refracted, diffracted and interfere. Sound is a longitudinal wave.
Sound waves can reflect, diffract, interfere but do not polarize.
4.2 Reflection of Sound: Sound wave can be reflected when the strike a Plane Surface.
Reflection of solid waves rise to echoes.
Echo is a sound heard when sound wave is reflected from a plane surface. The time it
takes to detect a reflected sound.
T = Total Distance travelled by sound
Velocity of sound
2d
t=
r
4.1
2d
t= sec
330
In places like auditorium, it is very necessary to reduce echo. The continuous occurrence
of echoes due to multiple reflection of the original sound is termed reverberation.
Reverberation is the persistence of sound after the source ceases to produce sound. Most
hall where reverberation occurs do not have good acoustical properties. Reverberation
can be reduced by covering walls and ceilings with soft perforated boards for quick
absorption of sound. Having more openings around the hall can as well reduce multiple
reflection of sound.
4.3 APPLICATIONS OF ECHOES

i. Used to determine the speed of sound in air.
ii. Used to determine depth of the sea-bed from a ship.
iii. Exploration of oil and gas.
iv. Use of sonar to detect opponents submarine and to locate fishes.
v. To determine the depth of a well
vi. Echo is used by doctors in a technique called echocardiography in which
ultrasonic waves are made to reflect from various parts of the heart. Doctors
apply echo in cardiograph, sonogram and other medical diagnosis.
vii. Find lost objects in sea, ocean, etc.
295
viii. Helps estimate the height of hills/mountain.
4.4 APPLICATIONS OF REVERBERATION

i. Reverberation is utilized by music producers to record music to enhance sound
quality.
Refraction of Sound Waves:
Refraction occurs when waves travel from one medium to another medicine of different
densities. The refraction of sound is the change in speed and direction of sound waves
when it moves from one medium to another medium of different densities. The refraction
of sound explains why it is easier for sound to travel faster at night than at day time.
Diffraction of Sound Waves:
Sound heard around corners and around barriers involves both diffraction and reflection.
Diffraction helps sound to bend around the obstacle.
Interference of Sound:
Interference of sound wave is an effect produced when two equal waves travelling in
opposite direction superpose as they simultaneously pass through each other.
Polarization do not occur in sound waves since it is a longitudinal wave.
4.5 Application of Sound Waves in Musical Instruments

Musical instruments are classified into three types:
(a) Percussion Instruments
(b) Wind Instruments
(c) Stringed Instruments
PERCUSSION WIND STRINGED

Xylophone Flutes Violin
Metal Bell Clarinet Piano
Drum Pipe Organ Guitar
Trumpets Electric Guitar
Saxophone
SOUND DETECTORS
1. Microphones
2. Sound Level Meter
3. Frequency Analyzer
4. Noise Dosimeter
5. Personal Sound Level Meter
6. Recorder
296
COURSE TITLE: …………………………………COURSE CODE: ………………
NAME: ……………………………………………MATRIC.N0…….......................
DEPARMENT: …………………………………...
MODULE QUESTIONS
SECTION I
QUESTION: Given the components of a vector 𝑂𝑃 as 𝐴 = 𝑖 + 𝑗 + 2𝑘, 𝐵 = 2𝑖 + 𝑗 +
𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 = 𝑖 − 2𝑗 − 2𝑘. Calculate the magnitude and direction cosine of (A-B+C) and
(A+B).
SOLUTION
SECTION II
QUESTION: A Brass square sheet has each side 15cm long at 20℃. What will be the
new are of the sheet when the temperature rises to 80℃? (Take linear expansivity of
Brass = 1.8×10ho 𝐾 hM .
SOLUTION
297
COURSE TITLE: …………………………………COURSE CODE: ………………
NAME: ……………………………………………MATRIC.N0….…….......................
DEPARMENT: …………………………………...
SECTION III
QUESTION: Calculate the radius of curvature of a biconvex lens with both surfaces of
equal radii, to be made from glass (µ = 1.54), in order to get a power of +2.75 dioptre.
SOLUTION
SECTION IV
QUESTION: 2. On the football field, a 95-kg halfback makes a turn. The halfback
sweeps out a path that is a portion of a 12-meter-radius circle. If in 2.1 seconds, the
halfback completes a quarter-circle turn. Determine the halfback's speed and
acceleration.
SOLUTION
298
SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING
1. R. K. Gaur., & A. L Gupta (2003). Engineering physics 8th edition. New Delhi:
Dhanpat Rai Publications Ltd.
2. David Halliday., Robert Resnick & Jearl Walker (2001). Fundamentals of

Physics. 8th edition. New York: John wiley & sons Ltd
299

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Fundamentals of

Mechanics, Heat and

Fundamentals of Mechanics, Heat and Waves:

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CHAPTER TWO: SCALAR AND VECTOR PROPERTIES

CHAPTER THREE: FORCE AND MOTION 34

CHAPTER FOUR: WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 53

CHAPTER FIVE: GRAVITATIONAL FORCE AND SATELLITES 74

CHAPTER SIX: ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF MATTER 85

CHAPTER SEVEN: HYDROMECHANICS 104

CHAPTER EIGHT: LINEAR MOMENTUM AND EQUILIBRIUM

CHAPTER TWO: THERMAL EXPANSION OF SOLIDS

CHAPTER THREE:KINETIC THEORY OF GASES 160

CHAPTER FOUR: HAET TRANSFER AND THERMODYNAMICS 168

SECTION THREE: GEOMETRICAL OPTICS 183

CHAPTER TWO: REFRACTION AT SPHERICAL SURFACES

CHAPTER THREE: THIN LENS AND ABERATIONS 207

CHAPTER FOUR: OPTICAL INSTRUMENT

CHAPTER FIVE: WAVE THEORY OF LIGHT 238

CHAPTER SIX: INTERFERENCE, DIFFRACTION

CHAPTER TWO: SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION 258

CHAPTER THREE: WAVES AND WAVE MOTION 278

1.2 Fundamental Physical Quantities

1.3 Derivative Physical Quantities

1.4 System of Units

TABLE 1.2: System international Derived units

Therefore, the study of the dimensions of physical quantities is used to obtain

[L1] = [L1M0T0I0J0K0Q0] 1.2

2. Dimensionless variable: It is a type of physical quantity that doesn’t have dimension

1.7 Dimensional Formulae and Dimensional equations

TABLE 1.3: Dimensional formulae of some physical quantities

1.8 Application of the Method of Dimensional Equations

1. To check the correctness of any physical equation

2. To derive a relationship among various physical quantities

Since angle θ is a dimensionless quantity, d = 0

[M0L0T1] = [MaLb+c T –2c] 1.7

1.10 Limitations of Dimensional Analysis

1.10 Illustrative Examples

force = mass × acceleration = ma = m ×

Dimension on the L.H.S = [L]

Dimension on the R.H.S =

Dimension on the R.H.S =

Dimension on the R.H.S =

1.11 Tutorial Exercises

2.2 Scalar physical Quantity

2.3 Vector Physical Quantity

point, it is written as Q = AB.

Fig. 2.1: Geometric representation of a vector

Fig. 2.2 Equal vectors Fig. 2.3 Negative of a vectors

Fig. 2.7: Co-initial vectors

2.5 Algebra of Vectors

The magnitude B of this new vector is obtained by multiplying the magnitude A of

the original vector, as expressed by the scalar equation.

new vector B is antiparallel to the direction of A . These principles are illustrated

Fig. 2.8: Algebra of vectors in one-dimension (a) multiplication of a vector by a

Generally, in one-dimension and other higher dimensions, such as in a plane or in space,

β1 A + β2 A = (β1 + β2) A 2.5

In addition of several vectors in one dimension, it is appropriate to use the concept of

2.5.2 Algebra of vectors in two dimensions

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 2.9: Triangle and parallelogram laws of vectors addition

Triangle law of vectors addition:

2.6 Resolution of Vectors