EXPERIMENT 5

Aim
To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting the graph between u and v.

Apparatus
An optical bench, a convex lens with lens holder, two optical needles, a knitting needle and a half meter
scale.

Theory

1/f = 1/v – 1/u , where f is the focal length of the convex lens, u & v are object and image distance
respectively.

Model Graph

f = (OB + OC ) /4
PROCEDURE:

1. Obtain the rough focal length of the given convex lens by focusing the image of a
distance object on the wall. Twice the value of the focal length gives ‘2f’ of the given
lens.
2. Mount the given lens on the lens on the lens holder and place the upright on position 50
cm of an optical bench which is being leveled with the help of leveling screws and spirit
level.
3. Place the object needle on one side of the lens at position between f and 2f and the image
needle on the other side as shown in the figure.
4. Remove the parallax between the inverted image of the object needle and image needle.
5. Measure the distance between the object needle and the optical center ‘OA’ note as ‘u’
and the distance of image needle from the optical center OA’, note as ‘v’.
6. Keep moving the object needle by 2 or 3 cm behind ‘2f’ and remove the parallax. Record
the respective values of ‘u’ and ‘v’.
7. Now move the object needle 1 to 2 cm in front of the ‘2f’ position.
8. Repeat the above steps. Note the values of ‘u’ and ‘v’.
9. Plot the graph of u against v,u along the x-axis and v along the y-axis. Draw line OA
making 450 with x- axis and y-axis and find the focal length of the given lens.

OBSERVATIONS

Rough focal length of the convex lens=

SI No u(cm) V(cm)
1
2
3
4
5

Calculations
1)The focal length of given convex lens using the formula=

2)The focal length of given convex lens using u-v graph

From the graph,

Focal length f=(OB+OC)/4

Result
The focal length of the given convex lens=___________ cm

Precautions

1. Tips of the object and image needles should lie at the same height as the centre of the lens.
2. Parallax should be removed from tip to tip by keeping eye at a distance at least 30 cm
away from the needle.

Sources of error

1. The uprights may not be the vertical.

2. Parallax removal may not be perfect.

Video link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dQ0wWIoOgCo

EXPERIMENT 6
Aim
To find the focal length of a concave lens using a concave lens.

Apparatus
An optical bench , a convex lens, a concave lens, two lens holders, two optical needles, a knitting needle
and a half metre scale.

Theory

The focal length F of the combination (convex lens and concave lens) is given by

1 1 1
= +
F f1 f2

where f1 is the focal length of the convex lens and f2 is the focal length of the concave lens.

1 1 1
Using lens equation, = − , where u is the object distance and v is the image distance.
f v u

Ray Diagram

Procedure
 1. Take the rough focal length of the convex lens (f1) by distant object method.
2. Obtain the rough focal length of the combination (convex lens and concave lens) by
focusing the image of a distance object on the wall. Twice the value of the focal length
gives ‘2f’ of the given lens.
3. Mount the given lens(combination) on the lens holder and place it upright on appropriate
position of an optical bench which is being leveled with the help of leveling screws and
spirit level.
4. Place a mounted pin (object needle P1) from the combination more than twice its focal
length.
5. Obtain its real and inverted image I on the other side of the lens by removing the parallax
between the image and the second needle P2.Note the position of P2 on the optical bench.
6. Let the distance of object needle from the combination be u and the distance of the image
needle from the combination be v.
7. Now move the object needle 1or 2cm in front of the combination.
8. Repeat the above steps. Note the values of u and v.

Observations
Rough focal length of the convex lens f1= cm

Rough focal length of the combination F= cm

Observation table

S.NO (cm) v(cm) uv

F= cm
u+v

Calculations:

Mean F = cm.
f 1F
f2 = f 1−F =
Result
The focal length of the given concave lens = ……cm

Precautions

1. Focal length of the convex lens should be less than the focal length of concave lens so that
the combination is convex.
2. The lenses must be clean.

Sources of error

1. The uprights may not be the vertical.

2. Parallax removal may not be perfect.

Experiment 7

Aim
To determine the angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a graph between angle of
incidence and angle of deviation.

Apparatus

Drawing board, a white sheet of paper, prism, drawing pins, pencil, half-metre scale, office pins,
graph paper and a protractor.

Theory
Angle of minimum deviation is the angle through a ray of light is deviated from its original path.
As the angle of incidence increases, the angle of deviation decreases till it becomes minimum at
a particular angle of incidence and then it increases. The minimum value of angle of deviation is
called angle of minimum deviation.

Ray diagram
Model Graph

Procedure

1. Fix a white sheet on a drawing board using drawing pins.

2. Place a glass prism on it in such a way that it rests on its triangular base. Trace the
outline of the prism using a pencil.
3. Draw a thin line NEN normal (perpendicular) to face AB of the prism. Also draw a
straight line PE making an angle preferably between 30° and 60° as shown in
figure.
4. Fix two pins at a distance of 5 cm from each other on the line PE as shown in the
figure, later mark these points of pins as P and Q.
5. Look at the images of the pins, fixed at P and Q, through the other face of the
prism, i.e., AC.
6. Fix two more pins, at points R and S vertically such that the feet of pins at R and S
appear to be on the same straight line as the feet of the images of the pins P and Q
when viewed through the face AC of the prism.
7. Remove the pins and the glass prism.
8. Join and produce a line joining R and S, let this line meet the prism at point F.
9. Extend the direction of incident ray PQE till it meets the face AC. Also extend
(backwards) the emergent ray SRF so that these two lines meet at a point G.
10. Mark the angle of incidence ∠i, angle of refraction ∠r and the angle of emergence
∠e and ∠D as shown in the figure.
11. Repeat the experiment for more angle of incidence preferably between 30° and 60°.
12. Plot a graph between angle of incidence (i) and angle of deviation (D) and obtain
angle of minimum deviation (Dm) from the graph.
 Observation table

S.NO Angle of incidence(∠i) Angle of deviation(∠D)

Calculation

Angle of minimum deviation =

Result

1. i-d graph indicates that as the angle of incidence (i) increases, the angle of deviation (d)
first decreases, attains a minimum value (Dm ) and then starts increasing for further
increase in angle of incidence.
2. Angle of minimum deviation, Dm = ……..
Precautions

1. The angle of incidence should lie between 35°-60°.

2. The pins should be fixed vertical.

Sources of error

1. Pin pricks may be thick.

2. Measurement of angles may be wrong.

Video link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pqqnU2ZYb4c

 Experiment 8

Aim
To draw the V-I characteristic curve of a p-n junction in forward bias and to find the dynamic resistance
of the given p-n junction diode.

Apparatus

pn junction diode kit

Theory

A pn junction diode is forward biased when the p side of the diode is connected to the positive terminal of
the battery and the n side to the negative terminal. When the bias voltage is increased, the forward current
increases slowly in the beginning and then rapidly. The voltage at which the forward current shows
a sudden increase is known as the knee voltage.

Circuit diagram

Forward Characteristic Curve

Procedure

1. Make the connections as shown in figure.

2. Always connect the +ve terminal of voltmeter and ammeter to the positive terminal of the battery.
 3. Now move the contact towards the positive to increase the forward bias voltage slowly. The
current remains zero.
4. Increase the forward bias voltage in steps. The current will still be zero. (This is due to the barrier
of the junction potential.
5. Increase V f in the steps of 0.2V and note the corresponding current If.
6. At certain value of V f the current increases suddenly and this represents the forward breakdown
stage.
7. Record the observations in table
8. Plot the graph showing variation of forward current with forward voltage and find the dynamic
resistance from the graph.
Observations

Forward bias

Least Count of voltmeter=_____ V

Least Count of millimeter=______mA
Observation table
Forward V-I Characteristics :

Sl. No. Forward bias voltage, Vf (V) Forward current, If (mA)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Calculation

Dynamic resistance, rd=∆ V/∆ I =

Result
The V-I characteristic curve of a p-n junction diode in forward bias is drawn.

The dynamic resistance of the given p-n junction diode is _____________Ω

Precautions
 1. All connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2. Key should be used in circuit and opened when the circuit is not being used.

Sources of error
1. The junction diode supplied may be faulty.
2. The supply may be beyond the tolerance range.

Video link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cdTpvYozx5g