Chapter 6

Chapter 6
~Food spoilage~
Prepared by:
Ilyanie Hj. Yaacob
Syllabus content
➢ General principles underlying food spoilage
➢ General principles of preventing food spoilage
➢ Methods of food preservation
➢ HACCP
➢ Microbiology of meat and milk
➢ Microbiology of fruits and vegetables

~Principles underlying
food spoilage~
Principles underlying food spoilage
➢ Sequence of events of existence of microorganism into food:
Microorganisms have to get into the food from a

source/sources
Food environment should favour the growth of

microbes
Food are stored (under favourable environment)

for a sufficient length of time
Sufficient numbers of microorganisms are

necessary to cause changes in food
Synthesis of compound @ enzymatic activities are

necessary to cause changes in food
~Principles of food
preservation~
Principles of food preservation
➢ A good method of food preservation is one that slows down or

prevents altogether action of the agents of spoilage.
➢ During these process, the food should not be damaged.
➢ Role of food preservation:
Eliminate any Maintain nutritional

potential Maintain value within limits
microbiological quality dictated by the
harm to the of food production of a safe
consumer food product
➢ However, there are no preservation method that will completely

eliminate spoilage phenomena.
➢ Bioburden testing is done to measure the total number of viable

microorganisms in a food prior to its final sterilization.
➢ Principles of food preservation:
1. Controlling microorganisms by:
- Keeping microorganisms out of food.
- Removing microorganisms from foods.
- Delaying microbial growth and/or activity.
- Killing microorganisms or spores.
2. Controlling enzymes by:
- Inactivating or destructing endogenous enzymes
- Preventing or delaying chemical reactions in the food
3. Controlling insects, rodents, birds and other physical causes of food

deterioration.
~Application of
microbial growth curve
to food preservation~
Application of microbial growth curve to food
preservation
➢ It is important in food preservation to lengthen as much as possible
the lag and the log phase.
➢ This can be done in different

ways:
- Introducing as few spoilage

organisms as possible.
- Avoiding the addition of

actively growing organisms.
- One or more unfavorable

environmental conditions are
introduced.
”One or more unfavorable
environmental conditions are
introduced”.
Give example.
Application of microbial growth curve to food
preservation
➢ Delaying the growth of microorganisms by only stopping the

multiplication does not necessarily prevent decomposition because
there is possibility that viable organisms or their enzymes may
continue to be active.
➢ Microbial decomposition of foods will be prevented if all spoilage

organisms are killed and recontamination is prevented.
~Methods of
food preservation~
Think of a food.
List three techniques that can

be done to preserve the food.
i - Asepsis
Methods of food preservation - asepsis
➢ Definition of asepsis: the absence of bacteria, viruses, and other

microorganisms.
➢ This state can be achieved through:
a) Natural protection: the protective outer layer of animal and

plant tissue (shell of nuts, skins of fruits) protects the inner layer
thus delay/prevent microbial decomposition.
b) Packaging of foods: Loose carton/wrapping may prevent

contamination through handling, whilst hermetically sealed
containers protect the processed food contents from contamination
due to invasion of oxygen, moisture and/or humidity.
c) Practicing sanitary methods: during the processing and

handling of foods.
➢ Canning process is a preservation of

foods in sealed containers followed by
application of heat treatment.
➢ Canning is done in tin cans, glass

containers, aluminum and plastic
pouches.
➢ The Process : Raw food harvested >

prepare, inspect, sorting, grading >
washing > filled in the can > brine
(saline) added > evacuated by heating
the headspace (vacuuming) > sealing
> heat processing.
Why do we need to inspect,
sorting and grading the food
before canning process?
➢ Spoilage of canned food can be divided into 3 types:
a) Chemical spoilage
b) Enzymatic spoilage
c) Microbial spoilage
➢ In general, microbial spoilage can occur due to under processing

and/or leakage after processing.
➢ Types of spoilage in canned food depends on the type of

microorganisms involved:
1) Thermophilic bacteria and spores: these bacteria can cause

3 types of spoilage especially when cans are kept at > 43°C:
i- "Flat-sour" spoilage.
- Aerobic and facultative anaerobic bacteria and spore forming

ones.
- Products becomes acidic.
- Sealing is not properly done causing entrance of oxygen and

the microorganisms.
- Facultative anaerobes Bacillus stearothermophilus use

carbohydrate and produce acid without gas: can do not swell.
ii- Thermophilic Anaerobe Spoilage.
- Cause by thermophilic anaerobic bacteria and/or spores.
- Produce acid and gas such as N2 and C02, but no H2S

production.
- The can swell and food turned sour.
- E.g. Clostridium thermosaccarolyticum.

iii- Sulphide stinker spoilage.
- Caused by gram negative, anaerobic, spore formers.
- Thermophilic bacteria: Clostridium nigrificans.
- Produce H2S which is soluble, the can look normal and will not
swell.
- Product become dark in color and has the odor of rotten eggs.
2) Mesophilic bacteria.
- Bacillus spp.: Spoilage caused these bacteria by will turn food sour.
Acid-arid gas are produced e.g. Bacillus subtilis.
- Clostridium spp.: Butyric / saccharolytic type will ferment

carbohydrate and produce butyric acid, N2 and CO2 (C. butyricum,
C. pasteurianum) whilst proteolytic / putrefactive type has
proteinase enzyme which can degrade protein in anaerobic
condition and produce H2S, NH3, CO2 and H2, also some
mercaptans. The can will swell and produce foul smelling (C.
sporogenes).
3) Non-spore forming bacteria.
- E.g. Streptococcus, Micrococcus etc. which will produce acid and

gas.
4) Moulds and Yeasts.
- Its presence due to pin-hole which can be killed by mild heat.

ii – Removal of
microorganisms
Methods of food preservation – removal of
microorganisms
➢ These methods are not very suitable

and effective to preserve food,
though it may be helpful under
special conditions.
➢ Removal may be accomplished by:
a) filtration: through a previously

sterilized filter made of asbestos
pads, sintered glass, diatomaceous
earth or similar materials has been
used successfully for fruit juices,
beer, soft drinks, wine, and water.
microorganisms
b) centrifugation/sedimentation:
generally is not very effective in
removing all microorganisms. E.g
bactofuge is used to remove heat-
resistant and other bacteria from the
milk prior to pasteurization. By using
bactofuge, milk has a longer shelf life,
better taste, lower bacterial cell counts
and reduced impurities.
microorganisms
c) washing: water used should

not be contaminated with
spoilage and pathogenic
organisms. Washing fresh fruits,
vegetables and food handling
equipments is essential and for
removing microorganisms.
d) trimming : spoiled portions

of a food are trimmed.
iii – Maintenance of
anaerobic condition
Methods of food preservation – maintenance of
anaerobic condition
➢ Anaerobic conditions can be achieved by a complete fill,
replacement of air by C02 or N2 and others.
➢ Spores are resistant to heat and may survive in canned food but
they are unable to germinate in the absence of oxygen.
iv – Use of high
temperatures
Methods of food preservation – use of high temperatures
➢ Objective of heating foods:
a) To destroy pathogens and spoilage microorganisms.
b) To destroy toxin present in foods.
c) To destroy the vegetative cells and spores of yeast, bacteria and

molds.
d) To destroy undesirable enzymes that can affect the quality of

foods.
e) To control the growth of surviving microorganisms.
f) To retain the acceptance and nutritional quality of foods.
g) To reduce competition.
➢ Temperature and time used in heat processing will depend on:
a) The effect of heat on the food.
b) Other preservative methods employed.
➢ Classification of heat treatments used on foods:
a) Pasteurization (below 100°C).
b) Heat at 100°C.
c) Heat > 100°C

a) Pasteurization.
➢ Pasteurization is heat treatments that kills most but not all

microorganisms.
➢ Example: milk 63ºC, 30 mins @ 72ºC, 15 mins
juice 77ºC, 30 mins @ 88ºC, 30 secs
➢ The pasteurized products are cooled quickly after the heat

treatment.
➢ Pasteurization is important when:
- Heat treatment will not harm the quality of product.
- Main spoilage microbes are not very heat resistant e.g. yeast in
fruit juices.
- Any surviving organisms will be treated with other preservative

methods.
- Competing organisms are to be killed, allowing a desired

fermentation.
➢ Preservative methods used in addition to pasteurization:
- Refrigeration.
- Keeping out microorganisms by packaging.
- Maintenance of anaerobic conditions.
- Addition of high concentration of sugar.
- Presence of chemical preservatives.

b) Heating at about 100ºC.
➢ Sufficient to kill all microbes but not spores.
➢ Many acid foods are successfully preserved at 100°C.
➢ Methods:
- Boiled - Immersion
- Baking - Simmering
- Roasting - Frying
- Blanching - Exposure to flowing steam

c) Heating above 100ºC.
➢ Heating above 100ºC can be obtained by increasing the pressure.
➢ As the pressure increases the boiling temperature increases and the

latent heat of vaporisation decreases.
➢ Heating foods at high temperature for a short time also known as

ultra heat treatment (UHT).
➢ UHT sterilizes food by heating it above 135ºC for 1 to 2 seconds, to

kill spores in milk.
➢ All sterile foods should be stored in cool, dry place to prevent any
viable thermophilic spores from germinating and cause spoilage to
the foods.
What is the different between
your shelf-stable and
refrigerated milk?
v – Use of low
temperatures
Methods of food preservation – use of low temperatures
➢ Low temperature reduces the activity of microorganisms by reducing the

chemical reaction and action of enzymes.
➢ Hence, less microbial growth and spoilage' is delayed / prevented.
➢ The methods can be done using:
a) Chilling temperature.
This is the main method for temporary preservation of food.
Temperature of 6°C can prevent the growth of food poisoning

microorganisms except the Clostridium botulinum type E and retard the
growth of spoilage microorganisms.
Psychrotroph can grow at low temp. e.g. Flavobacterium spp. & Pseud.
alcaligenes but they have a low growth rate.
b) Freezing temperature.
Cause reduction in number of viable microorganism but does not

sterilize the food.
The percentage of microorganisms killed during freezing and storage

varies depending on:
i) Substrate (kind of food).
Protein, fat and other substance can have protective effect; therefore
killing rate is reduced. High moisture and low pH can increase killing
rate.
ii) Type of freezing.
Slow: temp. lowered to -20°C (3 - 72 hrs).
Fast: temp. lowered to -20°C (30 mins)
Advantages of fast freezing:
- Smaller ice crystal form - less mechanical destruction to food.
- Short period of solidification - sudden death to microorganisms and

quick inactivation of the enzymes.
- Food quality after thawing is better.

Predict the effect of multiple
freeze-thaw cycles of frozen
food.
vi – Drying & smoking
Methods of food preservation – drying & smoking
Drying
➢ Methods which lower the water content of food to a point where the
activities of enzymes and food spoilage and food poisoning
microorganisms are destroyed / inhibited.
➢ The lower the water activity of food, the greater is the inhibition.
➢ If Aw is between 0.75 - 0.70, the spoilage is delayed. If Aw is 0.65,

the spoilage is most unlikely to occur up to 2 years.
➢ Molds and yeasts are more important in spoilage dried foods since
bacteria require higher water content for growth.
➢ Eg.Streptomyces rouxii Aw 0.65, Aspergillus glaucus Aw 0.60.

➢ In any drying method, heat is used to retard the growth or kill the
microorganisms. Some microorganisms are resistant e.g. the spores
but they stay dormant.
➢ Goals of drying are to produce dried food with total CFU count of
not more then 100,000/gram food. But the total count of coliforms
and food poisoning microorganisms should be zero.
➢ Types of drying:
a) Sun drying
b) Freeze drying
c) Spray drying
a) Sun drying
b) Freeze drying
c) Spray drying
➢ Treatment before drying (to reduce number of microorganisms):
a) Washing
b) Dipping food in alkaline solution such as sodium carbonate for prunes.
c) Treatment with S02 (1000-3000 ppm). This will maintain the food's color
as well as conserve the vitamin content. It will also prevent storage
changes such as browning of vegetables and fruits.
d) Blanching / scalding. The heat kills most of the microorganisms and

destroys the enzymes that may become active and bring about undesirable
changes in the finished products.
e) Addition of sugar before evaporation e.g. sweetened condensed milk.

The sugar will tie up the water and make them invailabel for microbial
growth.
Effects of drying upon food..
Differentiate fresh mango and

dried mango.
➢ Effects of drying upon foods:
a) Dried food that contains fat and oxygen can cause oxidative rancidity
(unpleasant smell) to occur.
b) Dried food which contains reducing sugar can undergo a color

change called Maillard reaction. Carbonyl groups of reducing sugar react
with amino groups of protein and amino acids followed by a series of
complicated reaction. The browning is undesirable because of the
unnatural color and bitter taste imparted to the food.
c) Loss of vitamin C
d) Discoloration
e) Toughness
➢ Methods of minimizing the chemical changes in dried food:
a) Keep moisture content as low as possible.
b) Reduce the level of reducing sugar as low as possible.
c) Reduce serial blanching in the same water.
d) Use S02 to retain vitamin C and avoid browning.

Smoking.
➢ Heating foods using smoke from various types of wood to preserve foods.
➢ The smoke produces heat which kills some microorganisms on the surface
and also reduces the Aw.
➢ It also has an antimicrobial compounds e.g. formaldehyde which can

inhibit the growth of some microorganisms.
➢ The presence of aromatic compounds will also give a distinctive flavor and
around to the food - make the foods taste better and more tender e.g.
smoked fish.
➢ Woodsmoke is more effective against vegetative cells than against

bacterial spores.
vii – Use of chemical
preservatives
Methods of food preservation – use of chemical
preservatives
➢ Food additive/preservative is a substance or a mixture of substances
which are specifically added to prevent deterioration or
decomposition of a food.
➢ Chemical preservatives are used mainly to inhibit the growth and

activity of microorganisms by interfering with:
a) their cell membranes
b) their enzymes activity
c) their genetic mechanisms

preservatives
➢ An ideal chemical preservative should:
a) have a wide range of antimicrobial activity.
b) be non toxic to human beings and animals.
c) be economical
d) have no effect on the flavour, taste or aroma of the original food.
e) not be inactivated by the food.
f) not encourage the development of resistant strains.
g) rather kill than inhibit microorganisms.

preservatives
➢ They can also be used as:
a) Antioxidants to prevent oxidation of unsaturated fats.
b) Neutralizers of acidity.
c) Stabilizers to prevent physical changes.
d) Firming agents.
e) Coating to keep out microorganisms.
f) Agents to prevent loss of water.

preservatives
➢ Examples of preservatives:
a) Propionates: Used in bakery, cheese food & spreads. Sodium or

calcium propionates are used in the prevention of mold growth and
rope development.
b) Benzoates: Used in jam, jellies, margarine, carbonated drinks,

fruits etc.
c) Sorbates: Sorbic acids and sorbate salts are used as a direct

antimicrobial additive in foods as a spray, dip or coating on
packaging materials. Used in cheese, dried fruit, bakery etc.
preservatives
d) Acetates: Dehydroacetic acid has been used to impregnate
wrappers for disease to inhibit mold growth. Acetic acid (vinegar) is
used in mayonnaise, ketchup, sausages etc.
e) Nitrites and nitrates: Used in meats because nitrites can give a

stable red color. The use of nitrates is being restricted because it can
react to other substance e.g. amines and form nitrosomines which is
carcinogenic. Nitrites are shown to have an inhibitory effect toward C.
botulinum.
preservatives
f) Sulfur dioxide and sulfites: Used in the wine industry to
sanitize equipment and to reduce normal flora of the grape must. In
aqueous solution, they form sulfurous acid, the active antimicrobial
compound.
g) Ethylene and propylene oxide: Powerful sterilants which kills

almost all microorganisms. Useful for fumigation, packaging
materials, dried fruits, eggs, cereals and spices.
h) Alcohol: Ethanol can be germicidal effectively at 70 - 95%

concentration. Flavoring extracts e.g. vanilla & lemon are preserved
by alcohol. However, methanol is poisonous and should not be
added to foods.
preservatives
i) Formaldehyde: Not permitted to be added to food except, as a
minor constituted of wood smoke. Very effective against molds,
bacterial and viruses.
j) Halogen (chlorine): are added to water for sanitation.
k) Iodine: impregnated wrappers have been employed to lengthen

the keeping time of fruits.
viii – Irradiation
Methods of food preservation – irradiation
➢ Definition of irradiation: the application of radiation (as X rays or

gamma rays) for therapeutic purposes or for sterilization (as of
food).
➢ Gamma ray is the cheapest form of radiation for food preservation.
➢ X-rays essentially has the same character like gamma rays but
produced differently.
Methods of food preservation – irradiation
➢ Factors affecting radiation:
a) Types and species of microbes: Spores are generally radioresistant.
b) Number of microbes: The more cell present, the less effective a given
dose of radiation.
c) Composition of medium: Cells in protein medium are more resistant as

protein exerts protective effect against radiation.
d) Presence or absence of oxygen: Resistance is reportedly increase

when oxygen is absent.
e) Physical state of food: Dried cells are more resistant than moist cells.
f) Age of cells: Cells in lag phase are more resistant than other phase.
ix – Antibiotics
Methods of food preservation – antibiotics
➢ Aureomycin, terramysin and chloromycetin were found to be

effective in lengthen the storage time of raw food especially meats,
fish and poultry at chilling temperature.
➢ Niasin has been used to suppress anaerobes in cheese and cheese

products.
➢ Natamycin has been tested in orange juice, fresh fruits, sausage and
cheese.
Methods of food preservation – antibiotics
➢ Some problems in the use of antibiotics:
a) Effect of antibiotic on microorganisms vary with the species.
b) Organisms may be adapted to increasing concentrations of an

antibiotic, thus resistant strains finally develop.
c) Other organism which is not a significant food spoiler but has

acquired resistant will eventually important in food spoilage.
d) Effect of antibiotic to consumer.

~Hazard Analysis &
Critical Control Point
(HACCP)~
HACCP – the definition
➢ Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) is a systematic

preventive approach to food safety from biological, chemical, and
physical hazards in production processes that can cause the finished
product to be unsafe, and designs measurements to reduce these
risks to a safe level.
➢ In this manner, HACCP is referred as the prevention of hazards

rather than finished product inspection.
➢ Representatives from all areas of the business should be included on

the HACCP team including production, cleaning, maintenance,
management, packing, stores, customer service and supply
management.
HACCP – the aim
The aim of the microbiological examination of foods:
➢ Help one assess the safety of food to consumers.
➢ Asses the stability/shelf life of food under normal storage condition.
➢ To know the level of sanitation used during handling.
➢ To know whether the foods/ingredients meet the normal

standard/guidelines/specification.
➢ Help to determine the source/load/type of microorganisms in foods.
➢ The examination of raw ingredients also provides information about

heat processing parameters that would be necessary to meet the
microbiological standard.
HACCP – the principle
Principle 1 - Conduct a Hazard Analysis
➢ Listing the steps in the process and identifying where significant

hazards are likely to occur.
➢ The team will focus on hazards that can be prevented, eliminated or

controlled by the HACCP plan.
➢ A justification for including or excluding the hazard is reported and

possible control measures are identified.
Principle 2 - Identify the Critical Control Points
➢ A critical control point (CCP) is a point, step or procedure at which

control can be applied and a food safety hazard can be prevented,
eliminated or reduced to acceptable levels.
➢ A critical control point may control more than one food safety
hazard or in some cases more than one CCP is needed to control a
single hazard.
Principle 3 - Establish Critical Limits
➢ A critical limit (CL) is the maximum and/or minimum value to which

a biological, chemical, or physical parameter must be controlled at a
CCP to prevent, eliminate, or reduce to an acceptable level the
occurrence of a food safety hazard.
➢ The critical limit is usually a measure such as time, temperature,

water activity (Aw), pH, weight, or some other measure that is
based on scientific literature and/or regulatory standards.
Principle 4- Monitor CCP
➢ The HACCP team will describe monitoring procedures for the

measurement of the critical limit at each critical control point.
Principle 5 - Establish Corrective Action
➢ Corrective actions are the procedures that are followed when an

abnormality in a critical limit occurs.
➢ The HACCP team will identify the steps that will be taken to prevent
potentially hazardous food from entering the food chain and the
steps that are needed to correct the process.
Principle 6 - Verification
➢ Those activities, other than monitoring, that determine the validity

of the HACCP plan and that the system is operating according to the
plan.
➢ The HACCP team may identify activities such as auditing of CCP's,

record review, prior shipment review, instrument calibration and
product testing as part of the verification activities.
Principle 7 - Recordkeeping
➢ A key component of the HACCP plan is recording information that

can be used to prove that the food was produced safely.
➢ The records also need to include information about the HACCP plan
and all the principles.
Imagine you are the HACCP
officer working in factory
producing frozen currypuff.
Design a HACCP plan for your
factory.
HACCP - the example of plan
HACCP - the benefits
The benefits of HACCP:
➢ It is a system which provide bases for defense of due diligence.
➢ Give confidence and reassures to the manufacturers, customers and

consumers that preventive system is adopted and quality is uphold.
➢ It is a cost effective control system.
➢ Provide strong foundation for development of TQM (Total Quality

Management)
~Microbiology of
meat~
Microbiology of meat
➢ Meat is easily spoiled by microorganisms because it contains a lot of

nutrient, growth factors and a suitable pH for microorganisms.
➢ The microorganisms may infect the animal either while still alive
("endogenous disease") or may contaminate the meat after
its slaughter ("exogenous disease").
➢ The spoilage of meat cause the meat to become unappetizing,

poisonous or infectious.
From your opinion, which type of
spoilage are often encountered
by consumer?
➢ Spoilage of meat during/after slaughtering is caused by:
- the animal (the unavoidable infection & decomposition of meat by

microbes).
- the people handling the meat.
- the apparatuses used.
- the area.
➢ As these microorganisms colonize a piece of meat, they begin to

break it down, leaving behind toxins that can cause enteritis or food
poisoning.
➢ Most microorganisms do not survive a thorough cooking of the

meat, but several of their toxins and microbial spores do.
➢ The microorganisms may also infect the person eating the meat.
However, microflora of human gut will become an effective barrier.
➢ Meat can be kept edible for a much longer time if proper hygiene is
observed during production and processing, and if appropriate food
preservation procedures are applied.
➢ Bacteria generally found in meat:
i) Pathogenic microorganisms.
E.g. Brucella, Salmonella, Streptococcus, Mycobacterium

tuberculosis, Clostridium.
ii) Spoilage microorganisms.
E.g. Acromobacter, Pseudomonas, Bacillus and Staphylococcus.
iii) Molds.
E.g. Aspergillus, Mucor, Penicillium

➢ Factors affecting the spoilage of meat:
i) Intrinsic factors - the physical and chemical properties of the

meat.
e.g. water content, redox potential, pH value.
ii) Extrinsic factors - the storage conditions.
e.g. storage temperature, the composition of the atmosphere.
iii) Processing factors - physical or chemical methods of treating

meat during processing.
e.g. cooking
iv) Implicit factors - reflection of the synergistic or antagonistic

effects between bacteria.
Water content:
➢ Meat has high water content with dissolved substances (e.g.

glycogen, lactic acids and amino acids).
➢ These substance can cause microbial growth - lead to early

spoilage.
Redox potential:
➢ Tissue respiration continues after death and uses up oxygen and

produce CO2 .
➢ Oxygen tension will fall (redox potential negative).
➢ The inner side of meat becomes anaerobic; together with the

production of lactic acids.
➢ Aerobic flora predominates at the surface, whilst and inside meat,

anaerobic flora predominates inside meat.
➢ However, only little growth may be observed due to low

temperature.
pH value.
➢ pH value of the meat is between 5.5-7.4.
➢ pH of meat depends on amount of lactic acid produced by glycolysis

in muscle after death.
➢ Glycolysis that can occur depends on the amount of glycogen in the

muscle at death.
➢ The more acid produced the lower the pH.
➢ Acidic pH (5.5) not suitable for growth of many types of

microorganisms.
Glycogen ↑ glycolysis ↑ lactic acid ↑ pH ↓

➢ Thus, two conditions of meat can be observed:
Condition 1:
- if animal is exercised before slaughter, the glycogen ↓, glycolysis ↓ ,

lactic acid ↓, pH is relatively ↑.
- muscle will be dry and firm in texture, and dark in color (DFD).
Condition 2:
- if non-exercised animal is stimulated before slaughter such as stress,

the glycogen will rapidly ↑, glycolysis ↑ , lactic acid ↑, pH is relatively ↓
(before tissue has time to cool).
- this cause denaturation of some muscle protein.
- muscle will be pale, soft and exudative (PSE).

➢ The type of spoilage is determined by:
- Initial numbers present
- pH value of meat – if pH > 6.0, amino acid is attacked.

Microorganisms can grow fast. Meat will spoil mainly due to
Pseudomonas and Aeromonas type.
➢ Types of spoilage:
i) aerobic condition.
a- surface slime.
- Accumulation of microorganism on meat surface cause by gram-

negative rods such as Pseudomonas and Achromobacter.
b- Colour change.
- Occur more quickly if stored in oxygen.
- Red coloured meat (oxidized myoglobin) can change to brown due

to production of oxidizing compound such as peroxides or H2S from
bacteria e.g. Leuconostoc spp.
- Red spots on meat – pigments of Serratia
- Yellow spots on meat – pigments of Flavobacterium

- Green spots on meat – pigments of Pennicilium
- White spots on meat – pigments of Rhizopus

c- Off flavors and odours.
- Due to formation of fatty acids on the meat surface such as

formic, butyric and propionic acid.
It can also due to production of compounds such as amines and

ammonia from degradation of amino acid by proteolytic bacteria
(e.g Pseudomonas spp)
- Actinomycetes will give an earthy odour.
d- Rancidity.
- Caused by some lipolytic bacteria and molds

ii) anaerobic condition.
a- Putrefaction.
- Breakdown of protein with the formation of foul smelling

compounds such as mercaptans, H2S, indol, amines and others.
- This occurs inside the meat such as Proteus, Clostridium and

Bacillus.
b- Souring.
- Can be microbial and biochemical.
- Microbial souring is due to the formation of fatty acids and lactic

acids, with no putrefaction. E.g. Clostridium and Bacillus
~Microbiology of
milk~
Microbiology of milk
➢ Milk and its product contain a large amount of nutrient.
➢ It is an excellent media for growth of spoilage microorganisms.
➢ Before milking, milk is sterile.
➢ As soon as it comes out of the udder, it becomes contaminated -

contamination comes from milking utensils, air, personnel etc.
➢ The number of microorganisms present depends on how the milk is

handled - aseptic handling is important in reducing contamination.
➢ Milk collected should be immediately put in tank, then put in cold

storage, pasteurize and refrigerate.
➢ Make sure aseptic condition after pasteurization otherwise post

pasteurization contamination can occur.
➢ Examples of microflora in milk:
i) Pathogenic – Campylobacter fetus, Listeria monocytogenes,

Clostridium perfringens.
ii) Spoilage – Pseudomonas spp, Aeromonas spp., Streptococci,
Acinetobacter and Flavobacterium.
➢ Preservation is commonly done by pasteurization and sterilization.

Differentiate pasteurization and
sterilization.
➢ If the preservation methods are inadequate, different type of

spoilage can occur:
1) Souring of milk.
➢ Milk is considered spoilt if it curdles or sours. This is due to the

formation of acid caused by lactic acid bacteria. E.g Streptococcus
lactis.
2) Gas production
➢ During fermentation, acid and gas are produced, thus formation of

foam on surface can be seen.
➢ Too much gas will cause stormy fermentation.
➢ The gas ripped the curd apart, which produces gas.
➢ Example: Clostridium, Bacillus, yeast and heterofermentative lactic

acid bacteria.
3) Proteolysis.
➢ Hydrolysis of milk protein with the production of peptides causing

bitter flavor.
➢ Proteolysis can be divided into 4 categories:
i) Acid proteolysis: acid production occurs together with proteolysis.
ii) Sweet curdling: early stage curdling caused by rennin-like

enzymes produced by bacteria.
iii) Slow proteolysis: caused by endoenzymes of bacteria which

undergo autolysis. Important in cheese making and maturation.
iv) Residual proteolysis-caused by heat stable proteinases.
➢ Proteolytic microorganisms are: Micrococcus, Proteus and

Pseudomonas spp.
4) Ropiness.
➢ There are two types of bacterial ropiness:
i) Surface: slimy material on surface of food. Develop best at

refrigeration temperature. Eg Alcaligenes viscolactis.
ii) Throughout: the whole milk becomes ropy. Caused by Alcaligenes

spp. and Strep. Lactis. These microorganisms reproduce within capsule
and form long chain.
➢ Ropiness can be reduced if acidity is increased. Acid usually produced

at mesophilic temperature.
5) Alkali production.
➢ Due to formation of ammonia from urea, carbonates or organic

acids.
➢ Caused by Pseudomonas fluorescens, Alcaligenes faecalis,

Alcaligenes viscolactis.
6) Colour change
➢ May be due to surface growth of pigmented microorganisms.

~Microbiology of
fruit~
Microbiology of fruit
➢ 25% of fruits and vegetables are spoilt before harvesting because of

infection and disease.
➢ Spoilage after harvesting is due to mishandling, over-ripening etc.

➢ Fruits are covered with skin/shell:
- as natural protection from microbial infection.
- to minimize moisture loss to environment.
- to stabilize enzymatic changes.
➢ Healthy fresh fruits are free from microorganisms.
➢ Once skin is broken e.g. insect sting, it will become infected

especially if put in place where sanitary condition is not satisfactory.
➢ The kind of microorganisms in fruits depend on various factors:
- Characteristics of fruit: soft ones more prone to infection.
- Nutrient content: sugar and acid.
- Climatic condition.
➢ Yeast usually initiate spoilage then later taken over by molds.

Spoilage by yeast is not extensive.
➢ Mold spoilage usually more significant.
➢ Bacteria do not play important role in fruit spoilage.

“Bacteria do not play important
role in fruit spoilage”.
State the reason.
Fruits have high acidity – pH not

suitable for the growth of bacteria.
➢ Spoilage of fruits:
- Blue mold rot:
Penicillium expansum
- Black mold spoilage:
Aspergillus spp
- Green mold spoilage:
Cladosporium spp.
- Bacteria soft rot:
Xanthomonas, Erwinia and
Pseudomonas
~Microbiology of
vegetables~
Microbiology of vegetables
➢ Vegetables are easily spoilt, just like fruits, e.g.: 40% tomatoes are
already spoilt before consumption.
➢ Through genetic engineering, new hybrid of tomato is produced to

reduce spoilage, e.g.: flavr savr tomato.
➢ Vegetable contain more available water and less carbohydrate or fat

content compared to fruits. High pH and the less acidic content are
favoured by bacteria.
Microbiology of vegetables
➢ Spoilage of vegetables:
- Bacteria soft rot: the vegetables becomes soft and moist. These
bacteria produce pectinase which can hydrolyze pectin such as in
tomato, garlic, celery etc, Eg. Clostridium, Bacillus, Erwinia,
Pectobacterium and Pseudomonas.
- Mold spoilage to vegetables: Grey mold rot (Botrytis spp.) and
sour rot which cause formation of acid (Geotricum candidum).

Chapter 6 - Food Spoilage

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Chapter 6 - Food Spoilage

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➢ General principles underlying food spoilage

➢ General principles of preventing food spoilage

➢ Methods of food preservation

➢ Microbiology of meat and milk

➢ Microbiology of fruits and vegetables

Microorganisms have to get into the food from a

Food environment should favour the growth of

Food are stored (under favourable environment)

Sufficient numbers of microorganisms are

Synthesis of compound @ enzymatic activities are

➢ A good method of food preservation is one that slows down or

➢ During these process, the food should not be damaged.

➢ Role of food preservation:

Eliminate any Maintain nutritional

➢ However, there are no preservation method that will completely

➢ Bioburden testing is done to measure the total number of viable

➢ Principles of food preservation:

1. Controlling microorganisms by:

- Keeping microorganisms out of food.

- Removing microorganisms from foods.

- Delaying microbial growth and/or activity.

- Killing microorganisms or spores.

2. Controlling enzymes by:

- Inactivating or destructing endogenous enzymes

- Preventing or delaying chemical reactions in the food

3. Controlling insects, rodents, birds and other physical causes of food

➢ This can be done in different

- Introducing as few spoilage

- Avoiding the addition of

- One or more unfavorable

➢ Delaying the growth of microorganisms by only stopping the

➢ Microbial decomposition of foods will be prevented if all spoilage

List three techniques that can

➢ Definition of asepsis: the absence of bacteria, viruses, and other

➢ This state can be achieved through:

a) Natural protection: the protective outer layer of animal and

b) Packaging of foods: Loose carton/wrapping may prevent

c) Practicing sanitary methods: during the processing and

➢ Canning process is a preservation of

➢ Canning is done in tin cans, glass

➢ The Process : Raw food harvested >

➢ Spoilage of canned food can be divided into 3 types:

➢ In general, microbial spoilage can occur due to under processing

➢ Types of spoilage in canned food depends on the type of

1) Thermophilic bacteria and spores: these bacteria can cause

- Aerobic and facultative anaerobic bacteria and spore forming

- Products becomes acidic.

- Sealing is not properly done causing entrance of oxygen and

- Facultative anaerobes Bacillus stearothermophilus use

ii- Thermophilic Anaerobe Spoilage.

- Cause by thermophilic anaerobic bacteria and/or spores.

- Produce acid and gas such as N2 and C02, but no H2S

- The can swell and food turned sour.

- E.g. Clostridium thermosaccarolyticum.

iii- Sulphide stinker spoilage.

- Caused by gram negative, anaerobic, spore formers.

- Thermophilic bacteria: Clostridium nigrificans.

- Clostridium spp.: Butyric / saccharolytic type will ferment

3) Non-spore forming bacteria.

- E.g. Streptococcus, Micrococcus etc. which will produce acid and

4) Moulds and Yeasts.

- Its presence due to pin-hole which can be killed by mild heat.