Control of Microorganisms in Foods

The objective of controlling microorganisms in foods is to minimize or eradicate

microorganisms that cause food spoilage and food borne illnesses. Several methods, individually or
in combinations, are used to achieve these goals by (1) controlling access of the microorganisms in foods, (2)
physically removing the microorganisms present in foods, (3) preventing or reducing the growth of
microorganisms and germination of spores present in foods, and (4) killing microbial cells and spores present in
foods. The control method is more effective when a food has fewer microbial cells and when the cells are in the
exponential growth phase and are injured. Also, spores are more resistant than vegetative cells, and Gram-
negative cells are generally more susceptible than Gram-positive cells to many control methods. Finally,
bacteria, yeasts, molds, phages, and viruses differ in sensitivity to the methods used to control them. Different
species and strains of the same species also differ in sensitivity to these control methods.

Control of access (cleaning and sanitation)

The internal tissues of plants and animals used as foods are essentially sterile. However, many types of
microorganisms capable of causing food spoilage and foodborne diseases enter foods from different sources. It
is impossible to prevent access of microorganisms in food from these sources. However, it is possible to control
their access to food in order to reduce the initial load and minimize microbial spoilage and health hazard. The
main objective of sanitation is to minimize the access of microorganisms in food from various sources at all
stages of handling. Proper sanitation helps reduce the microbial load to desired levels in further processed food.
An example of this is that a low microbial level in raw milk produced through effective sanitation makes it
easier to produce pasteurized milk that meets the microbial standard. Also, proper sanitation helps produce food
that, when properly handled and stored, will have a long shelf life. Finally, proper sanitation helps reduce the
incidence of foodborne diseases. To minimize the access of microorganisms in foods, the microbiological
quality of the environment to which a food is exposed (food contact surfaces) and the ingredients added to a
food should be of good microbiological quality. To achieve these goals, several factors need to be considered:

• Plant design
• B. Quality of Water, Ice, Brine, and Curing Solution
• Quality of Air
• Training of Personnel
• Cleaning of Processing Facilities
• Sanitation of Food-Processing Equipment
• Equipment
• Microbiological Standards, Specifications, and Guidelines

Microbiological standards, specifications, and guidelines are useful in keeping the microbial load of foods at
acceptable levels by various methods, one of which is by controlling their access to foods. Microbiological
standards of food are set and enforced by regulatory agencies to increase consumer safety and product stability.
A standard dictates the maximum microbial level that can be accepted in a food. With proper sanitation and
quality control, this level is generally attainable. Some examples are maximum acceptable levels of standard
plate counts (SPCs) of Grade A raw milk, 100,000/ml; pasteurized Grade A milk, SPC 20,000/ml and coliforms
10/ml. However, very few foods have microbiological standards. Instead, many foods and food ingredients
have microbiological specifications. A specification indicates maximum permissible microbial load for the
acceptance of a food or food ingredient. It should be attainable and agreed on by the buyers and sellers of
theproducts. It is not set up or enforced by regulatory agencies. In the U.S., the military has microbiological
specifications of foods purchased outside for army rations. For example, dried whole egg has the following
specifications: aerobic plate count (APCs), 25,000/g; coliforms, 10/g; and Salmonella, negative in 25 g. The
specifications discourage mixing of a microbiologically poor-quality product with a goodquality product.
Microbiological guidelines are generally set either by regulatory agencies or food processors to help generate
products of acceptable microbiological qualities. A guideline is set at a level that can be achieved if a food-
processing facility uses good cleaning, sanitation, and handling procedures. It also helps detect if a failure has
occurred during processing and handling, and thus alerts the processor to take corrective measures. 1–4

Control by Physical Removal

Microorganisms can be physically removed from solid and liquid foods by several methods. In general, these
methods can partially remove microorganisms from food, and by doing so they reduce the microbial level and
help other antimicrobial steps that follow to become more effective. They are generally used with raw foods
before further processing. Physical methods include: Centrifugation: Centrifugation1 is used in some liquid
foods, such as milk, fruit juices, and syrups, to remove suspended undesirable particles (dust, leucocytes, and
food particles). The process consists of exposing the food in thin layers to a high centrifugal force. The heavier
particles move outward and are separated from the lighter liquid mass. Although this is not intended to remove
microorganisms, spores, large bacterial rods, bacterial clamps and chains, yeasts and molds can be removed
because of their heavier mass.

Filtration: Filtration2 is used in some liquid foods, such as soft drinks, fruit juices, beer, wine, and water, to
remove undesirable solids and microorganisms and to give a sparkling clear appearance.

Trimming
Fruits and vegetables showing damage (greater chance of microbial contamination) and spoilage are generally
trimmed.2 In this manner, areas heavily contaminated with microorganisms are removed. Trimming the outside
leaves in cabbage used for sauerkraut production also helps reduce microorganisms coming from soil. Trimming
is also practiced for the same reason to remove visible mold growth from hard cheeses, fermented sausages,
bread, and some low-pH products. However, if a mold strain is a mycotoxin producer, trimming does not ensure
removal of toxins from the remaining food. Trimming is also used regularly to remove fecal stain marks,
unusual growths, and abscesses or small, infected areas from carcasses of food animals and birds.

Washing
Fruits and vegetables are washed regularly to reduce temperature (which helps reduce the metabolic rate of a
produce and microbial growth) and remove soil. Washing also helps remove the microorganisms present,
especially from the soil. It is also used for shell eggs to remove fecal materials and dirt. During the processing of
chicken and turkey, the carcasses are exposed to water several times. During defeathering, they are exposed to
hot water; following removal of the gut materials, they are given spray washings; and finally they are exposed to
cold water in a chilling tank. Although these treatments are expected to reduce microbial load, they can spread
contamination of undesirable microorganisms, particularly enteric pathogens. Thus, higher percentages of
chicken have been demonstrated to be contaminated with salmonellae when coming out of the chill tank than
before entering the tank.

Control by Heat
The main objective (microbiological) of heating food is to destroy vegetative cells and spores of
microorganisms that include molds, yeasts, bacteria, and viruses (including bacteriophages). 1 Although very
drastic heat treatment (sterilization) can be used to kill all the microorganisms present in a food, most foods are
heated to destroy specific pathogens and some spoilage microorganisms, which are important in a food. This is
necessary in order to retain the acceptance and nutritional qualities of a food. To control growth of surviving
microorganisms in the food, other control methods are used following heat treatment. Heating of foods also
helps destroy undesirable enzymes (microbial and food) that would otherwise adversely affect the acceptance
quality of food. Some microorganisms also produce heat-stable proteinases and lipases in food. Heating a food
to a desired temperature for a specific time can help destroy or reduce the activity of these enzymes. This is
especially important in foods stored for a long time at room temperature. Some microorganisms can release
toxins in food; also, some foods can have natural toxins. If a toxin is heat sensitive, sufficient heating will
destroy it and consumption of such a food will not cause health hazards. It is also important to recognize that
microbial (and natural) heat-stable toxins are not completely destroyed even after high heat treatment. heating of
raw materials, such as milk, is done before adding starter culture bacteria for fermentation to kill undesired
microorganisms (including bacteriophages) and to allow growth of the starter cultures without competition The
effectiveness of heat in killing microbial cells and spores depends on many factors, some of which are related to
the inherent nature of the foods, and others to both the nature of microorganisms and the nature of processing.
An understanding of these factors is important to develop and adopt an effective heat-processing procedure for a
food:
• Nature of Food

Composition (amount of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and solutes), Aw (moisture), pH, and antimicrobial
content (natural or added) greatly influence microbial destruction by heat in a food. In general, carbohydrates,
proteins, lipids, and solutes provide protection to microorganisms against heat. Greater microbial resistance
results with higher concentrations of these components. Microorganisms in liquid food and food containing
small-sized particles suspended in a liquid are more susceptible to heat destruction than in a solid food or a food
with large chunks in liquid. Microorganisms are more susceptible to heat damage in a food that has higher Aw or
lower pH. In low-pH foods, heating is more lethal to microorganisms in the presence of acetic, propionic, and
lactic acids than phosphoric or citric acid at the same pH. In the presence of antimicrobials, not inactivated by
heat, microorganisms are destroyed more rapidly, the rate differing with the nature of the antimicrobials.

Nature of Microorganisms
Factors that influence microbial sensitivity to heat include inherent resistance of species and strains, stage of
growth, previous exposure to heat, and initial load. In general, vegetative cells of molds, yeasts, and bacteria are
more sensitive than spores. Cells at the exponential stage of growth are more susceptible to heat than resting
cells (stationary phase). Also, cells previously exposed to low heat become relatively resistant to subsequent
heat treatment (due to synthesis of stress proteins). Finally, the higher the initial microbial load in a food, the
longer the time it takes at a given temperature to reduce the population to a predetermined level
• Nature of Process

Microbial destruction in food by heat is expressed in terms of its exposure to a specific temperature for a period
of time, and these are inversely related: the higher the temperature, the shorter the period of time required to get
the same amount of destruction when other factors are kept constant. As a food is heated by conduction
(molecule-to-molecule energy transfer) and convection (movement of heated molecules), a liquid food is heated
more rapidly than a solid food, and a container with high conduction (metal) is better. Also, food in a small
container is heated more rapidly than in a large container. A product can have a cold point at the center (in a
solid food in a can) or near the end (in a liquid food in a can), which may not attain the desired temperature
within the given time. Finally, it needs to be emphasized that heating a food at a given temperature for a specific
time means that every particle of that food should be heated to the specified temperature (say 71.6ºC or 161ºF)
and stay at that temperature for the specified time (15

Control by Low Temperature

The main microbiological objective in low-temperature preservation of food is to prevent or reduce growth of
microorganisms. Low temperature also reduces or prevents catalytic activity of microbial enzymes, especially
heat-stable proteinases and lipases. Germination of spores is also reduced. Low-temperature storage, especially
freezing (and thawing), is also lethal to microbial cells, and, under specific conditions, 90% or more of the
population can die during low-temperature preservation. However, the death rate of microorganisms at low
temperature, as compared The main microbiological objective in low-temperature preservation of food is to
prevent or reduce growth of microorganisms. Low temperature also reduces or prevents catalytic activity of
microbial enzymes, especially heat-stable proteinases and lipases. Germination of spores is also reduced. Low-
temperature storage, especially freezing (and thawing), is also lethal to microbial cells, and, under specific
conditions, 90% or more of the population can die during low-temperature preservation. However, the death rate
of microorganisms at low temperature, as compared

Control by Reduced Aw
The main objectives of reducing Aw in food are to prevent or reduce the growth of vegetative cells and
germination and outgrowth of spores of microorganisms. Prevention of toxin production by toxigenic molds and
bacteria is also an important consideration. Microbial cells (not spores) also suffer reversible injury and death in
foods with low Aw, although not in a predictable manner as in heat treatment. Finally, reduced Aw is also used to
retain viability of starter-culture bacteria for use in food bioprocessing

Control by Low pH and Organic Acids

The major antimicrobial objective of using weak organic acids is to reduce the pH of food to control microbial
growth.1 As the pH drops below 5.0, some bacteria become injured and die. However, the death rate in low pH is
not predictable as in the case of heat. Thus, it could not be used with the objective of destroying a predictable
percentage of a microbial population in the normal pH range of foods

Control by Modified Atmosphere

(or Reducing O–R Potential)
The objectives of MAP are to control or reduce the growth of undesirable microorganisms in food. The
technique also helps retard enzymatic and respiratory activities of fresh foods. The growth of aerobes (molds,
yeasts, and aerobic bacteria) is prevented in products that are either vacuum packaged or flushed with 100%
CO2, 100% N2, or a mixture of CO2 and N2. However, under these conditions, anaerobic and facultative
anaerobic bacteria can grow unless other techniques are used to control their growth Three terminologies are
used to alter the atmosphere in foods in order to preserve and increase their acceptance quality. To avoid
confusion, these terms are defined here: 1. Controlled Atmosphere Packaging (CAP). In this method, the atmosphere in
a storage facility is altered and the levels of the gases are continually monitored and adjusted as required. This is expensive
to operate and used for long-term storage of fruits and vegetables to maintain their freshness. 2. Modified Atmosphere
Packaging (MAP). This method, unlike CAP, does not require a high degree of control of the gaseous environment during
the entire storage period. In this method, a food is enclosed in a high gas-barrier packaging material; the air is removed from
the package, which is then flushed with a particular gas or combination of gases; and the package is hermetically sealed. 3.
Vacuum Packaging. This method involves removal of air from the package and then sealing the package hermetically
Control by Antimicrobial Preservatives
Many chemical compounds, either present naturally, formed during processing, or legally added as ingredients,
can kill microorganisms or control their growth in foods.
Control by Irradiation
Control by a Combination of Methods
(Hurdle Concept)