CELL: THE UNIT OF LIFE Cell is the fundamental, structural and functional unit of all living organisms «Robert Hooke (1665)-an English scientist who observed honey comb like dead cells and coined the term “CELL” (The term cell comes from the Latin word celhula, meaning a small room] Anton Von Leeuwenhock first described a living cell (1667) All living organisms are composed of cells and product of cells All cells arise from pre existing cells through the process of cell division The body of living organisms is made up of one or more cellsOrganisms with single cell, Capable of independent existence and carries all functions Like digestion, excretion, respiration, growth & reproduction (Acellular). Examples, Amoeba, Euglena julticellular organisms: Organisms with more than one cell Cells in multicellular organisms vary in size & shape (depending on function). CELL _ DIFFERENTIATION Process by which cells adopt a specialized structure and function SHAPE: Parenchyma -Polyhedral cells performs storage.Sclerenchyma -spindle shaped cells & provides mechanical support, Nerve cells-long and branched cells conducting nerve impulses RBC -Biconcave & helps in carrying oxygen Muscle cells-cylindrical or spindle shaped concerned with the movement of body parts.Varies from few microns (lem= 10mm; Imm=1000Am) to few cms Smallest living cell is PPLO ( Pleuro Pneumonia Like Organism) > 0.1Am Largest living cell is Egg of an Ostrich 170 to 180 mm in diameter. Bacteria > 0.1 to 0.5Am Sclerenchyma fiber Up to 60cms in length N.B: attometer: unit of length1am =1.0x10" cm Cell has non-living outer layer called CELL WALL found only in plant cells Below cell wall is CELL MEMBRANE CELL MEMBRANE encloses PROTOPLASM PROTOPLASM has semi fluid matrix called CYTOPLASM and large membrane bound structure called NUCLEUS CYTOPLASM has many membrane bound organelles like: Endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi Bodies, Mitochondria, Plastids and vacuoles. They also have non membrane bound structures called Ribosomes and Centrosomes Cytoplasm without Cell organelles are called Cytosol.TYPICAL ANIMAL CELL rough ribosome endoplasmic reticulum plasma membrane cytoptasm microtubules (part of cytoskeleton) lysosome smooth reticuturn free ribosome aac Golgi complex controleDifference between plant and animal cell Eee] MTree eee en eel Oa occa kes lt Ela are Dl Ele Tai la QO Tee EI) * Centrosome with centriole Deen ole ets * lysosome OM ETc)Membrane Non- Bound Membranous Endoplasmic Ribosomes Reticulum Cytoskeleton Golgi Ci le: _—— Centrioles * Mitochondria Plastids ** Lysosomes * = Inorganic Salts His ~ Latex ** Only in plant cells Peseta ‘ie NOTE : * Only in animalCELL WALL: Outermost layer, non-living, rigid Found in bacterial cells, fungal cells and plant cells. Permeable Made up of cellulose (in bacteria-peptidoglycans, in fungus-Chitin) FUNCTION: Rigidity, mechanical support and protection Present in all cells, just below the cell wall in plant cells, outermost membrane in animal cells Semi-permeable Made up of phospholipids, proteins, carbohydrates and CholesterolCELL MEMBRANE According to Huxley, protoplasm is “physical basis of life” Includes organic and inorganic molecules CYTOPLASM Semifluid matrix present between cell membrane and nuclear membrane It has various living cell inclusions called cell organelles and non-living substances called Ergastic substancesCELLWALL FUNCTION: It allows outward and inward movement of molecules across it like diffusion, osmosis, active transport, phagocytosis and pinocytosisSTRUCTURE: Largest cell organelle present in eukaryotic cells Itis usually spherical Ithas double layer nuclear membrane with nuclear poresProkaryotic Eukaryotic Contains Nuclear Always contains Cell Wall *DNA as Envelope -Single-celled genetic material | «Contains cell wall ‘Don't have ‘Contain (plants) membrane bound | “besomes ‘Make-up multi- -Similar basic Pp ; organelles Metabolism cellular organisms ‘More complex and extensive DNANucleus Endoplasmic ReticulumIt has transparent granular matrix called nucleoplasm, chromatin network composed of DNA and histone proteins Within the nucleus the information to build all cellular components is stored. The memory medium is DNA, which in humans has a total length of 2.3 m. Ttalso has aspherical body called Nucleolus FUNCTION: Itis the control centre of the cell. Itcontains genetic material DNA which regulates all metabolic activities of the body Nucleus of a non dividing cell has network of fibers called chromatin. During cell division, chromatin condenses to form distinct chromosomes. Chromosomes help in transmission of characters or genes Chromosome has centromere at the centre & arms on either sides called chromatids Chromatid- Thread like chromonemaDNA double helix —p arm A> Centromere Chromosome— = (arm Histone proteins, DNA’ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM: ER isa network of membrane bound tubular structures in cytoplasm It extends from cell membrane to nuclear membrane It exists as flattened sacks called Cisternae, unbranched tubules and oval vesicles There are two types of ER, Rough ER and Smooth ER.FUNCTION: Helps in intracellular transportation It provides mechanical support to cytoplasmic matrix Ithelps in the formation of micro bodies, nuclear membrane and Golgi complex. Ithelps in detoxification of metabolic wastes SMOOTHENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (sER) FUNCTIONS: ULipid biosynthesis Membrane synthesis and repair Metabolism of glycogen & detoxification of noxious metabolic by-products, drugs, alcohol (liver cells) [Storage and release of Ca2+ ions (muscle cells) (SARCOPLASMIC RETICULUM)GOLGI APPARATUS (Protein factory of the cell) Golgi apparatus incoming transport vesicle goreIt has a group of curved, flattened plate like compartments like Cisternae. The cisternae produce a network of tubules from the periphery These tubules end in spherical enzyme filled vesicles. Commonly called packaging centres of the cell FUNCTION: They store the product of ER They produce Lysosomes They secrete various Enzymes, hormones and cell wall materialMITOCHONDRIA (House of energy) Spherical or rod shaped Ithas two membranes; outer membrane is smooth, inner membrane produces finger like in foldings called Cristae Inner membrane also has stalked particles called Racker’s particles or Oxysomes The mitochondria is filled with granular mitochondrial matrixMatrix has circular mitochondrial DNA, RNA, 70s Ribosomes, proteins, Enzymes and lipids FUNCTION: Synthesizes and stores energy rich molecules ATP (Adenosine Tri phosphate) during aerobic respiration CELLULAR RESPIRATION Organic molecules are broken down sequentially Produce continuous supply of energy, Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) Substrates: glucose and fatty acidsLaren) ean aha Cesta GlLYSOSOMES (Suicidal bags of cell) Single membrane bound vesicles filled with hydrolytic enzymes found only in animal cells. Produced from Golgi complex 4 types-Primary, secondary, residual & auto lysosomes They contain ~40 different acid hydrolyses that operate best at a low pH (pH 4.5-5.0) Their unique membrane proteins are unusually highly glycosylated; Their sugar residues facing the lumen prevent the enzymes inside from destroying the cell. The lysosome’s membrane stabilizes the low pH by pumping in protons (H-) from the cytosol via ATP-driven proton pumps. FUNCTION: Intracellular digestion Destroy old and non functional cells Recycles worn out cellsN.B: Two major proteolytic systems contribute to the continuous removal of intracellular components. 1) Lysosomes: membrane-bound organelles specialized _—_for intracellular digestion of macromolecules. 2) The ubiquitin/proteasome system: plays a major role in the maintenance of cellular homeostasis and protein quality control and in the regulation of essential cellular processes, The proteasome is a large cytosolic protein complex with proteolytic activity for degrading of unneeded or damaged proteins that have been marked for degradation by ubiquitination,RIBOSOMES (Protein factories of the cell) Present in cytoplasm, mitochondri nuclear membrane ‘hloroplast & also found attached to rough ER & Can be found within the cytoplasm, either singly or in groups called polyribosomes. COMPOSED OF: They are made up of r RNA and proteins Two subunits, one large and one small. Each subunit has its own mix of proteins and TRNA. Prokaryotes have 70s ribosomes, Eukaryotes have 80s ribosomes. FUNCTION: These are sites of protein synthesis CENTROSOMES: Found in animal cells & in motile algae Ithas two indrical structures called gen: ley surrounded by centrosphere. trioles are arranged at right angles They are made up of micro tubules FUNCTION: Helps in cell division.EVOLUTION OF THE EUKARYOTIC CELL How did the eukaryotic cell arise? More interestingly hypothesis, it has been observed that, in the laboratory, an amoeba infected with bacteria can become dependent upon them. Some investigators believe that mitochondria and chloroplasts are derived from prokaryotes that were taken up by amuch larger cell Perhaps mitochondria were originally aerobic heterotrophic bacteria, and chloroplasts were originally cyanobacteria, The host eukaryotic cell would have benefited from an ability to utilize oxygen or synthesize organic food when, by chance, the prokaryote was taken up and not destroyed,In other words, after these prokaryotes entered by endocytosis, a symbiotic relationship would have been established. Some of the evidence for this endosymbiotic hypothesis is as follows: [I] Mitochondria and chloroplasts are similar to bacteria in size and in structure. [2] Both organelles are bounded by a double membrane the outer membrane may be derived from the engulfing vesicle, and the inner one may be derived from the plasma membrane of the original prokaryote. [3] Mitochondria and chloroplasts contain a limited amount of genetic material and divide by splitting. Their DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is a circular loop like that of prokaryotes. [4] Although most of the proteins within mitochondria and chloroplasts are now produced by the eukaryotic host, they do have their own ribosomes and they do produce some proteins. Their ribosomes resemble those of prokaryotes. [5] The RNA (ribonucleic acid) base sequence of the ribosomes in chloroplasts and mitochondria also suggests a prokaryotic origin of these organelles, It is also just possible that the flagella of eukaryotes are derived from an elongated bacterium that became attached to a host cellFIGURE 3.17 Evolution of the eukaryotic cell.Microscopic anatomy of tissues HISTOLOGY: Study of normal cells and tissues, mainly using microscopes Major tissue types The 10-100 trillion cells of the human body can be grouped into just four major tissue types: epithelial, connective, muscle and nervous tissues. Structure is closely related to function. © Understand the normal functioning of the body o Necessary first step for the understanding of the diseaseEpithelial Tissue General Characteristics of Epithelial tissues © Close-packed cells Very little extracellular material © Cells are arranged in a dense and closely packed fashion > form a barrier U Have a free surface (apical surface) which is exposed to the body exterior (skin) or the cavity of an internal organ (body cavities, blood vessels, heart, digestive and respiratory system passageways, covering of intemal organs, etc.) “ Have a basement membrane (composed of glycoprotein material plus collagen fibers) - The basement membrane anchors basal surface of epithelium to the underlying connective tissue L Do not have blood vessels (avascular): the blood supply is in the underlying loose connective tissue U Cells are held together by specialized contacts including tight junctions and HnGeneral Functions of Epithelial tissues Protect underlying structures Barrier: to prevent movement of substances through the epithelial layer Permit movement of “some” substances through the epithelial layer such as oxygen and carbon dioxide Secretion: of substances such as mucous, sweat, and digestive enzymes Absorption: of substances such as nutrients in the digestive system 1) Simple Epithelium - single layer 2) Stratified Epithelium - multiple layers A, Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium: B. Non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium: C. Transitional epithelium:(2) Epitheliam-connective tissue junction Connective Tissue General Characteristics of Connective Tissues Very few cells compared to other tissues Large amounts of extracellular (intercellular) substance called matrix (matrix = ground substance plus fibers) Contains various fibers Vascular, meaning blood vessels are present (exceptions are cartilage and dense connective tissue)