Q1. Describe the megalithic cultures of south india, central india, and deccan.

Introduction
Definition:-
The word ‘megalith’ comes from two Greek words, megas meaning great or big and lithos
meaning stone. Megaliths include different kinds of monuments that have one thing in
common—they are made of large, roughly dressed slabs of stone. In the Indian subcontinent,
they occur in the far south, the Deccan plateau, the Vindhyan and Aravalli ranges, and the
north-west.
Types:-
The three basic types of megaliths are the chamber tombs, unchambered tombs, and megaliths
not connected with burials.
The chamber tombs usually consist of a chamber (the size and shape of which may vary)
composed of two or four vertical slabs of stone (known as orthostats), topped by a horizontal
capstone. If the chamber is underground, it is known as a cist. If it is fully above the ground, it is
known as a dolmen. Chamber tombs can have a hole known as a ‘port hole’ in one of the
vertical slabs. The chamber is divided into sections by vertical slabs called transepts.
The unchambered burials are of three types—pit burials, urn burials, and sarcophagus burials.
In pit burials, the funerary remains are buried in a pit. If a pit burial is marked by a circle of large
stones, it is known as a pit circle. If it has a heap of large stones piled on top, it is known as a
cairn. If both a stone circle and piled-up stones are present, the burial is known as a cairn stone
circle. A pit burial marked by a single large standing stone slab is called a menhir.
A terracotta trough contains the funeral remains in a sarcophagus burial. Funerary remains are
deposited in a huge pot or urn, the mouth of which is occasionally covered by a stone slab in
urn burials. Even if they are not marked by stones, urn and sarcophagus burials, as well as
burials in rock-cut caves, are frequently included among megalithic burials.
Chronology
Megaliths emerged around the end of the second and beginning of the first millennium B.C. and
continued for many centuries subsequently. Some scholars say that megaliths cannot be
associated with a single cultural group and that the south Indian graves appear as a developing
complex with several streams of influences combining in them. Megaliths in the Vindhyas
belonged to a pre-iron chalcolithic context. Not all megalithic sites are contemporaneous. Some
are as early as c.1300 BCE, while others are as late as the early centuries CE. The important
thing to remember is that in view of their extensive distribution and the wide range in their dates
and contexts, the megaliths cannot be treated as representing a single, homogeneous, or
contemporaneous culture.
SOUTH INDIA
Locations
Tamil Nadu:-
Adichanallur, Amritamangalam, Kunnattur, Sanur, Vasudevanallur, Tenkasi, Korkai, Kayal,
Kalugumalai, Perumalmalai, Pudukkottai, Tirukkampuliyar, and Odugattur.
Kerala:-
Pulimuttu, Tengakkal, Chenkotta, Muthukar, Peria Kanal, Machad, Pazhayannur, and Mangadu.
On the basis of the typology of the artifacts, Machad and Pazhayannur have been dated
between the 2nd century BCE and the 2nd century CE. The megaliths at Mangadu in Kollam
district of Kerala have a range of c. 1000–100 BCE.
Karnataka:- Brahmagiri, Maski, Hanamsagar, Terdal-Halingali, T. Narsipur, and Hallur. Hallur
has a radiocarbon date of c. 1000 BCE.
Andhra Pradesh:- include Kadambapur, Nagarjunakonda, Yelleswaram, Gallapalli, Tadapatri,
Mirapuram, and Amaravati. Megaliths associated with BRW have also been found in Sri Lanka.
•Some of the megalithic types are associated with specific regions—for instance, the kodaikals
and topikals with Kerala and Karnataka, and the menhirs with Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, and
Karnataka.
Subsistence
Megalithic sites were initially understood as settlements of nomadic pastoralists. However, the
evidence clearly indicates that early iron age communities in the far south lived on a
combination of agriculture, hunting, fishing, and animal husbandry. There is also evidence of
well-developed craft traditions. These features, along with the megalithic monuments
themselves, suggest sedentary living. People grew cereals, millets, and pulses. Charred grains
of horse gram, green gram, and possibly ragi were found at Paiyampalli. Rice husk occurred at
Coorg and Khapa (in Karnataka), and Hallur yielded charred grains of ragi. Rice grains were
found in one of the tombs at Kunnatur (Tamil Nadu). Naturally, there were some regional
variations in the crops grown. Pestles and grinding stones have been found at some megalithic
sites. The frequent occurrence of animal bones indicates domestication and hunting. There was
continuity in subsistence practices from the earlier neolithic–chalcolithic phase. Fish Hooks have
also been found in some megalithic graves in Tamil Nadu.
Art
Hunting scenes are depicted at Marayur and Attala (in Kerala). At Hire Benkal (in Karnataka),
there are scenes of hunting, showing peahens, peacocks, stags, and antelopes, as well as
scenes of people dancing in groups.
Pottery
The megalithic sites of South India give evidence of well-developed traditions of specialised
crafts.The south indian iron age cultures were characterised by the use of iron, burnished Black
and Red Ware. Some pots with lids with decorated finials in the shape of birds or animals
appear to be ceremonial wares. Distinctive types include a shallow tray bowl and a deeper bowl,
with a rounded base, conical lids with knobs on the apex, larger water pots, and so on.
Tools and Artefacts:-
Grave goods
Grave goods included etched carnelian beads and beads of other material as well. There are
copper and bronze artefacts such as utensils, bowls, and bangles; a few silver and gold
ornaments also occur.
Iron
The large volume and variety of iron artefacts—utensils, weapons, carpentry tools, and
agricultural implements, indicate its widespread use in everyday life.
Metallurgical techniques
Some of the copper and bronze objects were evidently cast in moulds, others were hammered
into shape. Some communities knew how to alloy metals. An analysis of iron artefacts at
Pazhayannur and Machad indicates that the metal was relatively pure with very small traces of
other elements. Most of the metal objects here seem to have been made by forging thin strips,
which were then joined by beating them together.There is evidence of local smelting of iron at
Paiyampalli (Karnataka).
Paintings
At the megalithic habitation site of Mallapadi in Tirupattur Taluk in Tamil Nadu, rock shelters
contained paintings made with white kaolin. One scene showed two horse riders fighting each
other with poles. Another showed a human figure with raised arms, holding a stick or weapon.
At Paiyampalli, the paintings include a fighting scene, dancing figure, horse raiders, flora, birds,
and sun motifs. Such paintings give us an interesting insight into the lives and experiences of
megalithic communities.
Burials and Rituals
Y. Subbarayalu suggests that the construction of impressive burial monuments presupposes an
understanding of the ecological features of the area. Excavations at Kudatini in the Bellary
district revealed well-preserved secondary burial, containing remains of a child. Excavations at
megalithic Kodumanal, Tamil Nadu, revealed a cist with a deer buried in an urn along with
etched carnelian beads, a sword, and axes. Passage of the cist burial was to provide space to
perform rituals.
Fewer megalithic graves contain burials of children and young adults, and there is a very high
percentage of burials of adult males. The construction of megaliths must have involved
community endeavour or as sites of rituals forming an important part of the social and cultural
lives of people.

DECCAN
Location
Important sites include Takalghat-Khapa, Naikund, Mahurjhari, Borgaon, Ranjala, Pimpalsuti,
and Junapani.
Subsistence strategies
These sites seem to have been flourishing in agricultural settlements. Barley, rice, and lentil
grains were found on house floors at Naikund.
Tools and artefacts
There were a wide range of copper and iron artefacts such as ladles, nails, dagger cauldron,
etc. There were a wide range of copper and iron artefacts. The iron artefacts included ladles,
nails, dagger blades, arrowheads, chisels, spikes, axes, double edged adzes, bars/rods, fish
hooks, horse bits, nail-parer-cum-earpicks, tridents, a spearhead, sword, and cauldron. Iron
hoes were found at Naikund, and there was also evidence of the local smelting of iron.
grave foods
Mahurjhari was an important bead-manufacturing site and the exceptional richness of
grave-goods in the burials may be related to this fact. Bead manufacture at this site continued
from the megalithic to the early historic phase.
Burials
One of the Mahurjhari burials revealed the complete skeleton of a horse, cut marks suggesting
that it had been sacrificed and then buried with the human. There were two other dramatic
burials—one grave contained the remains of an adult male, his mouth gaping, an arrow
embedded near his collarbone. The second contained the top part of the body of an adult male,
a dagger with an iron blade and copper hilt resting on his chest. Such burials speak eloquently
of a warrior tradition
Pottery
The pottery from the burials of Tekwada is a compound of elements assigned to the late Jorwe
phase heralding the arrival of Iron. The BRW in some cases was scratched with owner’s marks.
All in all, BRW was one of the chief features in Megalithic Cultures along with the occurrence of
graffiti marks on some of their pots.

Central India:-
Iron is found at BRW levels at sites such as Nagda on the banks of the Chambal and Eran on
the banks of the Bina river. There is broad cultural continuity between the chalcolithic and early
iron age levels. At Nagda, Period I belongs to the Malwa culture. The site was reoccupied after
a short break of occupation. Period II was marked by BRW, although the earlier pottery types
continued, as did the microliths. Iron objects occurred throughout and included a double-edged
dagger, an axe socket, axe with broad cutting edge, spoon, ring, nail, arrowhead, spearhead,
knife, and sickle. There was a red or cream pottery with designs painted on in black. Similarly at
Eran, Period I belonged to the Malwa culture, while Period IIA had BRW and iron. At Ujjain, the
iron artefacts found at BRW levels included a spearhead, arrowhead, knife, crowbar, and spade.
There are a number of iron-bearing megalithic sites in Madhya Pradesh. The important ones
include Dhanora, Sonabhir, Kari Bhandari, Chirachori, Majagahan, Kabrahata, Sorara,
Sankanpalli, Timmelwada, Handaguda, and Nelakanker.

Conclusion
The beginning of Megalithic Burials towards the end of 2nd millennium BC introduced changes
in settlement pattern for certain communities, as they began burying their dead away from the
habitation. However, the farmers continued to grow the same crops and pastoralists continued
their old lifestyle. This phase merged into the early historic South India when the literate tradition
began. In short, the Megalithic Cultures, though marked by diversity in time and space, are
significant because of the use of a dual coloured pottery and the development in the field of
metal technology, particularly that of Iron. The significance of these cultures also lies in the fact
that it forms a prelude to the subsequent economic growth in peninsular India and the Deccan
during the early centuries of the CE.