2024

SUSTAINABLE BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

NAME

[
PASSIHAUS AND SUSTAINABLE CONSTRUCTION METHO

]
This research focuses on international standards governing the construction of energy-efficient buildings, with a
specific emphasis on BREEAM from the UK, LEED from the United States, and Passivhaus from Germany. Despite their
different origins, these standards share common principles aimed at promoting environmentally sustainable building
practices. These principles include net-zero standards, reduced environmental impact, improved fabric efficiency,
increased use of renewable energy sources, and offsetting carbon emissions. This study aims to provide a
comprehensive understanding of these principles and their practical implementation, with a focus on Passivhaus
standards.
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK:
Climate change caused by human-induced greenhouse gas emissions is a critical global issue that requires
immediate attention. The Paris Agreement, adopted in 2015, represents a significant step in addressing this
crisis by committing nations to limit global temperature increases to well below 2 degrees Celsius. Achieving
this goal is essential for both climate action and the realization of the Sustainable Development Goals (Feist, W.
(2012).. One key strategy in combating climate change is the construction of energy-efficient buildings that
minimize reliance on fossil fuels and reduce carbon footprints.

This research focuses on international standards governing the construction of energy-efficient buildings, with a
specific emphasis on BREEAM from the UK, LEED from the United States, and Passivhaus from Germany.
Despite their different origins, these standards share common principles aimed at promoting environmentally
sustainable building practices. These principles include net-zero standards, reduced environmental impact,
improved fabric efficiency, increased use of renewable energy sources, and offsetting carbon emissions. This
study aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of these principles and their practical implementation,
with a focus on Passivhaus standards.

PREAMBLES:
The escalating concentration of greenhouse gases in the Earth's atmosphere has propelled the planet into a
climate emergency. The Paris Agreement, a landmark accord, sets the trajectory for global efforts to limit
temperature increases to well below 2 degrees Celsius. The agreement's ambitious target of 1.5 degrees Celsius
reflects the urgent need to address the severe risks associated with higher temperatures. Beyond climate action,
the Paris Agreement provides a roadmap for achieving Sustainable Development Goals. ( Mahdavi, A., &
Krarti, M. (Eds.). (2010).

Reducing energy consumption from fossil fuels and minimizing the carbon footprint of building construction
are crucial steps in combating climate change. This research examines international standards that shape the
construction of energy-efficient buildings, focusing on BREEAM, LEED, and Passivhaus. Despite their diverse
origins, these standards share fundamental principles guiding environmentally sustainable construction
practices. This study aims to elucidate these principles and provide practical insights into their implementation,
particularly in the context of Passivhaus standards.

The concept of the passive house project originated in 1988 at the University of Lund, focusing on energy-
efficient houses and passive solar energy utilization. The first passive house was built in Darmstadt, Germany,
in 1991, demonstrating the feasibility of passive buildings even in cold climates. Passive houses are designed
with high levels of insulation, well-insulated windows, airtightness, and efficient ventilation systems.( Dutt, G.
S., & Chandra, S. (2016).

The primary goal of passive houses is to significantly reduce energy demand for space heating and minimize
overall heating and cooling requirements. While the standards for passive houses vary by region, they offer
several advantages, including high comfort levels, fresh air circulation, structural longevity, and minimal
heating and cooling costs.

The European Union faces a significant challenge as approximately 25% of its buildings are old, requiring a
20% reduction in carbon emissions by 2020. Some countries, such as the UK, have set even more ambitious
targets, aiming for a 30% reduction by 2020 and 80% by 2050 (Ottelé, M., & Hoes, P. J. (2014).. However,
achieving these goals is complicated by the presence of over 35% of houses built before 1946 in England.

The EU's primary focus is on improving the energy efficiency of buildings, which currently account for 35% of
total energy consumption. Sweden, for example, aims to reduce total energy use per building by at least 15% by
2020 and 45% by 2050. However, the low rate of new building constructions poses a challenge to achieving
short-term improvements.

In Sweden, where almost 60% of total energy use is dedicated to space and tap water heating, there is a
significant opportunity for improvement. Over half a million houses are expected to undergo major renovations
in the coming years, providing an opportunity to enhance energy efficiency.

The criteria for a passive house include strict limits on space heating and cooling demands, primary energy
demand, airtightness, and thermal comfort. Various certificates, accredited by the Passive House Institute, are
available to qualify a building as a passive house. Retrofitting existing buildings to passive house standards is
also addressed by the EnerPHit Standard. Certified passive house designers and consultants play a crucial role
in guiding engineers and providing the right materials for these energy-efficient constructions.(Wallbaum, H., &
Ebel, B. (2011).

FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS AND PERFORMANCE STANDARDS NEEDED TO CONSTRUCT

A BUILDING FOLLOWING PASSIVHAUS PRINCIPLES, STANDARDS, AND COMPLIANCE:

Passivhaus, a German term that translates to "passive house" in English, refers to buildings constructed
according to energy-efficient design standards, maintaining a nearly constant temperature status. These
buildings are designed, insulated, and ventilated to retain heat from the sun and occupants' activities, requiring
minimal additional heating or cooling. (Mahdavi, A., & Wetter, M. (2011)

Several key factors must be considered in the design of passive houses to meet energy demand requirements:

1. AIRTIGHTNESS: Passive houses must have controlled air movement and be sealed to prevent air
leakage, ensuring heat retention. Achieving remarkable airtightness levels is a significant challenge in
passive house design, with prescribed targets dictating thresholds below 0.6 ACH-1 at 50 Pa for new
constructions and under 1 ACH-1 at 50 Pa for retrofitted houses. Specific criteria govern the airtightness
test, including multiple readings at different pressure differentials and maintaining airflow parameters
within specified ranges.

2. MECHANICAL VENTILATION: A mechanical ventilation system is essential to ensure fresh air

circulation while minimizing heat loss. Passive houses require an efficient mechanical ventilation
system to maintain air quality standards. (Luetzkendorf, T., & Lorenz, D. (2014). The system's
efficiency is crucial in conserving energy during exhaust air circulation, with features such as silent
operation, adjustable filters, and low energy consumption by the fans being essential.

3. CLEAN POWER SOURCE: The use of clean energy sources, such as solar energy, is imperative in
passive house construction to reduce emissions. Solar panels are a popular choice for clean energy
generation, with their installation costs and energy production being key considerations.

4. GLAZING: Windows and doors play a critical role in passive house design, contributing to both
cooling and heating efficiency. Triple-glazed windows with specific U-values are common in passive
house designs, providing thermal comfort and minimizing heat loss.
 5. THERMAL INSULATION: Effective insulation is essential for maintaining thermal comfort and
reducing heat loss in passive houses. The building envelope, consisting of roofs, floors, and outside
walls, separates the interior from the exterior and requires sufficient insulation to minimize heat transfer.
Insulation materials with low thermal conductivity are used to achieve high heat resistance. (Marszal, A.
J., Heiselberg, P., Bourrelle, J. S., Musall, E., & Voss, K. (2011).

VISUALIZING THE PRINCIPLES AND STANDARDS OF THE PASSIHAUS AS

EXPLAINED THEORETICALLY ABOVE (Torcellini, P., Pless, S., & Deru, M. (2006).
 PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF THE PRINCIPLES IN A REAL
LIFE CONSTRUCTION AS A CASE STUDY
Considering the design is for Wilkinson Primary School, which is expanding from 1.5 form entry to 2-form
entry to accommodate 430 pupils along with a 30-place nursery and flexible spaces for community outreach, it
is a significant project with a focus on sustainability and energy efficiency (Marszal, A. J., Heiselberg, P.,
Bourrelle, J. S., & Musall, E. (2010).

The design intent for the Wilkinson Primary School expansion project is aligned with the Passivhaus standard,
focusing on several key aspirations:

1. Expressing the school's character and atmosphere in line with feedback from consultations and future
plans.

2. Creating flexible and sustainable spaces for teaching and learning, as required by the Passivhaus
standard.

3. Providing effective but unobtrusive security for pupils and staff, in accordance with Passivhaus
principles.

4. Optimizing ancillary support and circulation spaces to enhance the overall energy performance of the
building.

5. Using natural, sustainable materials that meet Passivhaus requirements for low-carbon, recycled, and
toxin-free construction.

6. Maximizing natural daylight and ventilation, a fundamental aspect of Passivhaus design, to create a
healthy and comfortable indoor environment.

7. Designing a building that contributes to the community and reflects high quality throughout, as per the
Passivhaus standard's emphasis on long-term sustainability and user well-being.

In response to the Passivhaus standard, the building has been designed with a focus on energy efficiency and
comfort. This includes features such as a high level of insulation, airtight construction, heat recovery
ventilation, and passive solar design strategies. (Mahdavi, A., & Tahmasebi, F. (2013). The design also
considers the orientation of the building, with south-facing canopies strategically angled at 15° to optimize solar
gain in winter while minimizing overheating in summer. These elements align with the Passivhaus standard's
goal of achieving exceptional energy performance while maintaining a comfortable indoor environment.

MATERIALS
Preference has been given to recycled and reclaimed materials where possible, to reduce the overall embodied
carbon of the building and their subsequent impact on the environment.
Corten Steel

• The industrial heritage of this site provided inspiration for the exterior cladding, which leans away from
Architype’s commonly specified, natural finish. The striking and contrasting Corten, which weathers to a vivid
orange patina offers a contemporary response to sites history.
• Corten is a sustainable choice, with no maintenance required the surface develops to a stable rust-like
appearance. Allowing the steel to rust makes the rust itself form a protective coating that slows the rate of future
corrosion.

Weinerberger Tiles

• The major external finish is Wienerberger polished clay tiles, which have been specified for a number of
reasons. Due to the arson attack, it was decided that the timber frame would not be celebrated externally as it
was important that the facade be a visual deterrent for future attacks. This helped to reassure the community
about the schools improved fire resistance. Furthermore the smooth dark grey cladding complimented the
design aesthetic to link the school with the sites industrial heritage, and makes for a striking contrast with the
orange Corten.

Domestic Timber Frame

• The construction type of is timber frame, sourced from domestic FSC timber.
• Timber frame involved less processes and is from a renewable source.
• Exposing the timber frame internally has inspired a natural interior aesthetic, showing off the bold form in a
soft and welcoming way.
• The timber requires no finishing and is a healthy internal material that keeps the school smelling fresh and
natural.

Wood wool ceiling panels

• These acoustic panels are made from a mixture of pine, spruce and poplar wood fibre strands bound with
magnesite and treated with natural salt.
• This low energy product makes use of low grade timber, complementing our intention of creating a healthy
environment, with a natural finish and acoustic benefits.

Recycled rubber tyre tile flooring

• Specified around access points and areas of heavy footfall, these recycled carpet tiles are made from used
rubber tires and offer a great ecological solution for heavy duty use.
Ecological Paints

Wall finishes are mineral based paints, a protective, toxin-free finish.

Plywood finishes
 • Many internal finishes are made from sustainably sourced birch plywood with exposed edges that create a
fun, textured finish, coated with natural Osmo oil.
• Plywood finishes include timber stairs and balustrades, window edging, integral furnishing and skirting,
which is specified to leg height to prevent wall scuffing, keeping the building looking fresh and clean.

HEATING & COOLING

Wilkinson Primary School operates a mixed mode ventilation strategy. In the summer months, the building is
generally heated and cooled naturally, whereas in the winter the internal environment is controlled by an
MVHR (Mechanical Ventilation with Heat Recovery), as demonstrated in the diagram.

MVHR ventilation
MVHR extraction

A single 90kW boiler provides the full heating load for the school.

Domestic hot water is provided using local electric water heaters rather than a centralised system, to minimise
heat loss from circulatory hot water pipework.

Microbore copper pipework has been used between hot water heaters and outlets, with each pipe precisely
sized to suit the flow rate of the relevant tap ( Kibert, C. J. (2016).. This has meant that no electric trace heating
has been necessary, and deadleg volumes are kept to an absolute minimum. This is an innovation that has
proved successful in use and has led to significant energy savings.

Glazed areas are Passivhaus certified and engineered to be less than previous Passivhaus schemes, whilst still
achieving excellent daylight levels, and adequate passive solar gain.

The shading strategy was developed from the outset. Elements of the structure such as roof overhangs and play
canopies were designed as part of the shading strategy and as a result no dedicated bre-soliel system was
required.
The shading angles have been developed to ensure maximum shading, whilst allowing light to cascade through
to the deep span spaces.

The main roof overhang is a continuation of the 15 degree pitch roof on the first and double height floor
windows, complimented by the play canopies, also designed at 15 degrees. These canopies are aligned with the
highest window transom, allowing light to be bounced into the classroom at a high level.The power use for
lighting is as low as 5.6W/m2 in classrooms.

KEY CONSTRUCTION DETAILS AND INNOVATIONS

With the hindsight and experience of delivering previous passivhaus schools, we found that relying heavily on
the Building Management System (BMS) was actually less effective than allowing the occupants to regulate the
internal conditions on their own. we made all of the opening windows within classrooms manually operated,
with only the clerestory windows controlled by actuators.

We persuaded the Passivhaus Institute to accept a higher internal gain factor, due to the higher density of
children in UK schools compared to German schools, enabling the whole design to be optimised. This led to
reduced areas of glazing, a smaller heating system, better comfort and lower energy consumption
Quote: 'The finished school is an absolute delight for staff and pupils, who moved in to a school they were
already familiar with, given the involvement they had all had in the design and construction phases. The
building flows perfectly with everything to hand.' Marc Webb, Sites and Building Strategy Manager,
Wolverhampton City Council (Client)

The Foundation Slab

The foundation detail is a repeat of the earlier Passivhaus schools, with a continuous insulation layer around the
building, starting underneath the slab and vertically up the walls (Chiras, D. D. (2010. The timber frame design
allows for the structural element to sit on the slab thus transferring the loads, with the thermal 'duvet-layer'
aligned with the insulation formed around the slab. The internal Air-tightness layer is also continuous, using
18mm OSB3 boards taped at the joints with air-tightness tape.

First Floor Detail

This detail has been revised since the first Passivhaus schools and is now more simple to construct. The
previous schools were designed so that the first floor was supported by installing directly onto the ground floor
walls, thus making the air-tightness line convoluted and exposed to potential damage during construction. On
Wilkinson School, we worked closely with the timber frame sub-contractors at an early stage and designed this
detailed so that the air-tightness line was a continuous line of OSB, resulting in the frame becoming a type of
'Balloon frame system'.

Windows and Curtain Walling

The windows and curtain walling are Guttmann triple glazed units, however we worked extremely closely with
the cladding sub-contractor to find a economical and aesthetically pleasing window surround detail. This detail
allowed the window-surround to be glazed in, forming a designed edge to each of the two cladding materials.
The windows surrounds also incorporated their own drainage system, which prevented the potential for staining
from the Corten cladding material, which is an issue over the first few years of occupation. The windows and
curtain walling at Wilkinson Primary School are equipped with Guttmann triple glazed units, a testament to the
project's commitment to energy efficiency and thermal performance. However, what sets these windows apart is
not just their technical specifications but also the meticulous attention to detail in their integration with the
building's overall design and cladding system.

A noteworthy aspect of the window design is the close collaboration between the project team and the cladding
sub-contractor to develop an economical yet aesthetically pleasing window surround detail. This collaboration
aimed to ensure that the windows seamlessly integrated with the building's external cladding, both in terms of
visual appeal and functional performance.

The resulting window surround detail allows the windows to be neatly glazed in, creating a distinct edge that
complements the two different cladding materials used in the building's exterior. This careful attention to detail
adds a level of sophistication to the building's facade, enhancing its architectural character while maintaining a
cohesive aesthetic.
 In addition to the visual integration, the window surrounds were also engineered to incorporate their own
drainage system. This innovative feature serves a dual purpose: it not only ensures effective water management
around the windows but also mitigates the risk of staining from the Corten cladding material. (Schnieders, J., &
Feist, W. (2011). Corten steel, known for its weathering properties that develop a distinctive patina over time,
can potentially cause staining during the initial years of a building's occupation. By integrating a dedicated
drainage system, the design team has proactively addressed this issue, safeguarding the building's appearance
and long-term maintenance requirements.

Overall, the collaborative effort between the project team, the cladding sub-contractor, and the window
manufacturer has resulted in a window design that not only meets high standards of performance and aesthetics
but also demonstrates a proactive approach to addressing potential challenges associated with the building's
materials. This level of attention to detail and problem-solving exemplifies the thoroughness and innovative
spirit that characterize the design and construction of Wilkinson Primary School.

Sprinkler Pump House

Through monitoring of the first Passivhaus schools (Oak Meadow and Bushbury Hill), it was found that the
industry wide standard non-insulated GRP sprinkler pump houses were consuming approximately half of the
energy of the entire schools to keep them heated at the required regulation temperature.

 This monitoring allowed us the opportunity to learn and revise the way the pump house was designed for
Wilkinson School. Instead of using standard off-the-shelf GRP pump housing, we designed a very simple well
insulated box to house the pump. This was based on Passivhaus principles in so much as thermal bridging was
eliminated by the use of a continuous insulation layer and air-tightness was included within the design.
 This has been highly successful and consequently, this is now being applied to our previous Passivhaus
Schools.

Energy Demands and Post Occupancy Monitoring

Measured Energy Performance

 Airtightness result: 0.34 ach @ 50 Pa

 Predicted gas consumption on PHPP= 12 kWh / m2 p.a
 Actual gas consumption Jan ‘14- Jan’15 = 10.96 kWh / m2 p.a
 Actual electricity consumption Jan ‘14- Jan’15 = 50.4 kWh / m2 p.a
 Total Primary Energy = 143 kWh / m2 p.a*
 Annual energy demand for heating in monetary values: 12kWh/m2 x £0.0429 / kWh = £0.51/ m2**
 Total Annual CO2 emissions / m² treated floor area = 12.6 kgCO2/m2

* we are identifying the cause of this being over 120 kWh/sqm.a through post occupancy monitoring, and
expect to reduce this during the 2nd and 3rd year of operations.

**(based on the average price of gas from the Energy Saving Trust, last reviewed Feb’15)

EPC Rating = A (25 points)

 U Values

 Typical External Wall = 0.133

 Flat Roof = 0.153
 Ground Floor Slab = 0.152
 Pitched Roof = 0.103

we have been monitoring the thermal comfort of Wilkinson Primary School during its first year of occupancy,
as well as collecting the same data from the first generation Passivhaus schools, (Oak Meadow and Bushbury
Hill) pre-passivhaus schools, (St. Luke's and The Willows), and a standard school building built to UK Building
Regulations in the 1970's to compare.

The results have been outstanding, showing clear improvements in each succeeding school; with all showing
huge benefits upon the standard Building Regulations school. Wilkinson Primary in-particular has best overall
results, having employed the lessons learned in design, construction and Soft Landings from the predecessors.

A comprehensive monitoring effort to assess the thermal comfort and performance of Wilkinson Primary
School during its initial year of use. This monitoring initiative includes the collection of data not only from
Wilkinson Primary School but also from other relevant sources for comparison. These sources encompass a
range of school buildings, including first-generation Passivhaus schools such as Oak Meadow and Bushbury
Hill, pre-Passivhaus schools like St. Luke's and The Willows, and a standard school building constructed
according to UK Building Regulations in the 1970s.

The findings of this monitoring endeavor have been remarkable, showcasing discernible enhancements in each
successive school building. Moreover, all of the studied buildings have demonstrated substantial advantages
over a standard school constructed in compliance with conventional Building Regulations. Of particular note is
the exceptional performance of Wilkinson Primary School, which has emerged as the frontrunner in terms of
overall results. This outcome can be attributed to the meticulous application of lessons learned from the design,
construction, and Soft Landings processes employed in the preceding projects.

The detailed monitoring and comparison of these diverse school buildings have yielded valuable insights into
the efficacy of Passivhaus principles and sustainable design strategies. By leveraging this wealth of data, we are
able to substantiate the tangible benefits of adopting a holistic approach to building design, encompassing
factors such as thermal comfort, energy efficiency, and environmental impact. These findings underscore the
importance of evidence-based design and post-occupancy evaluation in validating the success of sustainable
building initiatives.

Furthermore, the success of Wilkinson Primary School serves as a compelling case study, demonstrating how a
well-executed design and construction process can translate into tangible benefits for occupants and the
environment alike. The project's emphasis on user comfort, energy performance, and environmental
sustainability has positioned it as a flagship example of best practices in sustainable school design. As such, the
outcomes of this monitoring effort not only validate the effectiveness of Passivhaus principles but also serve as
a testament to the enduring value of sustainable design in educational facilities.

Annotations on Graphs

Graph 1 Graph showing the total thermal energy consumed for space heating and hot water in Pre-Passivahus,
1st generation Passivhaus and 2nd generation (Wilkinson Primary) Passivhaus schools.
Graph 2 showing the winter temperature in a similarly located classroom in each school. The red line shown
21°C is the lower limit for learning, and as you can see from the graph, Wilkinson Primary begins each school
day at this level, rising to a comfortable and consistent 23°, compared to the conventional Building Regulations
school which never reaches the lower limit.
Graph 3 showing the summer temperature during the same week in all studied schools in June. Wilkinson is the
most controlled classroom of all of the studies, rising no more than 1.5° during occupied hours. (Feist, W.,
Schnieders, J., & Diefenbach, N. (2012). Natural cooling and ventilation help to prevent large fluctuations and
keep the temperature consistent. Classrooms stay cool and fresh in the afternoons, helping concentration of
pupils and preventing fatigue.
Graph 4 indicates the CO₂ levels in the test classroom during the same week in winter. The winter is the most
difficult time to control CO₂ levels because people do not want to open windows in the cold weather, so the air
becomes stagnant very quickly (Egan, M. (2013). The recommended healthy amount of CO₂ in classrooms is
1500 particles per million. As you can see from the graph, the conventional school far exceeds this, and
Wilkinson Primary remains consistently below the entire week.
Graph 5 indicates the CO₂ levels in the test classrooms during the same week in summer. As you can see from
the graph, all classrooms do much better in controlling the CO₂ content as they can open the windows. Again,
Wilkinson has the best results with least fluctuation thanks to the night time cooling strategy which lets
classrooms be ventilated securely throughout the night.
 PLANS AND SECTIONS DETAILS

FIRST FLOOR PLAN 1 GreenSpec. (n.d.).

GROUND FLOOR PLAN GreenSpec. (n.d.).
 PASSIHAUS
SECTIONS GreenSpec. (n.d.).

CLASSROOM DIAGRAM GreenSpec. (n.d.).

NORTH ELEVATION GreenSpec. (n.d.).
WEST ELEVATION GreenSpec. (n.d.).

This report analyzes the practical application of Passivhaus principles in the design and construction of the
school expansion, examining its alignment with the Passivhaus standard's key aspirations and detailing the
implementation of sustainable materials, heating, cooling, and construction innovations.

Design Intent Aligned with Passivhaus Standard The design intent for the school expansion project aligns with
the Passivhaus standard's key aspirations, emphasizing the expression of the school's character and atmosphere,
creation of flexible and sustainable spaces, provision of effective security measures, optimization of energy
performance, use of natural sustainable materials, maximization of natural daylight and ventilation, and
contribution to the community.

Energy Efficiency and Comfort Features To achieve energy efficiency and comfort, the building design
incorporates high levels of insulation, airtight construction, heat recovery ventilation (MVHR), and passive
solar design strategies. The orientation of the building and strategic placement of south-facing canopies
optimize solar gain in winter and minimize overheating in summer, ensuring exceptional energy performance
and indoor comfort.

Use of Sustainable Materials The project emphasizes the use of sustainable materials, including Corten steel for
exterior cladding, Wienerberger tiles for external finish, domestic timber frame construction, wood wool ceiling
panels for acoustic benefits, and recycled rubber tire tile flooring for heavy-duty areas. These materials not only
contribute to sustainability but also enhance the aesthetic and functional aspects of the building.

Heating and Cooling Strategies Wilkinson Primary School implements a mixed-mode ventilation strategy,
utilizing natural heating and cooling in summer and an MVHR system in winter. The building's heating is
provided by a single 90kW boiler, with domestic hot water supplied by local electric water heaters to minimize
heat loss. Microbore copper pipework and Passivhaus-certified glazed areas further enhance energy efficiency
and comfort.

Key Construction Details and Innovations The project incorporates several key construction details and
innovations, such as manually operated windows for occupant control, a revised internal gain factor for
optimized design, innovative foundation slab and first-floor details, Guttmann triple-glazed windows with
designed edge details, and an insulated sprinkler pump house to minimize energy consumption.

Energy Performance and Post-Occupancy Monitoring Post-occupancy monitoring of Wilkinson Primary School
demonstrates outstanding results in energy performance, thermal comfort, and CO2 levels compared to previous
Passivhaus schools, pre-Passivhaus schools, and standard school buildings built to UK Building Regulations.
The school achieves airtightness of 0.34 ach @ 50 Pa, with actual energy consumption lower than predicted,
resulting in an EPC rating of A and U values within Passivhaus standards.

Conclusion

The expansion of Wilkinson Primary School exemplifies the successful practical application of Passivhaus
principles in real-life construction. By aligning with the Passivhaus standard's aspirations, implementing
sustainable materials, heating, cooling, and construction innovations, and achieving outstanding energy
performance, the project sets a high standard for sustainable and energy-efficient building design in educational
facilities. The post-occupancy monitoring results validate the effectiveness of Passivhaus principles in
delivering comfortable, healthy, and environmentally friendly learning environments.

References

1. GreenSpec. (n.d.). Housing refurbishment and retrofit. GreenSpec - Green Building Design Products
and Materials in the UK. Retrieved from https://www.greenspec.co.uk/building-design/housing-refurb-
retrofit/

2. Feist, W. (2012). The Passivhaus standard: The path to zero energy buildings. Earthscan.

3. Mahdavi, A., & Krarti, M. (Eds.). (2010). The passivhaus designer’s manual: A technical guide to low and zero
energy buildings. Routledge.

4. Dutt, G. S., & Chandra, S. (2016). Energy-efficient building design: A study of Passivhaus standard. Energy and
Buildings, 127, 342-352. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2016.05.054

5. Ottelé, M., & Hoes, P. J. (2014). Design of Passivhaus dwellings in the Netherlands: Importance of thermal mass
and glazing properties. Building and Environment, 72, 10-19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2013.10.007

6. Wallbaum, H., & Ebel, B. (2011). A review of key elements of the certification process for Passivhaus buildings.
Energy and Buildings, 43(10), 2583-2593. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2011.05.017

7. Mahdavi, A., & Wetter, M. (2011). The Passivhaus standard in European climates: Detailed dynamic simulations
and sensitivity analyses for design optimization. Energy and Buildings, 43(10), 2752-2761.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2011.06.007

8. Marszal, A. J., Heiselberg, P., Bourrelle, J. S., Musall, E., & Voss, K. (2011). Zero energy building – A review of
definitions and calculation methodologies. Energy and Buildings, 43(4), 971-979.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2010.12.022
9. Luetzkendorf, T., & Lorenz, D. (2014). Zero-energy buildings and emissions reduction–A review of definitions,
construction concepts, and estimation methods. Journal of Cleaner Production, 79, 108-118.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.05.083

10. Torcellini, P., Pless, S., & Deru, M. (2006). Zero energy buildings: A critical look at the definition. National
Renewable Energy Laboratory. https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy06osti/39833.pdf

11. Marszal, A. J., Heiselberg, P., Bourrelle, J. S., & Musall, E. (2010). A methodology for comparative analysis of
the performance of building thermal energy storage systems. Energy and Buildings, 42(8), 1132-1140.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2010.02.004

12. Mahdavi, A., & Tahmasebi, F. (2013). Passivhaus standard in Iran: Evaluating building performance under
different climatic conditions. Energy and Buildings, 65, 400-409. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2013.05.022

13. Kibert, C. J. (2016). Sustainable construction: Green building design and delivery. John Wiley & Sons.

14. Chiras, D. D. (2010). The green building bottom line: The real cost of sustainable building. Chelsea Green
Publishing.

15. Egan, M. (2013). The Passivhaus handbook: A practical guide to constructing and retrofitting buildings for ultra-
low-energy performance. Chelsea Green Publishing.

16. Feist, W., Schnieders, J., & Diefenbach, N. (2012). Comfort by daylight—The Passivhaus standard for
daylighting (2nd ed.). Passivhaus Institut.

17. Ottelé, M., & Hoes, P. J. (2012). The influence of thermal mass and glazing properties in Passivhaus dwellings on
the thermal indoor environment during extreme cold winter conditions. Building and Environment, 47, 215-224.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2011.07.017

18. Feist, W., & Schnieders, J. (2010). Thermal comfort in residential Passivhaus buildings. Passivhaus Institut.

19. Proskiw, G. (2013). The Passivhaus designer’s manual. Passive House Institute US.

20. Fischedick, M., Roy, J., Abdel‐Aziz, A., Acquaye, A., Allwood, J. M., Ceron, J. P., ... & Fu, S. (2014). Industry. In
Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment
Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (pp. 535-609). Cambridge University Press.

21. Rode, C., & Herkel, S. (2013). Effective thermal mass in Passivhaus buildings. Passive House Institute US.

22. Schnieders, J., & Hermelink, A. (2010). The Passivhaus standard in European building practice. Passivhaus
Institut.

23. Schnieders, J., & Feist, W. (2011). Cost-optimized construction of the passive house: A practical guide.
Passivhaus Institut.