Eng. Material Chapter 1-5 For Mech - Cop

Chapter One
Fundamentals of engineering materials

Introduction of Materials Science and Engineering
There are maybe more than 50,000 materials available to the engineer. In designing a structure or
device, how is the engineer to choose from this vast menu the material that best suits the
purpose? Mistakes can cause disasters.
Materials are very important in the development of human civilization. Historians have identified
civilization by the name of most used material. Thus, we have: Stone Age, Bronze Age etc. In
summary, materials constitute foundation of technology. Civilization evolved from the Stone
Age to the Bronze Age, the Iron Age, the Steel Age, and to the Space Age. Each age is marked
by the advent of certain materials. The Iron Age brought tools and utensils. The Steel Age
brought railroads, instruments, and the Industrial Revolution. The Space Age brought the
materials for stronger and light structures (e.g., composite materials). The Electronic Age
brought semiconductors, and thus many varieties of electronic gadgets.
Why Study Materials Science and Engineering?
At some point of time or the other an engineering problem involves issues related to material
selection. Understanding the behavior of materials, particularly structure-property correlation,
will help selecting suitable materials for a particular application. The objective of studying
materials science is to develop this understanding.
Materials Science
Investigating relationships that exist between the structure and properties of materials.
Important components of the subject Materials Science are structure, properties, processing, and
performance.
Materials Engineering – On the basis of these structure-property correlations, designing or

engineering the structure of a material to produce a pre-determined set of properties.
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Dilla University May 2022
Engineering materials classification
Solid materials have been conveniently grouped into three basic classifications:
One can classify them based on many criteria, for example crystal structure (arrangement of
atoms and bonds between them), or properties, or use.
(1) metals, (2) ceramics, and (3) polymers.
Metals
These materials are characterized by high thermal and electrical conductivity; strong yet
deformable under applied mechanical loads; opaque to light (shiny ifpolished).
 Materials in this group are composed of one or more metallic elements (such as iron,
aluminum, copper, titanium, gold, and nickel), and often also nonmetallic elements (for
example, carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen) in relatively small amounts.
 Atoms in metals and their alloys are arranged in a very orderly manner.
 In comparison to the ceramics and polymers, are relatively dense.
 Mechanical Property- relatively stiff and strong, ductile (i.e., capable of large amounts of
deformation without fracture), and are resistant to fracture.
 Metallic materials have large numbers of non-localized electrons; that is, these electrons are
not bound to particular atoms. Many properties of metals are directly attributable to these
electrons.
 Example, metals are extremely good conductors of electricity, and heat, and are not
transparent to visible light; a polished metal surface has a lustrous appearance.
 Some of the metals (viz., Fe, Co, and Ni) have desirable magnetic properties.
Metals can be categorized into Ferrous and non-Ferrous materials
Ferrous materials:
Metals containing elements of iron as their chief constituents are usually referred to as ferrous
metals.
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Cast iron- It is an alloy of iron, carbon and silicon and it is hard and brittle. Carbon content may
be within 1.7% to 4% and carbon may be present as free carbon or iron carbide Fe3C.
In general the types of cast iron are (a) grey cast iron and (b) white cast iron (c) malleable cast
iron (d) spheroidal or nodular cast iron (e) austenitic cast iron (f) abrasion resistant cast iron.
(a) Grey cast iron- Carbon here is mainly in the form of graphite.
Steel- Steel is basically an alloy of iron and carbon in which the carbon content can be less than
1.7% and carbon is present in the form of iron carbide to impart hardness and strength.
Two main categories of steel are (a) Plain carbon steel and (b) alloy steel.
Non-ferrous metals:
Metals containing elements other than iron as their chief constituents are usually referred to as
non-ferrous metals. There is a wide variety of non-metals in practice. However, only a few
examples Aluminum, Duralumin, Magnelium, Copper alloys, Brass (Cu-Zn alloy)….etc.
Applications:
Aerospace, Biomedical, Semiconductor, Electronic, Energy, Civil Structural, Transport etc.
Automobile and Materials:
We have come of ages, developed new materials and technologies based on them.
The application of these materials has led to the modern day cars
• Engine components are traditionally made from ferrous alloys. Emphasis on weight reduction
for higher fuel efficiency has increased usage of aluminum for cylinder blocks, cylinder heads,
and other engine components.
• Some engine covers and intake manifolds are made of magnesium.
Titanium is also used in high-speed engines connecting rods to reduce reciprocating mass.
Ceramics
• Ceramics are compounds between metallic and nonmetallic elements; they are most
frequently oxides, nitrides, and carbides.
• Examples-aluminum oxide (or alumina, Al2O3), silicon dioxide (or silica, SiO2), silicon
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carbide (SiC), silicon nitride (Si3N4).
• Examples of traditional ceramics - clay minerals (i.e., porcelain), cement, and glass.
Properties-
• Relatively stiff and strong-stiff nesses and strengths are comparable to those of the metals,
very hard, extremely brittle (lack ductility), highly susceptible to fracture.
• Thermal and electrical Properties- Insulative to the passage of heat and electricity low
electrical
conductivities and are more resistant to high temperatures
• Optical characteristics-Ceramics may be transparent, translucent, or opaque.
Advantages:
Polymer-Coating materials are being used for protection against corrosion, aggressive chemical
environments, thermal shocks, impact, wear& abrasion.
Polymers
Carbon-based compounds
• Chain of H-C molecules. Each repeat unit of H-C is a monomer e.g. ethylene (C2H4),
Polyethylene (– CH2 –CH2) n.
• Polymers include the familiar plastic and rubber materials.
• Many of them are organic compounds that are chemically based on carbon, hydrogen, and
other
nonmetallic elements (viz. O, N, and Si).
• They have very large molecular structures, often chain-like in nature that have a backbone of
carbon atoms. Some of the common and familiar polymers are polyethylene (PE), nylon, poly
(vinyl chloride)(PVC), polycarbonate (PC), polystyrene (PS), and silicone rubber.
Properties
• Low densities, not as stiff nor as strong as ceramics and metals.
• Extremely ductile and pliable (i.e., plastic).
• Relatively inert chemically and unreactive in a large number of environments.
Limitations
• Tendency to soften and/or decompose at modest temperatures, which, in some instances,
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limits their use.
• Low electrical conductivities and are nonmagnetic.
There are two main types of plastics:

(a) Thermosetting plastics-
Thermosetting plastics are formed under heat and pressure. It initially softens and with
increasing heat and pressure, polymerisation takes place. This results in hardening of the
material. These plastics cannot be deformed or remoulded again under heat and pressure.
Some examples of thermosetting plastics are phenol formaldehyde (Bakelite), phenol-furfural

(Durite), epoxy resins, phenolic resins etc.
(b)Thermoplastics- Thermoplastics do not become hard with the application of heat and
pressure and no chemical change takes place. They remain soft at elevated temperatures until
they are hardened by cooling. These can be re-melted and remoulded by application of heat and
pressure. Some examples of thermoplastics are cellulose nitrate (celluloid), polythene, polyvinyl
acetate, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) etc.
Advantages:
Polymer-Coating materials are being used for protection against corrosion, aggressive chemical
environments, thermal shocks, impact, wear& abrasion.
Applications:
One of the more recent applications of polymeric materials has been in manufacturing of digital
video discs (DVD).
The blended elastomers (a high deformable type of polymer) having impact strength can be
used in automotive bumpers, power tool housing, sporting goods, and synthetic components used
in many indoor track facilities.
Composites
 A composite is composed of two (or more) individual materials, which come from the
categories discussed above such as, metals, ceramics, and polymers.
 Objective-to achieve a combination of properties that is not displayed by any single
material.
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Examples
 Cemented carbides (WC with Co binder)

 Plastic molding compounds containing fillers
 Rubber mixed with carbon black
 Wood (a natural composite as distinguished from a synthesized composite)
Advantages:
 Composite materials usage of increasing because of their high strength & stiffness to weight
ratio.
Disadvantages:
 Disadvantages of most composite materials is their brittleness and low fracture toughness.
Applications:
Composite materials have replaced in many application areas such as aerospace, avionics,
automobiles, civil structural and sport equipment industries.
Carbon-fibers-epoxy composite materials was used for the wings & engines.
Advance Materials
 Materials that are utilized in high-technology (or high-tech) applications are sometimes
termed advanced materials.
 Examples Include electronic equipment (camcorders, CD/DVD players, etc.), computers,
fiber-optic systems, spacecraft, aircraft, and military rocketry, liquid crystal displays
(LCDs), and fiber optics.
 These advanced materials may be typically traditional materials types (e.g., metals,
ceramics, polymers) whose properties have been enhanced, and, also newly developed,
high-performance materials.
 Advanced materials include semiconductors, biomaterials, and what we may term“
materials of the future.
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Biomaterials
• Biomaterials are employed in components implanted into the human body for replacement of
diseased or damaged body parts.
• These materials must not produce toxic substances and must be compatible with body tissues
(i.e., must not cause adverse biological reactions).
• All of the above materials of metals, ceramics, polymers, composites, and semiconductors may
be used as biomaterials.
Example. Titanium and its alloy, Co-Cr alloy, stainless steel, zirconia, HA, TiO2 etc.
Semiconductors
• Semiconductors have electrical properties that are intermediate between the electrical
conductors (viz. metals and metal alloys) and insulators (viz. ceramics and polymers).
• The electrical characteristics of these materials are extremely sensitive to the presence of
minute concentrations of impurity atoms, for which the concentrations may be controlled over
very small spatial regions.
 Semiconductors have made possible the advent of integrated circuitry that has totally
revolutionized the electronics and computer industries (not to mention our lives) over the past
three decades.
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Chapter Two
Atomic structure and bonding
Introduction:
 Every atom consists of a small nucleus composed of protons and neutrons, which is
encircled by moving electrons in their orbital, specific energy levels.
 The top most orbital electrons, valence electrons, affect most material properties that are of
interest to engineer.
 E.g.: chemical properties, nature of bonding, size of atom, optical/magnetic/electrical
properties.
 Atoms in all matters are made of smaller particles that are ‘-ve’ly charges called ‘electrons’
 The ‘+ve’ly charges particles in the nucleus were called ‘protons’
 Matters ultimately consists of small indivisible particles called ‘atoms’
 The particle with no electrical charge and with a mass of 1.674 X 10-27 g were called as
‘neutrons’
 Electrons and protons are negative and positive charges of the same magnitude being
1.60x10-19 coulombs.
 Neutrons are electrically neutral.
 Protons and neutrons have approximately the mass, 1.67x10-27 kg, which is larger than that
of an electron, 9.11x10-31 kg.
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Figure 2.1 schematic of the planetary model of a 12C atom
Atoms are the basic building blocks of matter that make up everyday objects.
Atom consists of a nucleus (protons and neutrons) and electrons that move in their orbits.
Atoms = protons (p) + neutrons (n) + electrons (e)
Structure of an atom: small diameter (2 × 10-10 m = 200 pm)
A chemical element has

Atomic Number (Z):
Each atom has a specific number of protons in its nucleus this number was named the atomic
number (Z).
Atomic number (Z) = Number protons = number of electrons.
Mass Number (A):
Mass Number is the sum of protons and neutrons in a nucleus of an atom.
Atomic mass (A) = proton mass + neutron mass.
Where 1amu=(1\12) the mass of most common isotope of carbon atom, measured in grams.
• A = Z+N, where N is number of neutrons.
• Atomic mass is measured in atomic mass unit (amu).
Isotopes:
The variations the same atomic number (Z) but different mass number (A) are called isotopes.
Ionization energy:
The energy required to remove electron from atom is called ionization energy.
Electron affinity:
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The ionization energy tendency the electron may loose one atom or more than electron that
property is called as electron affinity.
Electro-negativity:
The various characteristics are well represented by the electro negativity of atoms indicating the
degree by which they attract electrons to themselves.
Bonding forces and energies
Bonding force is the net force of attraction (or repulsion) as a function of the separation distance
between two atoms or ions.
Considering the interaction between two isolated atoms as they are brought into close
proximity from an infinite separation.
• At larger distances, the interactions are negligible.
Interatomic forces determine the physical properties of materials.

There are two types of forces: the attractive and the repulsive forces
Most of time, it is more convenient to work with potential energies, which are attractive and the
repulsive energies. Both terms depend on the distance between the centre of two atoms.
Ultimately, the outer electron shells of the two atoms begin to overlap, and a strong repulsive
force comes into play.
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Fnet = Fattactive + Frepulvise
In equilibrium: FA + FR =0
The interaction energy at equilibrium is called the bonding energy between the two atoms.
 To break the bond, this energy must be supplied from outside.

 Breaking the bond means that the two atoms become infinitely separated.
 In real materials, containing many atoms, bonding is studied by expressing the bonding
energy of the entire materials in terms of the separation distances between all atoms
The interionic energy can be defined as the energy needed to rip a compound into its
components placed ∞ far apart (ENET (∞) = 0)
It is convenient to work with energy than forces.

• Bonding energy (also called interaction energy or potential energy) between two isolated atoms
at separation r is related to the force by
The total energy has a minimum at the point of equilibrium separation. Bonding energy E0
corresponds to the energy at ro– the energy that would be required to separate these two atoms to
an infinite separation.
The potential energy between two atoms

E = ∫Fdr
The net energy, EN
EN = EA + ER
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The various ways in which atoms can be bound together involve:
Primary bonds-ionic, covalent, or metallic bonds, which are all relatively strong (they
generally melt between 1000 and 4000 K)
Secondary bonds-Van der Waals and hydrogen bonds, which are both relatively weak (they
melt between 100 and 500 K)
Primary Bonds. Primary bonds, also known as “strong bonds,” (they generally melt between
1000 and 4000 K) and are created when there is direct interaction of electrons between two or
more atoms, either through transfer or as a result of sharing. It involves the transfer or sharing of
electrons and produces a relatively strong joining of adjacent atoms.
The more electrons per atom that take place in this process, the higher the bond “order” (e.g.,
single, double, or triple bond) and the stronger the connection between atoms. There are three
general categories of primary bonds: ionic, covalent, and metallic.
An ionic bond, is the result of electron transfer from one atom to another and also called a
heteropolar bond, results when electrons are transferred from the more electropositive atom to
the more electronegative atom, as in sodium chloride, NaCl. The transfer of an electron from
sodium is favored because it produces a more stable electronic configuration; that is, the
resulting Na + species has a full outer orbital shell, defined as a set of electrons in a given
orbital. Similarly, the chlorine readily accepts the electron, producing a stable Cl- species, also
with a full outer orbital shell. The charged species (Na+ and Cl-) are termed ions, giving rise to
the name ionic bond. The positive species (Na+) is a cation, and the negative species (Cl-)
is an anion. The classic example of an ionic bond is NaCl, but CaF2 and MgO are also
examples of molecules in which ionic bonding dominates. An example is NaCl. In the molecule,
there are more electrons around Cl, forming Cl- and fewer electrons around Na, forming Na+. It
is important to note that the ionic bond is no directional. A positively charged Na+ will attract
any adjacent Cl- equally in all directions.
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Fig 2.1 Schematic representation of ioning bonding.
Here, Na is giving an electron to Cl to have stable structure
Fig 2.1 Schematic representation of ioning bonding in NaCl solid structure
Ionic Bonds & Material Properties:

 Ionic solids generally have high melting temperature.
 Ionic solids are generally hard, rigid, strong and brittle, these properties of ionic solids are
due to the strong electrostatic forces that hold the ions together.
 Ionic solids do not conduct electricity well & are therefore excellent insulators, because
electrons are tightly held inside the bond & cannot participate in the conduction process.
A covalent bond,
Covalent Bond are formed by sharing of electrons to get a stable configuration.
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 The more the bonding orbital's overlap, the stronger the bond.
 Covalent Bond are directional and strong.
 Covalent Bonding is typically observed between atoms with small differences in their
electro negativities and mostly between nonmetals.
 The Covalent bonding between atoms is crudely represented by the ‘Lewis Electron Dot’
representation.
 Typically, covalent bonds are very strong, and directional in nature.
Covalent Bonding or homopolar bond, arises when electrons are shared between two atoms (e.g.,
H–H). This means that a binding electron in a covalent diatomic molecule such as H2 has equal
likelihood of being found around either hydrogen atom.
The name covalent derives from the cooperative sharing of valence electrons between two
adjacent atoms.
Valence electrons are those outer orbital electrons that take part in bonding
Fig 2.2 Schematic representation of covalent bond in Hydrogen molecule
Eg: 2: Methane (CH4): Four hydrogen atoms share their valence electrons with one carbon
atom and the carbon atom in turn shares one valence electron with each of the four hydrogen
atoms. In the process both H and C atoms get stable configuration and form a covalent bond.
CH4
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Covalent bonds are formed between atoms of similar electronegativity
Fig 2.3 Schematic representation of covalent bond in a molecule of methane
Covalent bonds are typically found in homonuclear diatomics such as O2 and N2, though the
atoms need not be the same to have similar electro negativities.
The percent ionic character of the bond can again be related to the electro negativities of the
individual atoms:
% ionic character = 100{1 - exp [-0.25(ΧA - ΧB) 2]}
Covalent Bond & Material Properties:

 Metals that consists covalent bonds are numerous, most gas molecules, liquid molecules &
low melting solid molecules formed through covalent bonds.
 The covalent bonds between the atoms are very strong and are difficult to break.
 Covalent materials are poor conductors of electricity.
 Examples of covalent solids are Quartz & Diamond is very hard & melts at temperature
15500C.
Metallic bond
The model of a metallic bond, first proposed by Lorentz, consists of an assembly of positively
charged ion cores surrounded by free electrons or an “electron gas.” of homonuclear atoms, such
as copper or sodium.
The ionic bond involves electron transfer and is non directional.
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The covalent bond involves electron sharing and is directional.
The third type of primary bond, the metallic bond, involves electron sharing and is non
directional.
Here the bonding electrons become “decentralized” and are shared by the core of positive nuclei.
Metallic bonds occur when elements of low electronegativity (usually found in the lower left
region of the periodic table) bond with each other to form a class of materials we call metals.
Metals tend to have common characteristics such as ductility, luster, and high thermal and
electrical conductivity.
Fig 2.3 Metallic bonding Schematic representation of
Metallic Bond & Material Properties:

 Melting point of pure metals are high.
 The mechanical properties of metals are significantly different than those of ionic and
covalent networked materials.
 Limited structural application for pure metals because of their softness.
 The strength of a pure metal can be significantly increased through alloying impurities,
plastic deformation, grain refinement and heat treatment.
 Pure metals are excellent conductors of electricity.
Secondary Bonds
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Secondary bonds, or weak bonds, occur due to indirect interaction of electrons in adjacent atoms
or molecules. Bonding that results from the coulombic attraction between the positive end of one
dipole and the negative region of an adjacent one. It involves a relatively weak attraction
between atoms (they melt between 100 and 500 K) in which no electron transfer or sharing
occurs.
The main types of secondary bonding’s are:
Fluctuating Induced Dipole Bond
A dipole (whether induced or instantaneous) produces a displacement of the electron distribution

of an adjacent molecule or atom and continues as a chain effect.
 Liquefaction and solidification of inert gases

 Weakest Bonds
 Extremely low boiling and melting point
Polar Molecule-Induced Dipole Bonds
 Permanent dipole moments exist by virtue of an asymmetrical arrangement of positively

and negatively charged regions
 Polar molecules can induce dipoles in adjacent nonpolar molecules
 Magnitude of bond greater than for fluctuating induced dipoles
Permanent Dipole Bonds
– Stronger than any secondary bonding with induced dipoles
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– A special case of this is hydrogen bonding: exists between molecules that have hydrogen as
one of the constituent.
Molecules:
Hydrogen bonding:
 Hydrogen bond is a type of secondary bond found in molecules containing hydrogen as a

constituent. H2O
 The bond originates from electrostatic interaction between hydrogen and another atom of
high electronegativity such as fluorine or oxygen.
 The strength of hydrogen bonds is in the range of 10 – 50 kJ/mol.
 Water molecules, for example, are connected by hydrogen bonds (dashed lines in the
picture).
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Chapter Three
Imperfections
In actual crystals, imperfection or defects are always present, which are important to understand,
as they influence the properties of material.
Imperfections associated with the crystalline point lattice are called point defects.
• The term “defect” or “imperfection” is generally used to describe any deviation from the
perfect periodic array of atoms in the crystal.
The properties of some materials are extremely influenced by the presence of imperfections such
as mechanical strength, ductility, crystal growth, magnetic hysteresis, dielectric strength,
condition in semiconductors, which are termed structure sensitive are greatly affected by the-
relatively minor changes in crystal structure caused by defects or imperfections.
• There are some properties of materials such as stiffness, density and electrical conductivity
which are termed structure-insensitive, are not affected by the presence of defects in crystals.
• It is important to have knowledge about the types of imperfections that exist and the roles they
play in affecting the behavior of materials.
Now that the most important aspects of perfect crystals have been described, it is time to
recognize that things are not always perfect, even in the world of space lattices. This is not
necessarily a bad thing. As we will see, many important materials phenomena that are based on
defective structures can be exploited for very important uses. These defects, also known as
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imperfections, are grouped according to spatial extent. Crystal imperfections can be classified on
the basis of their geometry as:
Point defects (Zero Dimensional Defects) - have zero dimension;
 Imperfect point like regions in crystal (size is one or two atomic diameter)
 Completely local in effect, i.e. vacant lattice site
 Always present in crystals
 Created by thermal fluctuations, quenching (high rate of cooling), severe deformation of
crystal lattice (hammering or rolling) or external bombardment by atoms / high energy
particles.
Vacancy
The vacancy is simply an unoccupied atom site in the crystal structure. Simplest type of point
defect involving a missing atom within crystal lattice of metal, which results due to imperfect
packing during original crystallization process or by thermal vibrations of atoms at very high
temperature
Schottky Imperfections
The Schottky defect is a pair of oppositely charged ion vacancies. This pairing is required in
order to maintain local charge neutrality in the compound’s crystal structure.
Involve vacancies in pair of ions having opposite charges and are found in compounds, which
maintain charge balance, e.g. alkali halides.
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A pair of one cation and one anion can be missing from an ionic crystal as shown in Fig. 6.2b.
The valency of the missing pair of ions should be equal to maintain electrical neutrality. Such a
pair of vacant ion sites is called a Schottky imperfection. This type is dominant in alkali halides.
Interstitialcy
Addition of an extra atom in the crystal lattice, when atomic packing density / factor is low and
the foreign atom may be an impurity or alloying atom (generally very less in number as
additional energy is required to force atom / ion to occupy new position).
Interstitials exist for cations, interstitials are not normally observed for anions because anions
are large relative to the interstitial sites.
Frenkel Defect
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The Frenkel defect is a vacancy-interstitially combination. Ion dislodged from its crystal lattice
into an interstitial site (generally very less in number as additional energy is required to force the
atom / ion to occupy the new position).
Compositional Defect
Arises due to presence of impurity atom in crystal lattice of metal during original crystallization
process (responsible for functioning of semi-conductor devices).
 Substitutional Defect: Original parent atom from its lattice is replaced

 Interstitial Impurity: Small impurity occupies interstitial spaces in lattice
Substitutional Defect Interstitial Impurity
Electronic Defect
Errors in charge distribution in solids, e.g. diodes and transistors devices, where charges diffuse
in opposite regions leading to change of their concentration in that region.
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Linear defects, also known as dislocations, are one dimensional. A dislocation is a linear or one-
dimensional defect around which some of the atoms are misaligned. The defects, which take
place due to distortion of atoms along a line, in some direction are called as ‘line defects. Line
defects are also called dislocations. It is responsible for the phenomenon of slip by which most
metals deform plastically. The two types of dislocations are,
Edge dislocation it is a linear defect that centers around the line that is defined along the end of
the extra half-plane of atoms. The distorted configuration extends all along the edge into the
crystal. Thus as the region of maximum distortion is centered around the edge of the incomplete
plane, this distortion represents a line imperfection and is called an edge dislocation. Edge
dislocations are represented by ‘⊥’ or ‘Τ‘depending on whether the incomplete plane starts from
the top or from the bottom of the crystal. These two configurations are referred to as positive and
negative edge dislocations respectively. Figure below represents a specific type of linear defect,
the edge dislocation, so named because the defect, or dislocation line, runs along the edge of the
extra row of atoms. For the edge dislocation, the Burgers vector b is perpendicular to the
dislocation line. The magnitude and the direction of the displacement are defined by a vector
called the Burgers vector (BV), which characterizes a dislocation line.
Screw dislocation:-
 In this dislocation, the atoms are displaced in two separate planes perpendicular to each
other.
 It forms a spiral ramp around the dislocation.
 The Burgers Vector is parallel to the screw dislocation line.
 Speed of movement of a screw dislocation is lesser compared to edge dislocation.
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It may be thought of as being formed by a shear stress that is applied to produce the distortion.
The upper front region of the crystal is shifted one atomic distance to the right relative to the
bottom portion.
Planar defects such as surface defects and grain boundary defects have two dimensions.
These defects may occur individually or in combination.
Planar defects arise due to change in the stacking of atomic planes during mechanical and
thermal treatments.
The change may be of the orientation or of the stacking sequence of the planes.
Planar defects are of three types:
Grain boundaries:
 Grain boundaries are the usually the result of uneven growth when the solid is crystallizing.
 Grain boundaries are 2D defects in the crystal structure, and tend to decrease the
electrical and thermal conductivity of the material.
 Most grain boundaries are preferred sites for the onset of corrosion and for the precipitation
of
new phases from the solid.
They are also important to many of the mechanisms of creep.
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 On the other hand, grain boundaries disrupt the motion of dislocations through a material, so
reducing crystallite size is a common way to improve mechanical strength, as described by
the Hall–Petch relationship.
 A grain boundary is represented schematically from an atomic perspective in Figure below.
 Within the boundary region, which is probably just several atom distances wide, there is
some atomic mismatch in a transition from the crystalline orientation of one grain to that of
an adjacent one.
 The atoms are bonded less regularly along a grain boundary (e.g., bond angles are longer),
and consequently, there is an interfacial or grain boundary energy similar to the surface
energy just described.
Tilt boundaries:
When the angle between two crystals is less than 10, the distortion is not so drastic as to be
compared with a non-crystalline material.
 They are also called “low angle boundaries”.

 It can be described as set of parallel equally spaced edge dislocation of same sign located
one above other.
 A tilt boundary between two slightly misaligned grains appears as an array of edge
dislocations.
 A pure tilt boundary causes a constant angle of tilt between lattice planes of same type in
adjacent regions of the sample.
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 It is composed of a regular array of edge dislocation of same sign in the plane of the
boundary
This figure shows Simple grain-boundary structure. This is termed a tilt boundary because it is
formed when two adjacent crystalline grains are tilted relative to each other by a few degrees (θ).
The resulting structure is equivalent to isolated edge dislocations separated by the distance b/θ,
where b is the length of the Burgers vector, b.
TWIN BOUNDARIES:
These are the boundaries the grains at which the atomic arrangement on one side of the boundary
is the mirror image of the atoms on the other seid
 The volume of the material which has an orientation similar to the mirror image of the
matrix orientation is called a twin.
 Twin boundaries occur when two crystals of the same type intergrow so that only a slight
mis orientation exists between them.
Volume Defects
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These include pores, cracks, foreign inclusions, and other phases. They are normally introduced
during processing and fabrication steps.
Atomic vibrations
Atomic vibrations occur, even at zero temperature (a quantum mechanical effect) and increase in
amplitude with temperature. In fact, the temperature of a solid is really just a measure of average
vibrational activity of atoms and molecules. Vibrations displace transiently atoms from their
regular lattice site, which destroys the perfect periodicity. In a sense, these atomic vibrations may
be thought of as imperfections or defects. At room temperature, a typical vibrational frequency
of atoms is of the order of 1013 vibrations per second, whereas the amplitude is a few
thousandths of a nanometer. Many properties and processes in solids are manifestations of this
vibrational atomic motion. For example: melting occurs once the atomic bonds are overcome by
vigorous vibrations.
Diffusion in solids
Diffusion can be defined as the mass flow process in which atoms change their positions relative
to neighbors in a given phase under the influence of thermal and a gradient. The gradient can be
a compositional gradient, an electric or magnetic gradient, or stress gradient. Atoms move from
higher to lower concentration region.
a b
27
c
Figure 1. (a) A copper–nickel diffusion couple after a high-temperature heat treatment, showing
the alloyed diffusion zone. (b) Schematic representations of Cu (red circles) and Ni (blue circles)
atom locations within the couple. (c) Concentrations of copper and nickel as a function of
position across the couple.
Diffusion Mechanisms
Diffusion is just the stepwise migration of atoms from lattice site to lattice site. In fact, the atoms
in solid materials are in constant motion. For an atom to make such a move, two conditions
must be met:
1. There must be an empty adjacent site, and
2. The atom must have sufficient energy to break bonds with its neighbor atoms and then cause
some lattice distortion during the displacement.
Factors that influence diffusion:

Diffusing species: If the diffusing species is able to occupy interstitial sites, then it can easily
diffuse through the parent matrix. On the other hand if the size of substitutional species is almost
equal to that of parent atomic size, substitutional diffusion would be easier. Thus size of
diffusing species will have great influence on diffusivity of the system.
Temperature: Temperature has a most profound influence on the diffusivity and diffusion rates.
It is known that there is a barrier to diffusion created by neighboring atoms those need to move
to let the diffusing atom pass. Thus, atomic vibrations created by temperature assist diffusion.
Empirical analysis of the system resulted in an Arrhenius type of relationship between diffusivity
and temperature.
Lattice structure: Diffusion is faster in open lattices or in open directions than in closed
directions.
Presence of defects: As mentioned in earlier section, defects like dislocations, grain boundaries
act as short-circuit paths for diffusing species, where the activation energy is diffusion is less.
Thus the presence of defects enhances the diffusivity of diffusing species.
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Chapter four
Dislocation and Strengthening Mechanisms
Characteristics of dislocations:
Several characteristics of dislocations are important with regard to the mechanical properties of
metals. These include:
1. Strain fields that exist around dislocations, which are influential in determining:
a. The mobility of the dislocations.
b. Their ability to multiply
When metals are plastically deformed;

a. Some fraction of the deformation energy (approximately 5%) is retained internally; the
remainder is dissipated as heat.
b. The major portion of this stored energy is as strain energy associated with dislocations.
Consider the two edge dislocations represented in Figure below.
29
As already mentioned, some atomic lattice distortion exists around the dislocation line because
of the presence of the extra half plane of atoms.
1. For positive edge dislocation, atoms above and adjacent to the dislocation line are squeezed
together. As a result, these atoms may be thought of as experiencing a compressive strain relative
to atoms positioned in the perfect crystal. Below the half-plane, the effect is just the opposite;
lattice atoms sustain an imposed tensile strain.
2. For negative edge dislocation, atoms above and adjacent to the dislocation line are experience
a tensile strain, while the atoms below the half-plane sustain an imposed compression strain.
3. Shear strains exist in the vicinity of the edge dislocation.
4. For a screw dislocation, lattice strains are pure shear only.
Dislocation sources:
During plastic deformation, the number of dislocations increases dramatically. One important
source of these new dislocations is:
1. existing dislocations.
2. Grain boundaries.
3. Internal defects.
4. Surface irregularities such as scratches and nicks.
Mechanisms/modes of plastic deformation
When the metal is deformed to an extent that it cannot fully recover its original dimensions then
plastic deformation (shape of the material changes, atoms are permanently displaced from their
positions).
Plastic deformation in crystalline solid is accomplished by means of various processes mentioned
below; among which slip is the most important mechanism.
Plastic deformation of crystalline materials takes place by mechanisms which are very different
from that for amorphous materials (glasses). Plastic deformation in amorphous materials occur
by other mechanisms including flow (~viscous fluid) and shear banding.
Plastic deformation by dislocation Motion (SLIP)
30
 SLIP is the most important mechanism of plastic deformation. At low temperatures
(especially in BCC metals) twinning may also become important.
 At the fundamental level plastic deformation (in crystalline materials) by slip involves the
motion of dislocations on the slip plane (creating a step of Burgers vector).
 Slip is caused by shear stresses (at the level of the slip plane). Hence, a purely hydrostatic
state of stress cannot cause slip.
 A slip system consists of a slip direction lying on a slip plane.
 Slip is analogous to the mode of locomotion employed by a caterpillar
Slip systems
Dislocations move more easily on specific planes and in specific directions.
Ordinarily, there is a preferred plane (slip plane), and specific directions (slip direction)
along which dislocations move. The combination of slip plane and slip direction is called the
slip system.
The slip system depends on the crystal structure of the metal.
The slip plane is the plane that has the most dense atomic packing (the greatest planar
density). The slip direction is most closely packed with atoms (highest linear density).
In CCP, HCP materials the slip system consists of a close packed direction on a close packed
plane.
Just the existence of a slip system does not guarantee slip → slip is competing against other
processes like twinning and fracture. If the stress to cause slip is very high (i.e. CRSS is very
high), then fracture may occur before slip (like in brittle ceramics).
For slip to occur in polycrystalline materials, 5 independent slip systems are required. Hence,
materials which are ductile in single crystalline form may not be ductile in polycrystalline
form. CCP crystals (Cu, Al, and Au) have excellent ductility.
31
At higher temperatures more slip systems may become active and hence polycrystalline
materials which are brittle at low temperature may become ductile at high temperature
Slip in Single Crystal
 If a single crystal of a metal is stressed in tension beyond its elastic limit, it elongates
slightly and a step appears on the surface due to the relative displacement of one part of the
crystal with respect to the others and the elongation stops.
 Further increase in the load causes movement of another parallel plane, resulting in another
step.
 Similarly numbers of small steps are formed on the surface of the single crystal that are
parallel to one another and loop around the circumference of the specimen.
 Each step (shear band) results from the movement of a large number of dislocations and
their propagation in the slip system
 Even if we apply a tensile force on the specimen the shear stress resolved onto the slip
plane is responsible for slip.
Plastic deformation by Twin
 In addition to slip (dislocation movement), plastic deformation can also occur by twinning.
 Twinning results when a portion of the crystal takes up an orientation that is related to the
orientation of the rest of the un twinned lattice in a definite, symmetrical way.
 Twinned portion of the crystal is a mirror image of the parent crystal and the plane of
symmetry between the two portions is called twinning plane.
 Twinning may favorably reorient slip systems to promote dislocation movement.
32
Twins are generally of two types: Mechanical Twins and Annealing twins
 Mechanical twins are generally seen in BCC or HCP metals and produced under conditions
of rapid rate of loading and decreased temperature.
 Annealing twins are produced as the result of annealing. These twins are generally seen in
FCC metals.
 Annealing twins are usually broader and with straighter sides than mechanical twins.
Mechanisms of Strengthening in Metals:
Because plastic deformation corresponds to the motion of large numbers of dislocations, the
ability of a metal to deform plastically depends on the ability of dislocations to move.
Strengthening techniques rely on restricting or hindering dislocation motion to render a harder

and stronger material.
Virtually all strengthening techniques rely on this simple principle:
Restricting or hindering dislocation motion renders a material harder and stronger.
The common types of strengthening mechanisms for single phase metals:
1. Solid Solution Strengthening.
2. Grain Size Reduction (Grain Boundary Strengthening).
3. Strain Hardening (Cold Working).
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Solid Solution Strengthening
The strengthen and harden metals of an alloying with impurity atoms that go into either
substitutional or interstitial solid solution is called solid-solution strengthening. High-purity
metals are almost always softer and weaker than alloys composed of the same base metal.
Increasing the concentration of the impurity results in an attendant increase in tensile and yield
strengths.
Figure 4.1. Variation with nickel content of (a) tensile strength, (b) yield strength, and (c)
ductility (%EL) for copper–nickel alloys, showing strengthening
Alloys are stronger than pure metals because impurity atoms that go into solid solution ordinarily
impose lattice strains on the surrounding host atoms. Lattice strain field interactions between
dislocations and these impurity atoms result, and, consequently, dislocation movement is
restricted.
Strengthening by Grain Size Reduction (Grain Boundary Strengthening)
The size of the grains, or average grain diameter, in a polycrystalline metal influences the
mechanical properties.
During plastic deformation, slip or dislocation motion must takes place across this common
boundary say, from grain A to grain B in below. The grain boundary acts as a barrier to
dislocation motion for two reasons:
34
1. Because the two grains are of different orientations, a dislocation passing into grain B will
have to change its direction of motion; this becomes more difficult as the crystallographic mis-
orientation increases.
2. The atomic disorder within a grain boundary region will result in a discontinuity of slip planes
from one grain into the other.
It should be mentioned that, for high-angle grain boundaries, it may not be the case that
dislocations traverse grain boundaries during deformation; rather, dislocations tend to “pile up”
(or back up) at grain boundaries. These pile-ups introduce stress concentrations ahead of their
slip planes, which generate new dislocations in adjacent grains.
A fine-grained material (one that has small grains) is harder and stronger than one that is coarse
grained, because the former has a greater total grain boundary area to impede dislocation motion.
Strain hardening
Strain hardening is the phenomenon whereby a ductile metal becomes harder and stronger as it
is plastically deformed. Sometimes it is also called work hardening, or, because the temperature
at which deformation takes place is “cold” relative to the absolute melting temperature of the
metal, cold working. Most metals strain harden at room temperature. It is sometimes convenient
to express the degree of plastic deformation as percent cold work rather than as strain. Percent
cold work (%CW) is defined as
35
Where A0 is the original area of the cross section that experiences deformation and
Ad is the area after deformation.
Figures 7.19a and 7.19b demonstrate how steel, brass, and copper increase in yield and tensile
strength with increasing cold work. The price for this enhancement of hardness and strength is in
the ductility of the metal. This is shown in Figure 7.19c, in which the ductility, in percent
elongation, experiences a reduction with increasing percent cold work for the same three alloys.
The influence of cold work on the stress–strain behavior of a low-carbon steel is shown in Figure
7.20; here stress–strain curves are plotted at 0%CW, 4%CW, and 24%CW.
Figure 4.2. For 1040 steel, brass, and copper, (a) the increase in yield strength, (b) the increase in
tensile strength, and (c) the decrease in ductility (%EL) with percent cold work
The net result is that the motion of a dislocation is hindered by the presence of other dislocations.
As the dislocation density increases, this resistance to dislocation motion by other dislocations
becomes more pronounced. Thus, the imposed stress necessary to deform a metal increases with
increasing cold work
Metal Recovery, Recrystallization and Grain Growth:
Annealing (Heat Treatment process) is an important industrial process to relieve the stresses
from cold working. During cold working grain shape changes, while material strain hardens
because of increase in dislocation density. Between 1-10% of the energy of plastic deformation
is stored in material in the form of strain energy associated with point defects and dislocations.
On Annealing i.e. on heating the deformed material to higher temperatures and holding, material
36
tends to lose the extra strain energy and revert to the original condition before deformation by the
processes of recovery and recrystallization. Grain growth may follow these in some instances.
Recovery:
This is the first stage of restoration after cold working where physical properties of the cold-
worked material are restored without any observable change in microstructure. The properties
that are mostly affected by recovery are those sensitive to point defects, for example – thermal
and electrical conductivities. During recovery, which takes place at low temperatures of
annealing, some of the stored internal energy is relieved by virtue of dislocation motion as a
result of enhanced atomic diffusion. There is some reduction, though not substantial, in
dislocation density as well apart from formation of dislocation configurations with low strain
energies. Excess point defects that are created during deformation are annihilated either by
absorption at grain boundaries or dislocation climbing process. Stored energy of cold work is the
driving force for recovery.
Recrystallization:
This stage of annealing follows after recovery stage. Here also driving force is stored energy of
cold work. Even after complete recovery, the grains are still in relatively high strain energy state.
This stage, thus, involves replacement of cold-worked structure by a new set of strain-free,
approximately equal to grains i.e. it is the process of nucleation and growth of new, strain-free
crystals to replace all the deformed crystals. It starts on heating to temperatures in the range of
0.3Tm (30% Melting Temperature)-0.5 Tm (50% Melting Temperature), which is above the
recovery stage. There is no crystal structure change during recrystallization. This process is
characterized by recrystallization temperature which is defined as the temperature at which 50%
of material recrystallizes in one hour time. The recrystallization temperature is strongly
dependent on the purity of a material. Pure materials may recrystallizes around 0.3 Tm, while
impure materials may recrystallizes around 0.5-0.7 Tm. There are many variables that influence
recrystallization behavior, namely amount of prior deformation, temperature, time, initial grain
size, composition and amount of recovery prior to the start of the recrystallization.
This dependence leads to following empirical laws:
A minimum amount of deformation is needed to cause recrystallization.
37
 Smaller the degree of deformation, higher will be the recrystallization temperature.
 The finer is the initial grain size; lower will be the recrystallization temperature.
 The larger the initial grain size, the greater degree of deformation is required to produce
an equivalent recrystallization temperature.
 Greater the degree of deformation and lower the annealing temperature, the smaller will
be the recrystallized grain size.
 The higher is the temperature of cold working, the less is the strain energy stored and
thus
recrystallization temperature is correspondingly higher.
 The recrystallization rate increases exponentially with temperature. During
recrystallization, the mechanical properties that were changes during deformation are
restored to their pre-cold-work values. Thus material becomes softer, weaker and ductile.
During this stage of annealing impurity atoms tend to segregate at grain boundaries, and
retard their motion and obstruct the processes of nucleation and growth. This solute drag
effect can be used to retain cold worked strength at higher service temperatures. Presence
of second phase particles causes slowing down of recrystallization – pinning action of the
particles.
Grain growth:
This stage follows complete crystallization if the material is left at elevated temperatures.
However, grain growth does not need to be preceded by recovery and recrystallization; it may
occur in all polycrystalline materials. During this stage newly formed strain-free grains tend to
grow in size. This grain growth occurs by the migration of grain boundaries. Driving force for
this process is reduction in grain boundary energy i.e. decreasing in free energy of the material.
As the grains grow larger, the curvature of the boundaries becomes less. This results in a
tendency for larger grains to grow at the expense of smaller grains. In practical applications,
grain growth is not desirable. Incorporation of impurity atoms and insoluble second phase
particles are effective in retarding grain growth. Because the driving force for grain growth is
lower than the driving force for recrystallization, grain growth occurs slowly at a temperature
where recrystallization occurs at substantially high speeds. However, grain growth is strongly
temperature dependent.
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CHAPTER FIVE
FAILURE
Introduction:
The failure of engineering materials is almost always an undesirable event for several reasons;
these include human lives that are put in jeopardy, economic losses, and interference with the
availability of products and services. Even though the causes of failure and the behavior of
materials may be known, prevention of failures is difficult to guarantee. The usual causes are
improper materials selection and processing and inadequate design of the component or its
misuse. Also, damage can occur to structural parts during service, and regular inspection and
repair or replacement are critical to safe design. It is the responsibility of the engineer to
anticipate and plan for possible failure and, in the event that failure does occur, to assess its
cause and then take appropriate preventive measures against future incidents.
Failure of a material component is the loss of ability to function normally. Components of a system can
fail one of many ways, for example excessive deformation, fracture, corrosion, burning-out, degradation
of specific properties (thermal, electrical, or magnetic), etc. Failure of components, especially, structural
members and machine elements can lead to heavy loss of lives, wealth and even may jeopardize the
society!
Structural elements and machine elements can fail to perform their intended functions in three
general ways: excessive elastic deformation, excessive plastic deformation or yielding, and
fracture. Under the category of failure due to excessive elastic deformation, for example: too
flexible machine shaft can cause rapid wear of bearing. On the other hand sudden buckling type
of failure may occur.
39
Failures due to excessive elastic deformation are controlled by the modulus of elasticity, not by
the strength of the material. The most effective way to increase stiffness of a component is by
tailoring the shape or dimensions. Yielding or plastic deformation may render a component
useless after a certain limit. This failure is controlled by the yield strength of the material. At
room temperature, continued loading over the yielding point may lead to strain hardening
followed by fracture.
However at elevated temperatures, failure occurs in form of time-dependent yielding known as

creep. Fracture involves complete disruption of continuity of a component. It starts with
initiation of a crack, followed by crack propagation. Fracture of materials may occur in three
ways brittle/ductile fracture, fatigue or progressive fracture, delayed fracture. Ductile/brittle
fracture occurs over short period of time, and distinguishable. Fatigue failure is the mode in
which most machine parts fail. Fatigue, which is caused by a critical localized tensile stress,
occurs in parts which are subjected to alternating or fluctuating stress. Stress-rupture occurs
when a metal has been statically loaded at an elevated temperature for a long time, and is best
example for delayed fracture.
Fracture:
‘The inability of a material or component’ fracture is a failure process that is produced as a result
of separation or pulling apart of the material due to elastic and plastic deformation.
Some of the failure process in metals are
Fracture: Due to stress
Fatigue: Repeated cyclic loadings develops stress condition.
Creep: Time dependent strain under stress
The failure process have to be avoided in order to prevent material loss and accidents and to
enhance the effectiveness and efficiency of the machine parts.
40
Figure 5.1 (a) highly ductile fracture in which the specimen necks down to a point. (b)
Moderately ductile fracture after some necking. (c) Brittle fracture without any plastic
deformation
The following facts are responsible for preventing the failure of the component.
i. Time or period of working
ii. Nature of stress at the time of failure
iii. Factors relating to over loading
iv. Proper maintenance of the machine parts
v. Proper way of installation should be carried out initially.
vi. Proper way of running or using the machine.
Types of Fractures:
1. Brittle Fracture
2. Shear Fracture
3. Ductile Fracture
Brittle Fracture
 Brittle Fracture is generally observed in BCC & HCP metals

 Brittle Fracture is characterized by the rapid rate of crack propagation of the material with
minimal energy absorption.
 Brittle Fracture in crystalline materials usually takes place along certain crystallographic
planes called cleavage planes.
 In Brittle Fracture the movement of crack involves only a slight plastic deformation of the
metal adjacent to the crack.
 Brittle Fracture occurs mainly through grain boundaries.
 Brittle Fracture appears very suddenly without any prior symptoms.
41
Figure 5.2. Brittle materials (Low energy absorption before fracture)
The condition favoring Brittle Fracture are

1. Increase in strain rate
2. Triaxial stress condition produced by notch
3. Decrease in temperature
2. Shear Fracture
• Shear Fracture is due to the shear stress that causes extensive slip dislocation
• HCP crystals have a tendency to slip along the active slip plane continuously as a result of
which shear fracture occurs.
Figure 5.3. Before shear and after shearing action
3. Ductile Fracture
• Ductile Fracture is the failure of metals after appreciable plastic deformation followed by
necking.
• Necking is the localized deformation or reduction of the material as shown in fig.
42
Figure 5.4. Ductile Metals Very ductile and moderate Ductile
Large energy absorption before fracture
Metals such as copper, aluminium, gold, lead..etc. are found to be high ductile metals which can
be drawn down to a thin point before fracture.
• During the process of ductile fracture the weaker region get reduced in thickness and form a
kind of cup and cone shape at the final stage of fracture.
Figure 5.5 Stages in the cup-and-cone fracture. (a) Initial necking. (b) Small cavity formation. (c)
Coalescence of cavities to form a crack. (d) Crack propagation. (e) Final shear fracture at a 45
angle relative to the tensile direction.
43
Mechanism of Fracture:
• One of the important recognized theory of fracture has been put forward by Griffith.
Griffith Theory:
• According to Griffith theory the ‘concentration of stress is sufficient to propagate a crack’ that
has been gradually developed by micro cracks accumulation.
• A crack will propagate when the decrease in elastic energy is at least equal to the energy
required to create the new crack surface.
• This criterion is useful in determining the tensile stress which will just cause a critical sized
crack to propagate as a brittle fracture.
• Elastic energy stored under tensile stress will be released as a crack propagation as shown in fig
Figure 5.6 Schematic representations of (a) an interior crack in a plate of infinite width and (b)
an edge crack in a plate of semi-infinite width.
Figure 5.7. the three modes of crack surface displacement. (a) Mode I, opening or tensile mode;
(b) mode II, sliding mode; and (c) mode III, tearing mode
44
Griffith put forward a formula known as Griffith equation
Where E = Young’s modulus,
σ = Critical stress,
C= half-length of crack,
ɣ = surface energy per unit area

• Total energy required to create the crack is given by a formula,
• The critical tensile stress required to cause the crack to propagate is given by the equation
Causes of Failure:
Notch Sensitivity:
 Notch Sensitivity is the reduction of strength of the material due to the stress concentration
of notched surface.
 Notch or a kind of ‘V’ shaped depression in materials causes an increase in stress
concentration.
 Notch Sensitivity is the ratio of notch strength to the unnotched strength, which can be
determined by conducting tensile strength test.
Methods to Protect Against Fracture:
 Surface treatment is the most important method used to protect against brittle fracture.
 The surface cracks initially produce propagates interiorly.
45
 Brittle fracture can be avoided in brittle materials having crack has to be berthed with
hydrofluoric acid or tempered or annealed by heating to higher temperatures.
 Grinding the surface of ceramic material and producing very fine grains at the surface
avoids brittle fracture.
 The brittle fracture of steel is due to the accumulation of sulphur at grain boundaries, this
can be prevented by adding small amount of manganese content to steel which forms
flexible ’manganese sulphide ’ in between grain boundaries.
 Ductile fracture also proceeds through grain boundaries.
Impact fracture testing:
As mentioned in earlier section, three basic factors contribute to a brittle-cleavage type of
fracture. They are
(1) Tri-axial state of stress
(2) A low temperature and
(3) A high strain rate or rapid rate of loading.
A tri-axial state of stress, such as exists at a notch, and low temperature are responsible for most
service failures of brittle type. Since, these effects are accented at a high rate of loading, various
types of notched-bar impact tests have been used to determine the susceptibility of materials to
brittle fracture.
Two classes of specimens have been standardized for notch-impact testing:
(i) Charpy specimen. It has a square cross section and contains 45 V notch, 2 mm deep with a
0.25 mm root radius. The specimen is supported as a horizontal beam, and loaded behind the
notch by the impact of heavy swinging pendulum with velocity about 5 m/sec. The energy
expended is measured in terms of change in potential energy (height) of the pendulum.
The specimen is forced to bend and fracture at a high strain rate in order of 103 sec-1. The V-
notch in the specimen provides tri-axiality of stress, and the high hammer velocity insures a high
strain rate.
46
(ii) Izod specimen. It has either circular or square cross section and contains V notch near the
clamped end. It is supported as overhanging vertical beam. Load is again applied using swinging
pendulum but in front of the notch. Figure depicts loading of Charpy and Izod specimens for
notch-impact tests.
Figure 5.8 Loading of Charpy and Izod notched-bar impact testing specimens.
The principal measurement from the impact test is the energy absorbed in fracturing the
specimen. Energy expended during fracture is sometimes known as notch toughness. The energy
expended will be high for complete ductile fracture, while it is less for brittle fracture. However,
it is important to note that measurement of energy expended is only a relative energy, and can
not be used directly as design consideration. Another common result from the Charpy test is by
examining the fracture surface. It is useful in determining whether the fracture is fibrous (shear
fracture), granular (cleavage fracture), or a mixture of both.
A third measurement that can be made is the ductility, indicated by the percent contraction of the
specimen at the notch. The notched-bar impact test is most useful when conducted over a range
of temperatures. Thus it is possible to know at which temperature the ductile-to-brittle transition
is taking place. Thus the chief engineering use of Charpy test is in selecting materials which are
resistant to brittle fracture by means of transition temperature curves.
When selecting a material for design purposes which might be susceptible to brittle fracture, the
material with the lowest transition temperature is to be preferred. Both plane strain fracture
toughness and notched-bar impact tests determine the fracture properties of materials. The
former are quantitative in nature, in that a specific property is determined.
47
On the other hand, the results of the impact tests are qualitative in nature, thus are of little use for
design purposes. Plane strain fracture toughness tests are not as simple to perform as impact
tests, and equipment and specimens are more expensive.
Cyclic Stresses
The applied stress may be axial (tension–compression), flexural (bending), or torsional (twisting)
in nature. In general, three different fluctuating stress–time modes are possible. One is
represented schematically by a regular and sinusoidal time dependence in Figure 8.17a, wherein
the amplitude is symmetrical about a mean zero stress level, for example, alternating from a
maximum tensile stress (σmax) to a minimum compressive stress (σmin) of equal magnitude; this is
referred to as a reversed stress cycle.
Another type, termed repeated stress cycle, is illustrated in Figure 8.17b; the maxima and
minima are asymmetrical relative to the zero stress level. Finally, the stress level may vary
randomly in amplitude and frequency, as exemplified in Figure 8.17c.
Also indicated in Figure 8.17b are several parameters used to characterize the fluctuating stress
cycle. The stress amplitude alternates about a mean stress m, defined as the average of the
maximum and minimum stresses in the cycle, or
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Figure 5.9 Variation of stress with time that accounts for fatigue failures. (a) Reversed stress
cycle, in which the stress alternates from a maximum tensile stress (+) to a maximum
compressive stress (-) of equal magnitude. (b) Repeated stress cycle, in which maximum
and minimum stresses are asymmetrical relative to the zero stress level; mean stress m , range of
stress r, and stress amplitude a are indicated. (c) Random stress cycle.
Mean stress for cyclic loading dependence on maximum and minimum stress levels
Furthermore, the range of stress r is just the difference between max and min namely
Stress amplitude a is just one-half of this range of stress, or
Finally, the stress ratio R is just the ratio of minimum and maximum stress amplitudes:
Crack initiation and propagation
The process of fatigue failure is characterized by three distinct steps:
(1) Crack initiation, wherein a small crack forms at some point of high stress concentration
(2) Crack propagation, during which this crack advances incrementally with each stress cycle
(3) Final failure, which occurs very rapidly once the advancing crack has reached a critical size.
Cracks associated with fatigue failure almost always initiate (or nucleate) on the surface of a
component at some point of stress concentration.
Crack nucleation sites include surface scratches, sharp fillets, keyways, threads, dents, and the
like. In addition, cyclic loading can produce microscopic surface discontinuities resulting from
49
dislocation slip steps that may also act as stress raisers, and therefore as crack initiation sites.
The region of a fracture surface that formed during the crack propagation step
may be characterized by two types of markings termed beach marks and striations.
Both of these features indicate the position of the crack tip at some point in time and appear as
concentric ridges that expand away from the crack initiation site(s), frequently in a circular or
semicircular pattern. Beach marks (sometimes also called “clamshell marks”) are of macroscopic
dimensions.
Creep:
It is well known and observed number of times that shear modulus of a material increases with
decreasing temperature, and this has a corresponding effect on the flow-stress, since the stress
associated with a dislocation is always proportional to the shear modulus. Thus σ/E can be
expected to be constant with varying temperature. However, this ratio decreases with increase in
temperature.
The fact that the flow stress contains a component that responds to thermal activation implies
that plastic deformation can occur while both the temperature and the stress are maintained
constant.
Deformation that occurs under these conditions which is time-dependent is known as creep.
Creep deformation (constant stress) is possible at all temperatures above absolute zero. However,
it is extremely sensitive to temperature. Hence, creep in usually considered important at elevated
temperatures (temperatures greater than 0.4 Tm, Tm is absolute melting temperature).
Generalized creep behavior:
Creep behavior of a material is studied using creep test. In creep test, the tensile specimen is
subjected to a constant load or stress at a constant temperature. Most creep tests are conducted at
constant load in analogous to engineering application, whereas creep tests at constant stress are
necessary for understanding of mechanism of creep. During the creep test, strain (change in
length) is measured as a function of elapsed time. Creep test data is presented as a plot between
time and strain known as creep curve. Figure- depicts a typical creep curve. The slope of the
creep curve is designated as creep rate.
50
Figure 5.10. Typical creep curve deformation.
Based on the variation of creep rate with time, creep curve is considered to be consists of three
portions, each of which has its own distinctive strain-time feature. After initial rapid elongation,
ε0, the creep rate decreases continuously with time, and is known as primary or transient creep.
Primary creep is followed by secondary or steady-state or viscous creep, which is characterized

by constant creep rate. This stage of creep is often the longest duration of the three modes.
Finally, a third stage of creep known as, tertiary creep occurs that is characterized by increase in
creep rate.
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Eng. Material Chapter 1-5 For Mech - Cop

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Chapter One

Fundamentals of engineering materials

Why Study Materials Science and Engineering?

Materials Engineering – On the basis of these structure-property correlations, designing or

(1) metals, (2) ceramics, and (3) polymers.

Metals can be categorized into Ferrous and non-Ferrous materials

Automobile and Materials:

There are two main types of plastics:

Some examples of thermosetting plastics are phenol formaldehyde (Bakelite), phenol-furfural

 Cemented carbides (WC with Co binder)

Atomic structure and bonding

Atoms = protons (p) + neutrons (n) + electrons (e)

Structure of an atom: small diameter (2 × 10-10 m = 200 pm)

A chemical element has

Atomic number (Z) = Number protons = number of electrons.

Mass Number (A):

Mass Number is the sum of protons and neutrons in a nucleus of an atom.

Atomic mass (A) = proton mass + neutron mass.

Bonding forces and energies

Interatomic forces determine the physical properties of materials.

 To break the bond, this energy must be supplied from outside.

It is convenient to work with energy than forces.

The potential energy between two atoms

The net energy, EN

Here, Na is giving an electron to Cl to have stable structure

Fig 2.1 Schematic representation of ioning bonding in NaCl solid structure

Ionic Bonds & Material Properties:

Covalent Bond are formed by sharing of electrons to get a stable configuration.

Fig 2.2 Schematic representation of covalent bond in Hydrogen molecule

% ionic character = 100{1 - exp [-0.25(ΧA - ΧB) 2]}

Covalent Bond & Material Properties:

The ionic bond involves electron transfer and is non directional.

Fig 2.3 Metallic bonding Schematic representation of

Metallic Bond & Material Properties:

The main types of secondary bonding’s are:

Fluctuating Induced Dipole Bond

A dipole (whether induced or instantaneous) produces a displacement of the electron distribution

 Liquefaction and solidification of inert gases

Polar Molecule-Induced Dipole Bonds

 Permanent dipole moments exist by virtue of an asymmetrical arrangement of positively

Permanent Dipole Bonds

– Stronger than any secondary bonding with induced dipoles

 Hydrogen bond is a type of secondary bond found in molecules containing hydrogen as a

Point defects (Zero Dimensional Defects) - have zero dimension;

 Substitutional Defect: Original parent atom from its lattice is replaced

Substitutional Defect Interstitial Impurity

These defects may occur individually or in combination.

Planar defects are of three types:

They are also important to many of the mechanisms of creep.

 They are also called “low angle boundaries”.

1. There must be an empty adjacent site, and

Factors that influence diffusion:

Dislocation and Strengthening Mechanisms

When metals are plastically deformed;

Consider the two edge dislocations represented in Figure below.

4. For a screw dislocation, lattice strains are pure shear only.

Mechanisms/modes of plastic deformation

Slip in Single Crystal

Plastic deformation by Twin

Mechanisms of Strengthening in Metals:

Strengthening techniques rely on restricting or hindering dislocation motion to render a harder

Virtually all strengthening techniques rely on this simple principle:

Restricting or hindering dislocation motion renders a material harder and stronger.