THE ISLAMIA UNIVERSTY OF BAHAWALPUR

INSTITUTE OF PHSYSICS
Faculty of Science Building

Baghdad Campus, Bahawalpur – PAKISTAN

ELECTRONIC DEVICESES AND CIRCUITS LAB MANUAL

Prepared By
Professor (Rtd.) Dr. Sh. Aftab Ahmad
i
ii
 VISION OF THE INSTITUTE OF PHYSICS
To be part of universal human quest for development and progress by contributing high caliber, ethical and
socially responsible scientist who meet the global challenge of building modern society in harmony with nature.

MISSION OF THE INSTITUTE OF PHYSICS

1. To attain excellence in imparting technical education from the undergraduate through doctorate
levels by adopting coherent and judiciously coordinated curricular and co-curricular programs
2. To foster partnership with industry and government agencies through collaborative research and
consultancy
3. To nurture and strengthen auxiliary soft skills for overall development and improved employability
in a multi-cultural work space
4. To develop constructive attitude in students towards the task of nation building and empower them
to become future leaders
5. To involve the students and the faculty in solving local community problems through economical
and sustainable solutions.

PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES

1. Graduates will communicate effectively as individuals or team members and be successful in varied
working environment.
2. Graduates will demonstrate lifelong learning through continuing education and professional
development.
3. Graduates will be successful in providing viable and sustainable solutions within societal,
professional, environmental and ethical context.
PROGRAM OUTCOMES
o Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, research literature, and analyze complex scientific
problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of mathematics, natural
sciences.
o Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and research
methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of available data, and
synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.
o Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional scientific solutions
in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need for
sustainable development.
o Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and
norms of the scientific /teaching practice.
o Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader in
diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
o Communication: Communicate effectively on complex scientific community and with society at
large, such as, being able to comprehend and write effective reports and design documentation,
make effective presentations, and give and receive clear instructions.
o Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage in
independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of scientific/technological change.
iii
ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIIRCUITS LAB
GENERAL GUIDELINES AND SAFETY INSTRUCTIONS
1. Sign in the attendance sheet as soon as you enter the lab and strictly observe your lab timings.
2. Strictly follow the written and verbal instructions given by the teacher / Lab Instructor. If you do not
understand the instructions, the handouts and the procedures, ask the instructor or teacher.
3. Never work alone! You should be accompanied by your laboratory partner and / or the instructors /
teaching assistants all the time.
4. It is mandatory to come to lab in uniform and wear your ID cards.
5. Mobile phones should be switched off in the lab. Keep bags in the proper place.
6. Keep the labs clean at all times, no food and drinks allowed inside the lab.
7. Intentional misconduct will lead to expulsion from the lab.
8. Do not handle any equipment without reading the safety instructions. Read the handout and procedures
in the Lab Manual before starting the experiments.
9. Do your wiring, setup, and a careful circuit checkout before applying power. Do not make circuit
changes or perform any wiring when power is on.
10.Avoid contact with energized electrical circuits.
11. Do not insert connectors forcefully into the sockets.
12. NEVER try to experiment with the power from the wall plug.
13. Immediately report dangerous or exceptional conditions to the Lab instructor / teacher: Equipment that
is not working as expected, wires or connectors are broken, the equipment that smells or “smokes”. If
you are not sure what the problem is or what's going on, switch off the Emergency shutdown.
14.Never use damaged instruments, wires or connectors. Hand over these parts to the Lab
staff/instructor/Teacher.
15.After completion of Experiment, return the bread board, trainer kits, wires, CRO probes and other
components to lab staff. Do not take any item from the lab without permission.
16.Observation book and lab record should be carried to each lab. Readings of current lab experiment are to
be entered in Observation book and previous lab experiment should be written in Lab record book. Both
the books should be corrected by the faculty in each lab.
17.Handling of Semiconductor Components: Sensitive electronic circuits and electronic components have
to be handled with great care. The inappropriate handling of electronic component can damage or
destroy the devices. The devices can be destroyed by driving to high currents through the device, by
overheating the device, by mixing up the polarity, or by electrostatic discharge. Therefore, always
handle the electronic devices as indicated by the handout, the specifications in the data sheet or other
documentation.
18.In case of burn or injury seek first aid available in the lab or at the university dispensary/Hospital.

iv
 THE ISLAMIA UNIVERSTY OF BAHAWALPUR
INSTITUTE OF PHSYSICS

Phy-01402 Electronic Devices and Circuits Lab. 1 Credit Hour

S. No. Experiment Page No.

1 To develop understanding and uses of electronic devices and components. 2
i. Identification, specifications, testing of resistors, capacitors (Color Codes),
potentiometers, bread boards, identification, specifications and testing of
active devices, diodes, LEDs and BJTs.
ii. Study the operation of Multimeters, Function generators, Regulated power 8
supplies, CRO.

2 Characteristics of a semiconductor diode (Compare Si with Ge diode). 16

3 Setting up of half & full wave rectifier & study of following factors: 19
i. Smoothing effect of a capacitor.
ii. Ripple factor & its variation with load.
iii. Study of regulation of output voltage with load.

4 To set up a single stage amplifier & measure its voltage gain and bandwidth. 23

5 To set up transistor oscillator circuit and measure its frequency by an oscilloscope. 26

6 To set up and study various logic gates (AND, OR, NAND etc.) using diode and transistor 28
to developtheir truth table.

7 To set up an electronic switching circuit using transistor LDR and demonstrate its use as a 32
NOT Gate.

8 Characteristics of a transistor. 35

9 Use of computer in the learning of knowledge of GATE and other experiments. 37

1
 ELECTRONIC WORKSHOP PRACTICE-1

Experiment 1: Identification, specifications, testing of resistors, capacitors (Color Codes), potentiometers,

bread boards, identification, specifications and testing of active devices, diodes, LEDs and
BJTs.

RESISTOR
Resistor is an electronic component whose function is to limit the flow of current in an electric circuit. It
is measured in units called ohms. The symbol for ohm is Ω (omega). They are available in different
values, shapes and sizes. Every material has some resistance. Some materials such as Rubber, Glass and
air have very high opposition to current to flow .These materials are called insulators. Other materials
such as Copper, Silver and Aluminum etc. has very low resistance, they are called Conductors.

Applications
It is widely used in electronic circuits to limit the current
POTENTIOMETERS:
The variable resistors are usually called Rheostats and the smaller
variable resistors commonly used in electronic circuits are called
potentiometers called pot.
The arrow indicates a movable contact on a continuous resistance
element. A potentiometer can be either linear or non-linear.

2
Applications:
Pots are used to change the volume of sound and brightness of picture.

CAPACITOR
A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical component used to
store energy electrostatically in an electric field. By contrast, batteries store energy via chemical
reactions. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors
separated by a dielectric (insulator); for example, one common construction consists of metal foils
separated by a thin layer of insulating film. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in
many common electrical devices. Capacitors are also very commonly used. A lot have their values
printed on them, some are marked with 3-digit codes, and a few are color coded. The same resources
listed above for resistors can also help you identify capacitor values. They are typically marked with an
“C” on a circuit board.

Applications
1. In tuned circuits.
2. As bypass capacitors to by-pass ac through it.
3. Blocking capacitor to block dc components.

3
BREAD BOARDS
This is the platform (or chassis) on which any circuit can be ringed up to provide inter connections between
electronics components and devices. The advantage of bread board is, the components can be connected (or)
disconnected easily. It has holes both horizontally and vertically as shown in the figure. The horizontal holes at
the top and bottom are having internal shorts where as in the remaining part vertical holes are shorted internally.

DIODE
A popular semiconductor device called a diode is made by combining P & N type semiconductor materials. The
doped regions meet to form a P-N junction. Diodes are unidirectional devices that allow current to flow through
them in one direction only. The schematic symbol for a semiconductor diode is shown in fig-1. The P-side of
the diode is called the anode (A), while the N-side of the diode is called the cathode (K).

Figure-1 Symbol of P-N diode.

Diode specifications:
The Breakdown voltage rating VBR is the voltage at which avalanche occurs. This rating can be designed by
Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV).
Average forward – current rating, IF indicates the maximum allowable average current that the diode can
handle safely, the average forward current rating is usually designated as IF.
Maximum reverse current, IR for 1N4001 silicon diode specifies a typical IR of 0.05 A, for a diode junction and
a reverse voltage VR of 100 V.
The maximum rating of a diode should never be exceeded.
Testing of diode:
Using an ohmmeter to check a diode: When using an ohm meter to check the resistance of the diode in one
direction then reverse the meter leads and measure the resistance of the diode in the other direction. If the diode
is good it should measure a very high resistance in one direction, and a low resistance in the other direction. For
a silicon diode the ratio of reverse resistance RR, to forward resistance RF should be very large, such as 1000:1

4
or more. Note: If the diode is shorted it will measure a low resistance in both the directions. If the diode is open,
it will measure a high resistance in both the directions.

Using a DMM to check a diode: Most digital multimeters provide a special range for testing the diodes. This
range is called the diode range. This is the only range setting on the DMM that can provide the proper amount
of forward bias for the diode being tested. It is important to note that when the digital multimeter forward biases
the diode being tested, the digital display will indicate the forward voltage dropped across the diode rather that
the forward resistance, RF.

APPLICATIONS:
• Rectifiers, Clippers and Clampers. • Signal detector. • Digital logic gates.

LIGHT EMITTING DIODES (LEDs):

As opposed to other diodes that give off heat when conducting, LEDs emit light. In the latter, the recombination
of charge carriers across the PN junction releases optical energy when the electrons fall from the conduction to
the valence band. The heat emission is negligible in light emitting materials like gallium arsenic phosphide and
gallium phosphide. LEDs must, of course, be covered in a transparent or translucent material. The wavelength
of the radiation for a given colour is given by the relation  = 1.23/Eg. Where Eg is the energy gap between
conduction and valence bands. Its value is 1.45 eV for GaAs, 3 eV for GaAsP and 2.25 eV for GaP. The colours
obtained from these materials are red, yellow and green respectively.

Specifications:
1. VF operating : 1.3 v to 2.5 v
2. Forward voltage (max): 5 v.
3. Forward current 5 to 15 mA
4. Reverse breakdown: 10 to 12 V
5. Operating life: 100,000 hours
6. Turn on time: 10-20 nsec
7. Turn off time: 80-100 nsec

Symbol of LED.

Identification
Longer terminal is cathode and the other is Anode.
Testing:
The diode is simply put across a multimeter to see if the reading is different when the polarity is reversed. The
LED will glow and show a resistance between 30 ohms and 50 ohms when forward biased.

5
BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR (BJT):

A transistor has three doped regions there are two types of transistors one is npn and other is pnp. Notice that
for both types, the base is narrow region sandwiched between the larger collector and moderate emitter regions.
In npn transistors, the majority current carriers are free electrons in the emitter and collector, while the majority
current carriers are holes in the base. The opposite is true in the pnp transistor where the majority current
carriers are holes in the emitter and collector, and the majority current carriers are free electrons in the base.

Schematic symbols for transistors (a) npn transistor (b) pnp transistor. In order for a transistor to function
properly as an amplifier, the emitter-base junction must be forward biased and the collector base junctions must
be reverse biased.

Transistor lead identification:

There are three leads in a Transistor called collector, emitter and base. When a transistor is to be connected in a
circuit it is necessary to identify the leads of transistor before connecting in a circuit. The identification of the
leads of transistor varies with manufacturer.

SPECIFICATIONS:
In all cases, the maximum ratings are given for collector-base voltage, collector emitter voltage, emitter base
voltage, collector current and power dissipation. Power dissipation rating Pd (Max): The product of VCE and IC
gives the power dissipation, Pd of the transistor. The product of VCE x IC must not exceed the maximum power
dissipation rating, Pd (Max) of the transistor is nearly 1Watt.

Checking a transistor with an ohmmeter:

To check the base-emitter junction of an npn transistor, first connect the ohmmeter and then reverse the
ohmmeter leads. The resistance indicated by the ohmmeter should be low since the base emitter junction is

6
forward biased. The resistance indicated by the ohmmeter should read high because the base emitter junction is
reverse biased. For a good pn junction made of silicon the ration RR/RF should be equal to or greater than
1000:1. To check the collector-base junction, repeat the process described for the base-emitter junction.

Shorted and open junctions:

A low resistance across the junction in both directions implies that the emitter-base or collector-base junctions
are shorted. If the ohmmeter indicates a high resistance in both directions, then the junctions are open. In both
cases the transistor is defective and must be replaced.

Checking a transistor with a Digital Multimeter (DMM):

Insert the transistor in the provided slots, position the knob of DMM in hFE mode and check the hFE value.

Applications: •Amplifiers. •Oscillators. •Switches.

Take at least five different resistors and identify them from color code and measure their value using DMM and
complete the following table.

Color Code Face Measured

Difference % Diff Comment
value value
Color Orange White Yellow Silver
value 3 9 4 10% 390000Ω 41850Ω 2850Ω 7.3% Within 10%

Color Yellow Violet Red Golden

value 4 7 2 5% 4700 Ω 4530 Ω 157 Ω 3.34% Within 5%

7
 ELECTRONIC WORKSHOP PRACTICE -2

Experiment 1: (cont.) Study the operation of Multimeters, Function generators, Regulated power supplies, CRO.
Aim: To accurately read voltages using analog voltmeter and DMM from Regulated power supply.

MULTIMETRES
Analog Voltmeter: Although digital meters are used extensively throughout the electronic industry, but there
are many analog meters also in use. The DC voltage scales on analog voltmeter are linear that is the distance
between equal values (adjacent divisions) marked on the meter scale are of same length.
Zero adjustment: Before use make any measurement with the voltmeter, be certain that the meter indication 0V.
In analog voltmeter, control (screw) is placed on the front panel of the meter for the purpose of zeroing the
meter.
Parallex error: It results when the person making the measurement is not directly viewing the meter pointer.

Digital Multimeter: A Multimeter is an electronic device that is used to make various electrical measurements,
such as AC and DC voltage, AC and DC current, and resistance. It is called a Multimeter because it combines
the functions of a voltmeter, ammeter, and ohmmeter. Multimeter may also have other functions, such as diode
test, continuity test, transistor test, TTL logic test and frequency test.
Parts of Multimeter: A Multimeter has three parts:  Display  Selection Knob  Ports
The display usually has four digits and the ability to display a negative sign. A few multimeters have
illuminated displays for better viewing in low light situations. The selection knob allows the user to set the
multimeter to read different things such as milliamps (mA) of current, voltage (V) and resistance (Ω). Two
probes are plugged into two of the ports on the front of the unit. COM stands for common and is almost always
connected to Ground or - of a circuit. The COM probe is conventionally black but there is no difference
between the red probe and black probe other than color. 10A is the special port used when measuring large
currents (greater than 200mA). mA, V & Ω is the port that the red probe is conventionally plugged in to. This
port allows the measurement of current (up to 200mA), voltage (V), and resistance (Ω). The probes have a
banana type connector on the end that plugs into the multimeter. Any probe with a banana plug will work with
this meter.

Safety Measures
 Be sure the test leads and rotary switch are in the correct position for the desired measurement.
 Never use the meter if the meter or the test leads look damaged.
 Never measure resistance in a circuit when power is applied.
 Never touch the probes to a voltage source when a test lead is plugged into the 10 A or 300 mA input jack.
8
 Be careful when working with voltages above 60 V DC or 30 V AC rms. Such voltages pose a shock hazard.
 Keep your fingers behind the finger guards on the test probes when making measurements.
 To avoid false readings, which could lead to possible electric shock or personal injury, replace the battery as
soon as the battery indicator appears.
Input Jacks
The black lead is always plugged into the common terminal. The red lead is plugged into the 10 A jack when
measuring currents greater than 300 mA, the 300 mA jack when measuring currents less than 300 mA, and the
remaining jack (V-ohms-diode) for all other measurements.

Range Fixing
The meter defaults to auto range when first turned on. You can choose a manual range in V AC, V DC, A AC,
and A DC by pressing the button in the middle of the rotary dial. To return to auto range, press the button for
one second.
Procedure for Measurement Voltage Measurement: A.C. Voltage Measurements
1. Connect the positive (red) test lead to the „V/mA‟ jack socket and the negative (black) lead to the „COM‟
jack socket.
2. Set the selector switch to the desired mV D.C./D.C.V/A.C.V range.
3. Connect the test leads to the circuit to be measured.
4. Turn on the power to the circuit to be measured, the voltage value should appear on the digital display along
with the voltage polarity (if reversed only).

9
Current Measurement
1. Connect the positive (red) test lead to the „V/mA‟ jack socket and the negative (black) lead to the „COM‟
jack socket (for measurements up to 200mA). For measurements between 200mA and 10A connect the red test
lead to the „10mA‟ socket.
2. Set the selector switch to the desired µA/mA/A range.
3. Open the circuit to be measured and connect the test leads in SERIES with the load in which current is to be
measured.
4. To avoid blowing an input fuse, use the 10A jack until you are sure that the current is less than 300 mA. Turn
off power to the circuit. Break the circuit. (For circuits of more than 10 amps, use a current clamp.) Put the
meter in series with the circuit and turn power on.

Resistance Measurement
1. Connect the positive (red) test lead to the „V/mA‟ jack socket and the negative (black) lead to the “COM”
jack socket.
2. Set the selector switch to the desired “OHM Ω”.
3. If the resistance to be measured is part of a circuit, turn off the power and discharge all capacitors before
measurement.
4. Connect the test leads to the circuit to be measured.
5. The resistance value should now appear on the digital display.

Continuity Test
This mode is used to check if two points are electrically connected. It is often used to verify connectors. If
continuity exists (resistance less than 210 ohms), the beeper sounds continuously.
1. Connect the positive (red) test lead to the “V/mA” jack socket and the negative (black) lead to the “COM”
jack socket.
2. Set the selector switch to the beep position.
3. Connect the test leads to two points of the circuit to be tested. If the resistance is Ohms the buzzer will sound.

10
4. If the resistance to be measured is part of a circuit, turn off the power and discharge all capacitors before
measurement.

Diode Test
1. Connect the positive (red) test lead to the “V/mA” jack socket and the negative (black) lead to the “COM”
jack socket.
2. Set the selector switch to the position
3. Connect the test leads to be measured.
4. Turn on the power to the circuit to be measured and the voltage value should appear on the digital display.

General Operation
Connection of Probes:
All multimeters come with two probes. They are to be connected to the terminals on the meter itself. The Black
probe is to be connected to the COM terminal. Red probe is to be connected to terminal marked with:
 ”V” for voltage measurement.  “mA” or “20A” for current measurement (there are two terminals, one
for 2A range and the other for 20A range)
 “Ω” for resistance measurement.
Setting of function:
The multimeter uses different circuits internally to measure different things. Therefore, you must select the
correct function before using it.
Setting of Range:
 You can change the sensitivity of the meter by selecting different range for measurement. Set the range to the
first range that is higher than the maximum value you expect to measure. This will give a more accurate
reading. If you do not know what to expect, use the highest range first.
 After a reading is obtained, set the range to the appropriate one to get a better reading.
 When the value measured exceeds the existing range, the display will flash. When this happens, set the
multimeter to a higher range until some values are displayed.
Precautions:
1. For current measurement, the maximum input current is 2A (if the RED mA and BLACK COM terminals are

11
used) or 20A (if the RED 20A and BLACK COM terminals are used). Excessive current will blow the fuse on
the 2A range, which must be replaced. The 20A range, however, is not protected by the fuse.
2. For voltage measurement (use the RED V and BLACK COM terminals), the maximum input voltage on:
 all DC ranges is 1200V DC or peak AC
 the 20V, 200V and 1000V AC ranges is 1000V rms continuous
 the 2V and 200mV AC ranges is 1000V rms for not more than 15 seconds.

3. To avoid electrical shock and/or instrument damage, do not connect the COM input terminals to any source
of more than 500 volts DC or peak AC above earth ground.
Resistance measurement Procedure
 Connect probes: black probe to COM terminal and red probe to terminal marked with “Ω”
 Set function to resistance measurement
 Set to the appropriate range (refer to above)
 Connect the two probes‟ crocodile clips to the resistor to make measurement
 Note the reading; adjust range if necessary for the more accurate reading.
Voltage measurement Procedure
1. Connect probes: black probe to COM terminal and red probe to terminal marked with “V”
2. Set function to voltage measurement
3. Set to the appropriate range (refer to above)
4. Set the AC-DC selection - depends on what type of signal you want to measure
5. Touch the two points where you want to make measurement
6. Note the reading; adjust range if necessary for the more accurate reading.
Note: Reading obtained is the voltage of where the red probe touch with reference to where the black probe
touches. This may not indicate the voltage level from ground. To find the voltage level of a point from
ground, black probe should be touching a ground point and the red probe on the point you want to measure.
Current measurement Procedure
 Connect probes: black probe to COM terminal and red probe to terminal marked with „A‟
 Set function to current measurement
 Set to the appropriate range
 Set AC-DC selection - depends on what type of signal you want to measure
 Off the power to the circuit
 Break the path which we want to make measurement
 Connect the path with the two probes so that current now flow through the multimeter
 On the power
 Note the reading, change range if necessary for the more accurate reading.
Note Use the 20A range if you are not sure of the current to be measured.

Connection Methods to Measure Voltage and Current

12
FUNCTION GENERATOR
Objective
1. To get familiarization and study the operation of a function generator instrument
2. To identify key function generator specifications
3. To visualize the types of waveforms produced by a function generator

Equipment required: 1. Oscilloscope 2. Function Generator 3. BNC Connector Cable

A function generator is electronic test equipment used to generate different types of waveforms over a wide
range of frequencies. Function generators are capable of producing a variety of repetitive waveforms, generally
from the list below
Sine wave: A function generator will normally have the capability to produce a standard sine wave output. This
is the standard waveform that oscillates between two levels with a standard sinusoidal shape.

Square wave: A square wave is normally relatively easy for a function generator to produce. It consists of a
signal moving directly between high and low levels.
Pulse: A pulse waveform is another type that can be produced by a function generator. It is effectively the same
as a square wave, but with the mark space ratio very different to 1:1.

Triangular wave: This form of signal produced by the function generator linearly moves between a high and
low point.

Knobs Number with Control Functions

Power push button switch to power ON the instrument.
Frequency variable in conjunction with frequency range step by step.
Function used for selection of particular waveform;
Sine OR Square wave
Attenuation used for selection of 0dB to -40dB attenuation in steps.
Amplitude variable in conjunctions with attenuator;
this varies the level of output.

DC VARIABLE POWER SUPPLY

A power supply is a device that supplies electric power to an electrical load. A regulated power supply is one
that controls the output voltage or current to a specific value; the controlled value is held nearly constant despite
variations in either load, current or the voltage supplied by the power supply's energy source. Commonly
specified power supply attributes include: The amount of voltage and current it can supply to its load is stable
its output voltage or current is under varying line and load conditions.

13
Dual DC Power Supply Specification
a. Adjustable 0~30V/0~3A
b. The design is limit the voltage overload
c. The power supply input 220V, 230V, 240V AC
d. Output voltage: 0-30V DC
e. Fixed 5.0 voltage supply as well
Main Function
1. Output constant current adjustable.
2. Output constant voltage adjustable.
3. Dual voltage or current digital display.
4. Over current protection.

Dual adjustable DC power supply

CATHODE-RAY OSCILLOSCOPE (CRO)
The device consists mainly of a vacuum tube which contains a cathode; anode, grid, X & Y plates, and a
fluorescent screen (see Figure below). When the cathode is heated (by applying a small potential difference
across its terminals), it emits electrons. Having a potential difference between the cathode and the anode
(electrodes), accelerate the emitted electrons towards the anode, forming an electron beam, which passes to fall
on the screen. When the fast electron beam strikes the fluorescent screen, a bright visible spot is produced.
The grid, which is situated between the electrodes, controls the amount of electrons passing through it thereby
controlling the intensity of the electron beam. The X&Y- plates are responsible for deflecting the electron beam
horizontally and vertically.
A sweep generator is connected to the X-plates, which moves the bright spot horizontally across the screen and
repeats that at a certain frequency as the source of the signal. The voltage to be studied is applied to the Y-
plates. The combined sweep and Y voltages produce a graph showing the variation of voltage with time.

Experimental Figures

Procedure
 Turn on the Oscilloscope
 Adjust the intensity and the focus of the trace.
 Use the X & Y knobs to center the trace horizontally and vertically.
 Connect the cable from Ch1 of the CRO to Function generator.
 A signal will appear on the screen.
 Make sure that the inner dark gray knobs of the Volt/Div and the Time/Div are locked clockwise.
 Set the frequency of the generator to 1000 Hz.
 Adjust the Volt/Div at and the Time/Div knobs at 5ms/Div that you get a suitable size signal
 Count the number of vertical squares lying within the signal, then calculate the peak to peak value as:
Vp-p = No. vertical Div * Volt/Div = 8 * 0.5 = 4 Volt

14
 Time = No. Horizontal Div * Time/Div = e. g (0.5 * 2 =1 ms)
 Count the number of horizontal squares lying within the one cycle, then calculate time value as:
 Calculate the Frequency of signal by using the formula: Frequency = 1 /Time = 1/1*10-3 = 1000 Hz
Repeat the procedure using different horizontal sensitivities and compare the results obtained with known
frequency from the dial of the generator. Record your observations in the Observation in the Table-1.

Observation Table 1: Measurement of frequency

Vp-p of the input signal = No. of vertical Div*Volt/Div = ……………………….. V

Horizontal Extent of Difference

Period of Measured
Selected frequency sensitivity single cycle (Hz)
S. No. signal frequency
f (Hz) S n
T = n x S (s) (Hz)
(TIME /DIV) (DIV)
1 100
2 500
3 1,000 0.5 V/Div 2 Div 2 * 0.5 = 1ms 1000 zero
4 10,000
5 50,000

15
Experiment 2: I-V CHARACTERISTICS OF A DIODE

Aim: To plot forward and reverse I-V characteristics of a given PN junction diode.

Apparatus: D.C. Supply (0 ‐ 25 V), current limiting resistor 1KΩ, Silicon Diodes, Digital Multimeter,
mille-Ammeter (0-20 mA), micro-Ammeter (0 -100 μA).

THEORY: Semiconductors, like Silicon or Germanium, are elements having resistivity that in
intermediate between a conductor and an insulator. They inherently have four electrons in the
valence band which helps them to form covalent bonds with four neighboring silicon atoms.
Hence, at absolute zero, the material behaves like an insulator. At room temperature, few of
these electrons absorb enough energy to break away from the nucleus and serve as conduction
electrons. The conduction properties can also be easily changed by changing the doping (adding
different elements to) the semiconductor. Addition of a pentavalent impurity such as
Phosphorus, N – type dopant, gives an additional electron after the four silicon bonds are
satisfied. Similarly, a trivalent impurity such as Boron, P‐type dopant, creates an absence of
electron, a hole. The entire semiconductor material is a single crystal, with one region dopes to
be P‐type, with excess holes, and the adjacent region to be N‐ type, with excess electrons. This
creates a metallurgical junction between the p and n regions. The contact to the p region is
called the anode and that of the n region is called cathode.

Equilibrium P – N junction: A large density gradient in both hole and electron concentrations
occur at this junction. Initially, then, there is a diffusion of holes from the p region to the n
region and diffusion of electrons from n region to the p region. The flow of holes from p region
uncovers negatively charged acceptor ions, and the flow of electrons uncovers positively
charged donor ions. This action creates a charge separation which sets up an electric field
oriented in the direction from the positive to the negative charge. This sets up an electric field in
such a direction as to oppose the movement of electrons and holes eventually. The region
surrounding the junction which contains immobile charges is called the “space charge” or
“depletion” region. The electric field creates a potential difference across the region, which is
called the built‐in potential barrier. This is about 0.7 V for a Si diode at room temperature.

Forward Biased P‐N junction: Application of a positive voltage to the p region and negative
voltage to the n region creates an additional electric field in the space charge region. But this
time the field opposes the space – charge E‐field. This disturbs the balance between diffusion
and E‐field force. Hence majority carriers from the p region diffuse over to the n side and
electrons from n side move over to the p side of the junction. This process continues as long as
the voltage is applied. Thus, in the forward bias mode, the diode carries a large current.

Reverse Biased P‐N junction: A voltage source with its positive terminal connected to the n
16
region and negative terminal connected to the p region reverse biases the P‐N junction. This
increased electric filed holds back the holes in the p region and electrons in the n region and
hence, there is no current flow. The electric field and the width of the depletion region increase.
There is also a decrease in junction capacitance associated due to increase in the width. Thus,
the reverse bias region is characterized by negligible current (due to minority carriers) even on
the application of a very high voltage across the terminals, the limit being decided by reverse
breakdown voltage of the diode.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE: Forward Biased Condition

1) Connect the diode 1N4001 in the forward bias mode.
2) Connect a current limiting resistor in series with the diode.
3) Slowly increase the voltage applied, and measure the current (ID) through the diode and the
voltage across the diode (VD). Take more than 10 readings.
4) Use the forward bias data and plot a VD verses ID graph. From this graph, calculate the
forward resistance by calculation the slope of the curve in the forward region (where there is
sufficiently large change in current w.r.t voltage).
Reverse Bias Condition:
1. Reverse the power supply connections in the circuit and select µ-Amp range of the
multimeter.
2. Vary voltage from the Regulated Power Supply, gradually in steps of 2V from 0V to 20V
and note down the corresponding readings Vr and Ir.
3. Tabulate different reverse currents obtained for different reverse voltages.
4. Plot the V-I characteristics and calculate the resistance levels.
CALCULATIONS: Calculate dynamic resistance rF and cut-in voltage Vϒ from graph for the given diode.
RESULTS:
The Cut in Voltage or Knee Voltage is _____________Volts.
The Forward dynamic resistance rF = (∆VD/∆ID) =______ Ω.

The Reverse resistance rr =

17
 Sample Reading and Graph for comparison of Silicon and germanium diode forward characteristics.

Silicon Germanium Silicon at 8mA) rF = (∆VD/∆ID) = 0.038x1000/12 = 3.2 Ω

VD (Volt) ID (mA) ID (mA)
(Germanium at 6mA) rF = (∆VD/∆ID) = 0.04x1000/13 = 3.1 Ω
0.00 0 0
0.10 0 0 25
0.15 0 0
0.22 0 0.2
0.25 0 0.8 20
0.28 0 1.9
0.30 0 4.4
15
0.31 0 6.0
0.33 0 11.0 ID (mA)
0.35 0 19.0 10
0.51 0.1
0.55 0.3
0.58 0.6 5
0.60 1.0
0.62 1.5
0
0.65 3.0 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
0.68 5.0
0.70 8.0 -5
0.72 13.0 VD (Volt)
0.74 20.0

Complete I-V characteristics of a silicon and

germanium diodes.

18
Experiment 3: Setting up of half & full wave rectifier and study the following factors:
i. Smoothing effect of capacitor.
ii. Ripple factor and its variation with load.
iii. Study of variation of output with load.

Apparatus: Dual channel CRO, Digital Multimeter, Electronics Test Board, Step-down center-tapped
transformer (220V/12V), General purpose Silicon Diodes (four), different value Resistors,
Capacitors (47µF, 100 µF).

Half Wave Rectifier with Capacitor Filter

The output of half wave rectifier is not a constant DC voltage. You can observe from the output diagram that it
is a pulsating dc voltage with ac ripples. In real life applications, we need a power supply with smooth
waveforms. In other words, we desire a DC power supply with the constant output voltage. A constant output
voltage from the DC power supply is very important as it directly impacts the reliability of the electronic device
we connect to the power supply.
We can make the output of half wave rectifier smooth by using a filter (a capacitor filter or an inductor filter)
across the diode. The circuit diagram below shows a half wave rectifier with capacitor filter.

19
Full wave rectifier
A Full wave rectifier is a circuit arrangement which makes use of both half cycles of input alternating current
(AC) and converts them to direct current (DC). A full wave rectifier is much more efficient (double) than a half
wave rectifier. This process of converting both half cycles of the input supply (alternating current) to direct
current (DC) is termed full wave rectification.
Full wave rectifier can be constructed in 2 ways. The first method makes use of a center-tapped transformer and
2 diodes. This arrangement is known as Center Tapped Full Wave Rectifier as described above.
The second method uses a normal transformer with 4 diodes arranged as a bridge. This arrangement is known as
a Bridge Rectifier.
Center-Tapped Full-wave Rectifier
The full-wave center tapped rectifier use two diodes connected to the secondary of the center-tapped
transformer as shown in Figure.

Full wave bridge rectifier

The working & operation of a full wave bridge rectifier is pretty simple. The circuit diagrams and waveforms
we have given below will help you understand the operation of a bridge rectifier perfectly. In the circuit
diagram, 4 diodes are arranged in the form of a bridge. The transformer secondary is connected to two

20
diametrically opposite points of the bridge at points A & C. The load resistance RL is connected to bridge
through points B and D.

Full Wave Bridge Rectifier with Capacitor Filter

The output voltage of the full wave rectifier is not constant, it is always pulsating. But this cannot be
used in real life applications. In other words, we desire a DC power supply with a constant output
voltage. In order to achieve a smooth and constant voltage a filter with a capacitor or an inductor is
used. The circuit diagram below shows a half wave rectifier with capacitor filter.

21
Ripple factor in a bridge rectifier is half than that of a half wave rectifier. Use 1 KΩ load resistor and complete
following table.

Measured Voltage Capacitor Half-wave Full-wave (CTT) Full-wave (Bridge)

C = 47µF
VDC
C = 100µF
C = 47µF
Vr(pp)
C = 100µF
r = Vr(pp)/ VDC C = 100µF

Study of ripple factor with variation of load

In order to study the variation of ripple factor and VDC output voltage with variation of load for full-wave
bridge rectifier, use four different values of load resistor and complete the following table. Using C =
100 µF filter, complete the following table and draw a graph between VDC and load RL. Also draw a
graph between RL and ripple factor.
Measured Full-wave (Bridge)with Load RL
Voltage Load RL= 330 Ω 500 Ω 1 KΩ 10 KΩ Open
VDC
Vr(pp)

r = Vr(pp)/ VDC

22
Experiment 4: COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER

Aim: To set up a single stage voltage amplifier and measure its voltage gain bandwidth.
Apparatus: DC power supply, npn transistor 2SC1384, resistors (560 Ω, 1 KΩ, 6.8 KΩ, 22 KΩ), two
capacitors 1µF each and a10 µF capacitors.

THEORY
Amplifiers are classified as small signal amplifiers and large signal amplifiers depending on the
shift in operating point, from the quiescent condition caused by the input signal. If the shift is
small, amplifiers are referred to as small signal amplifiers and if the shift is large, they are
known as large signal amplifiers. In small signal amplifiers, voltage swing and current swing
are small. Large signal amplifiers have large voltage swing and current swing and the signal
power handled by such amplifiers remain large.
Voltage amplifiers come under small signal amplifiers. Power amplifiers are one in which the
output power of the signal is increased. They are called large signal amplifiers. Figure shows
the circuit diagram of a common emitter amplifier.

We are using available npn transistor 2SC1383 with β = hFE = 200. In order to determine the
DC bias voltages at the three terminals of the transistor, apply Kirchhoff’s voltage law at the
base-emitter circuit,

IC = IE = 3.63 mA
VE = IERE = 3.63 x 560 = 2.03 V
VB = VE + 0.7V = 2.03 + 0.7 = 2.73 V
VC = VCC – ICRC = 12 – (3.63 mA x 1K) = 8.37 V

23
 VCE = VC – VE = 8.37 – 2.03 = 6.34 V
Without applying any input signal, measure voltage at the three terminal of the transistor and compare with
above calculated values by completing the following table.

VB VC VE VCE
Calculated 2.73 V 8.37 V 2.03 V 6.34 V
Measured

Fig.2

24
 OBSERVATIONS
Readings are to be taken till Vo decreases appreciably at high frequencies
Set input voltage, Vin(p-p) = 40 (mV)

Frequency Gain in db
Vo(mV) A= Vo/Vin log(f)
f (Hz) 20 log(A)
100
200
500
1K
2K
5K
---
RESULTS
Common emitter amplifier was set up and after recording the readings, its frequency response
curve was plotted. Following results were obtained.
Voltage gain (mid-range) = Vo/Vin =
Lower cutoff frequency = fL =
Upper cutoff frequency = fH =
Bandwidth = (fH -fL) =

Sample readings and graph is given below with Vin = 40 mV

Frequency A= Gain in db
Vo(V) log(f)
f (Hz) Vo/Vin 20 log(A)
100 0.4 10 2.000 20
200 0.8 20 2.301 26
500 1.6 40 2.699 32
1K 2.7 68 3.000 36.2
2K 3.7 93 3.301 39.4
5K 4.4 110 3.699 40.8
10K 4.8 120 4.000 41.6
20K 4.8 120 4.301 41.6
50K 4.8 120 4.699 41.6
100K 4.8 120 5.000 41.6
200K 4.8 120 5.301 41.6
500K 4.8 120 5.699 41.6
1M 4.8 120 6.000 41.6
Voltage gain (mid-range) = Vo/Vin = 120
2M 4.2 105 6.301 40.4
5M 2.5 63 6.699 36.0 Lower cutoff frequency = fL = 1.584 KHz
10M 1.2 30 7.000 29.5 Upper cutoff frequency = fH = 2.519 MHz
20M 0.64 16 7.301 24.1 Bandwidth = (fH -fL) = 2.518 MHz

25
Experiment 5: RC PHASE SHIFT OSCILLATOR USING BJT

Aim: To setup transistor oscillator circuit and measure its frequency by using CRO.

Apparatus: DC power supply, npn transistor 2SC1384, resistors (1KΩ, 220Ω, 22 KΩ, 4.7KΩ), three
capacitors 0.01µF each and a10µF capacitors.

Theory: An RC phase shift oscillator consists of a common emitter single stage amplifier with
a phase shift feedback network consisting of three identical RC sections.
RC phase shift oscillator or simply RC oscillator is a type of oscillator where a simple RC
network (resistor-capacitor) network is used for giving the required phase shift to the feedback
signal. The main feature of an RC phase shift oscillator is the excellent frequency stability. The
RC oscillator can output a pure sine wave on a wide range of loads.
Let f be the operating frequency, R be the resistance and C be the capacitance. Then the
capacitive reactance Xc to the frequency f can be given by the equations: Xc = 1 / (2πfC).
The phase angle of the RC network can be derived as Φ = tan-1 (Xc/R)
Just by making an RC network with phase shift equal to 60° and cascading three of them
together the desired phase shift of 180° can be attained. This 180° phase shift by the RC
network plus the 180° phase shift made by the transistor gives a total phase shift of 360°
between the input and output which is the necessary condition for maintaining sustained
oscillations. The circuit diagram of a three stage RC network producing a phase shift of 180° is
shown in the figure below.

Connecting such a three stage RC phase shift network between the input and output of a
common emitter transistor amplifier will result in a transistor based RC phase shift oscillator.
The circuit diagram is shown below.
For sustained oscillation, there is a required condition that must be met. It’s called “Total Loop-
Gain Greater than one”. The attenuation B of the 3rd-order RC feedback loop network is

26
RC = 1KΩ, RE = 220Ω, CE = 47µF, R1 = 22KΩ, R = 4.7KΩ, C=0.01µF, CO = 10µf, VCC = 6 V

In the circuit diagram resistor R1 and the resistor R (close to the base of Q in the diagram) gives
a voltage divider bias to the transistor Q. Resistor RC limits the collector current while RE is
meant for thermal stability. CE is the emitter by-pass capacitor and Co is the output DC
decoupling capacitor. The frequency of the transistor RC phase shift oscillator can be expressed
by the equation:

Where f is the frequency, R is the resistance, C is the capacitance. The RC phase shift oscillator
can be made variable by making the resistors or capacitors variable.

Make the above circuit and record the observed frequency. Also calculate the frequency using
above equation and dedermine percentage error in the observed frequency.

27
Experiment-6 LOGIC GATED USING DIODES, TRANSISTOER

Aim
Draw the symbol, Boolean equations and truth tables of OR, AND, NOT, NOR and NAND
gates. Prove their truth tables by DTL logic circuits.

APPARATUS: D.C. Supply (5 V), bread board, resistors 1KΩ (3), 10KΩ (1), 330Ω (1), LED
(1) & connecting wires.
Theory
Three basic logic functions (NOT, AND, and OR) are indicated by standard distinctive shape
symbols in Figure below. The lines connected to each symbol are the inputs and outputs. The
inputs are on the left of each symbol and the output is on the right. A circuit that performs a
specified logic function (AND, OR) is called logic gate. AND and OR gates can have any
number of inputs as indicated by the dashes in the figure.

28
29
30
 DTL Gate & DTL Gate

DTL Gate & DTL Gate

Connect the circuit of the all gates one by one and verify their respectable truth table for each gate.
31
Experiment -7: CIRCUIT TO TURN ON LIGHT DURING NIGHT

Aim: To setup an electronic switching circuit using transistor, LDR and demonstrate its use as a NOT
Gate.
Apparatus: LDR (Light Dependent Resistor), Transistor, Resistors (1KΩ, 10KΩ and 4.7K Ω), LED,
connecting wires and 5Volt power supply.

LDR-Light Dependent Resistors

A Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) is also called a photoresistor or a cadmium sulfide (CdS) cell. It is
also called a photoconductor. It is basically a photocell that works on the principle of
photoconductivity. The passive component is basically a resistor whose resistance value decreases
when the intensity of light decreases. This optoelectronic device is mostly used in light varying sensor
circuit, and light and dark activated switching circuits. Some of its applications include camera light
meters, street lights, clock radios, light beam alarms, reflective smoke alarms, and outdoor clocks.

LDR Structure and Working

The basic structure of an LDR is shown below.

The snake like track shown is the Cadmium Sulphide (CdS) film which also passes through the sides.
On the top and bottom are metal films which are connected to the terminal leads. It is designed in such
a way as to provide maximum possible contact area with the two metal films. The structure is housed in
a clear plastic or resin case, to provide free access to external light. As explained above, the main
component for the construction of LDR is cadmium sulphide (CdS), which is used as the
photoconductor and contains no or very few electrons when not illuminated. In the absence of light it is
designed to have a high resistance in the range of mega ohms. As soon as light falls on the sensor, the
electrons are liberated and the conductivity of the material increases. When the light intensity exceeds a
certain frequency, the photons absorbed by the semiconductor give band electrons the energy required
to jump into the conduction band. This causes the free electrons or holes to conduct electricity and thus
dropping the resistance dramatically.

32
 Circuit to turn on an LED during Night
An LED that turns on during night and turn off during day is amazing. Normally a Light Depending
Resistor is used to sense the presence of LIGHT. We cannot connect LDR directly to LED. Some switching
methods should be adopted to make an LED to respond, when LDR is kept at LIGHT or DARK. Transistors are
normally used for switching.

Circuit Diagram
R1 - This is a current limiting resistor. It helps to switch the
transistor between ON and OFF states by controlling the
current through R1 and hence through the base of transistor.
If that resistor is not connected, there is a possibility that,
base current will always remain high because; LDR alone
cannot resist the current considerably to turn off the
transistor.
R2 - It is a pull down resistor. It will ground the base, if there
is no external signal to the base of transistor.

R3 - If R3 is not connected, when transistor turns on, power supply get shorted through ACBEF
due to the low resistance of transistor. This will increase current abruptly which will damage the
transistor as well as power supply.

Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram and record your observations.

Observations
LED will TURN OFF when LDR is kept at LIGHT.
LED will TURN ON when LDR is kept at DARK.
This is NOT function.

33
Explanation of the Circuit
"Transistor as a switch" principle is used to turn on and turn off an LED depending on the background light
condition. When transistor act as switch, a small base current is sufficient to drive a large current from collector
to emitter (through ACEF). Then transistor is said to be in saturation. If the base current is less than a particular
amount, transistor will be off and current will not flow from collector to emitter (through ACEF).

LDR is connected in the circuit in such a way that, it will control the current to the base of transistor.
Current reaching the collector pin of transistor have two options. Either it can flow through the transistor to
ground (through CEF). Otherwise, it can flow through 1K resistor and LED to ground (through CHJF). Current
always choose low resistance path. That is, if the transistor get sufficient base current, transistor turn on and
current at the collector pin will flow from collector to emitter and then to ground ( through CEF ). If the
transistor don't have sufficient base current, transistor get turn off. So current will flow through the 1K resistor
and LED to ground (through CHJF). This will turn on LED. That is, if the base current is not sufficient,
transistor will turn off and LED will turn on.

LDR controls the current through the base of transistor. This circuit will turn on LED during night and
turn off LED during day. During day time, resistance of LDR will be less which will drive more current to base.
This will turn on transistor and collector current will flow through the transistor to ground (through CEF)
because, the resistance of transistor is low compared to resistance of 1K resistor connected in series with LED
(CHJF). This will turn off LED. During night, resistance of LDR will increase which will block current flow to
the base of transistor. This will turn off the transistor and collector current will flow through 1K resistor and
LED (through CHJF) which will turn on the LED.

34
Experiment 8: CHARACTERISTICS OF A TRANSISTOR

Aim: Plot the input and output characteristics of a transistor connected in Common Emitter
Configuration. Calculate the input resistance Ri at IB= 20 μA, output resistance Ro at VCE=10V
and current gain at VCE =10V.

Apparatus: Dual DC power supply (0-20V), NPN Transistor BC 107, DC Voltmeters (0-1) V & (0-20) V,
DC Ammeters (0-50) mA & (0-200) μA, resistors (470Ω, 100KΩ) and connecting wires (12).

THEORY
A transistor is a three terminal device. The terminals are emitter, base, collector. In common emitter
configuration, input voltage is applied between base and emitter terminals and output is taken across the
collector and emitter terminals. Therefore the emitter terminal is common to both input and output. The input
characteristics resemble that of a forward biased diode curve. This is expected since the Base-Emitter junction
of the transistor is forward biased. As compared to CB arrangement IB increases less rapidly with VBE.
Therefore input resistance of CE circuit is higher than that of CB circuit.

The output characteristics are drawn between Ic and VCE at constant IB. the collector current varies with VCE
unto few volts only. After this the collector current becomes almost constant, and independent of VCE. The
value of VCE up to which the collector current changes with VCE is known as Knee voltage. The transistor
always operated in the region above Knee voltage, IC is always constant and is approximately equal to IB.

The current amplification factor of CE configuration is given by β = ΔIC/ΔIB

PROCEDURE CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Input Characteristics:
1. Connect the transistor as shown in figure.
2. Keep the VCE constant at 2V and 6V.
3. Vary the IB in steps and note down the
corresponding VEB values as per tabular
column.
Output Characteristics:
1. Keep the IB constant at 20 μA and 40 μA.
2. Vary the VCE in steps and note
corresponding IC values.
3. Readings are tabulated as shown in tabular
column.

PRECAUTIONS
1. Keep the knobs of supply voltages VBE & VCE at minimum positions when switching ON or switching OFF
the power supply.
2. No loose contacts at the junctions.
3. Do not overload the meters above its rated ranges.
35
 TABULAR COLUMN

CALCULATIONS:
At VCE = 2V; Input resistance (IB = 20µA) = ∆VBE/∆IB = h-PARAMETER CALCULATIONS

At VCE = 6V; Input Resistance (IB = 20µA) = ∆VBE/∆IB = hie = ΔVbe / Δ Ib =

At IB = 20 µA; Output resistance (VCE=10V) = ∆VCE/∆IC = hoe = Δ Ic / Δ Vce =
hfe = Δ Ic / Δ Ib =
At IB = 40 µA; Output resistance (VCE=10V) = ∆VCE/∆IC =
hre = ΔVbe /ΔVce =
(At VCE =10V) Current amplification factor β = ΔIC/Δ IB =

36
Experiment 9: USE OF COMPUTER FOR ELECTRONIC EXPERIMENTS

Aim: Use of computer in the learning of knowledge of LOGIC GATES and other electronic
experiments.
Go to the web address given below and demonstrate different LOGIC GATEs

https://academo.org/demos/logic-gate-simulator/

This is simple online logic gate simulator. Investigate the behavior of AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR and XOR
gates. Select gates from the dropdown list and click "add node" to add more gates. Drag from the hollow circles
to the solid circles to make connections. Right click connections to delete them. See below for more detailed
instructions.
The demo allows you to create sequences of logic gates to see how they behave when connected to various
inputs and outputs. Initially, you are presented with a simple on/off input and an output. To connect them, click
and drag from the hollow circle on the right side of the on/off switch, and release the mouse when you are over
the solid circle on the left side of the "output" block.
For each of the logic gates, outputs are hollow circles, and inputs are solid circles. Our "on/off" switch and
"output block" aren't actually logic gates, but they are required because they give us the 1s and 0s needed to see
how the gates behave. Click the on/off switch and see what happens. It turns yellow. This is our way of
differentiating between 0 (off) and 1 (on).
To add a new logic gate, or an additional input or output block, choose from the dropdown menu and then click
"add node". The new node will be placed in the top left hand corner, and you can drag it to your desired
position. To delete nodes, click the small cross in the top right corner of its enclosing box. To remove
connections, you can click on the input (solid circle) and drag away and release, or alternatively you can right
click anywhere on the connection.
If you need more space, click on the "Full screen mode" button which will increase the size of the workspace to
fill the size of the window. Additionally, you can rename an output by double clicking on its label.

NOT Gate

The NOT gate is also known as an inverter because the output is the exact opposite of the input. It has one
input and one output. The two possibilities are written out in the table below. Tables listing all logical
possibilities like this are known as truth tables.
Input Output
0 1
1 0

AND Gate
The AND gate has two inputs and one output. The output is 1 if both inputs are 1, and for all other cases the
output is 0.
Input 1 Input 2 Output
0 0 0
1 0 0
0 1 0
1 1 1

37
NAND Gate
The NAND gate behaves in the opposite fashion to an AND gate. You can think of it as an AND gate followed
immediately by a NOT gate. Its output is 0 when the two inputs are 1, and for all other cases, its output is 1. The
name NAND comes from joining NOT and AND. The symbol for NAND is the same as that for AND except
for the addition of a small circle on the right side.
Input 1 Input 2 Output
0 0 1
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 0

OR Gate
The OR gate has two inputs and one output. If at least one of the inputs is 1, then the output will be 1. If neither
input is 1, the output will be 0.
Input 1 Input 2 Output
0 0 0
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 1

NOR Gate
Just as the NAND gate could be thought of as an AND followed by a NOT, a NOR can be thought of as an OR
also followed by a NOT.
Input 1 Input 2 Output
0 0 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
1 1 0

XOR Gate
With an OR gate, if both inputs were 1, the output was 1. However, with an XOR, (exclusive OR), if both
inputs are 1, the output is 0. For all other scenarios, the XOR behaves the same as the OR.
Input 1 Input 2 Output
0 0 0
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 0

38