Theropod-Glossary

Palaeontology:
Theropod Dinosaurs and the Origin of

Birds
Course Glossary

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Abelisauridae -‐ The other branch of Abelisauroidea; they were top predators during the
Late Cretaceous of South America, India, Madagascar, and Europe. They have horns and
spikes as well as short round snouts, thickened teeth and short, stocky arms. Well known
members include Carnotaurus, Manjungasaurus and Abelisaurus

Abelisauroidea -‐ Group within Ceratosauria that emerged during the Jurassic that include
heavily cranially ornamented predators such as Carnotaurus and Majungasaurus. Other
characterisitcs include a large mandibular fenestrae, femoral flange, special vertebral
prongs, a round humeral head and small teeth with large neck muscles.

Accipitriformes -‐ The 'raptors' or 'birds of prey' are a very diverse group with a huge
variety of habitats and diets. In general, predatory birds have a hooked beak and curved
talons to tear flesh and catch prey.

Aequornithes -‐ A clade that comprises the ‘water birds’. In this clade we find birds such
as the loons, the penguins, the storks and the pelicans and body structures, highly adapted
to aquatic life e.g. posteriorly placed legs, wings modified as flippers.

air sacs -‐ Air pockets in the bones that form part of the respiratory system in birds, and
probably theropod dinosaurs.

Allosauridae -‐ Clade of carnosaurs with large claws and long, tridactyl hands, from the
Late Jurassic; include Allosaurus and the 13 metre long Saurophaganax of North America
and Europe.

alula -‐ Modified first digit in the wing of birds, important in the prevention of stalling
mid-‐flight.

Alvarezsauridae -‐ Group of relatively small, long legged maniraptorans known from the
Late Cretaceous of South America, Asia and North America, that were adapted for hunting
colonial insects, with large, powerful breast and arm muscles, and one large thumb claw,
possibly for rooting around in insect nests/colonies.

Anchiornis -‐ Small dromaeosaurid from Late Jurassic of China meaning: 'near bird';
asymmetrical flight feathers on arms and legs suggests that gliding or flying was an option.

anisodactyl -‐ The second, third and fourth toes are directed forward and the hallux (the
first toe) is directed backwards. This is a very common arrangement, especially among
perching birds.

Anseriformes -‐ Group within Galloanserae that includes the screamers and anatids
(waterfowl), like ducks and geese, as well as extinct forms like the enormous, flightless
Gastornithids (Paleocene-‐Eocene)

Palaeontology: Theropod Dinosaurs and the Origin of Birds 3

Arboreal/Trees Down theory -‐ Proposes that the ancestors of birds lived in trees and
glided from tree to tree using their wings as a balancing mechanism. Those that did so
traveled further, so selection favoured increased wing spans; eventually led to powered
flight.

asymmetrical flight feather -‐ Complex contour feathers seen in modern birds and some
non-‐avian maniraptorans, utilised for gliding and flight; asymmetrical on either side of the
rachis to improve aerodynamics.

Averostra -‐ Clade of theropods known for certain from the Late Jurassic: the 'bird snout'
dinosaurs have a asymmetrical premaxillary teeth, strap-‐like scapulae, 'hatchet'-‐like skull
shapes and ends of ilia expanded into hook-‐like blades. Includes: Ceratosauria and
Tetanurae

Avetheropoda -‐ Literally translating as 'bird theropods', Avetheropods can be divided in
two clades: Carnosauria and Coelurosauria. They have a maxillary fenestrae, an extreme
reduction of digit IV, making the hand functionally tridactyl, and complex air sac chambers
in their vertebrae.

Avialae -‐ Meaning 'bird wings', this is the last group of eumaniraptorans and the most
successful, as it includes modern birds. Emerging in the Middle of Late Jurassic (depending
on the placement of Archaeopteryx). Shared features include: fusion of scapula to coracoid,
ulna longer than femur, humerus longer than scapula and 25 or less caudal vertebrae.

barbules -‐ Small filaments projecting from barbs to form more complex feathers.

Barnum Brown -‐ Pioneering American palaeontologist who, working in the late 19th and
early 20th centuries, discovered the first remains of Tyrannosaurus and the dry island
Albertosaurus bonebed, amongst numerous other dinosaur fossils in the U.S.A. and Canada.

beaks -‐ The horny jaws of birds, some theropods and other animals. The shape of the beak
is often a reflection of their diet.

Bradymetabolic -‐ These are organisms that have slower metabolisms.

Carcharodontosauria -‐ Carcharodontosauria were the dominant carnosaurs in the
Cretaceous and are composed of two major groups: Carcharodontosauridae and
Neovenatoridae.

Carcharodontosauridae -‐ Among the largest theropod dinosaurs that ever existed, they
were specilaised for predation of the huge herbivorous sauropods with which they
coexisted. Include Giganotosaurus and Carcharodontosaurus.

Cariamiformes -‐ Group of mostly flightless bird birds with a number of extinct members,
but also includes the modern Falconidae, Psittaciformes and Passeriformes.


Carnosauria -‐ Carnosaurs were large theropods that were top predators from the Middle
Jurassic to the Early Cretaceous of Europe, Asia and America. Carnosaurs are characterized
by extra openings on the maxillae and nasals, as well as and the large size of their naris
(nostril). Include the allosaurids, carcharodontosaurids and Metriacanthosaurids.

Cathartidae -‐ Group containing the New World Vultures.

Ceratosauria -‐ Group of large averostrans that first appeared first in the early part of the
Late Jurassic, but survived to become apex predators in the Late Cretaceous of South
America and Europe. Includes: elaphrosaurs, ceratosaurids, noasaurids and abelisaurids.
Their shared traits include: dorsal parapophyses that project laterally, six or more sacral
vertebrae, reduced and functionless hands, deep coracoid.

Ceratosauridae -‐ Group within Ceratosauria characterized by their relatively short necks
and reduced arms. Ceratosaurus and Eoabelisaurus are good examples of this group.

Charles Darwin -‐ ‘The father of evolutionary science’ who’s most well known work: ‘On
the Origin of Species’, published in 1859, suggested that inherited traits were changed
over time by natural selection and that species descended from common ancestors
becoming “branches in the lines of descent”.

Coelophysidae -‐ First major radiation of theropods in the Late Triassic; includes
Coelophysis. Small predators (1-‐3 metres) with a furcula, grasping hands, three functional
digits on hand, narrow pelvis, and a tridactyl foot with a raised hallux

Coelophysis -‐ Meaning 'hollow bones' this Late Triassic dinosaur shows the typical
coelophysid traits and is best known from one of the world's densest bone beds at Ghost
Ranch New Mexico. Possible sexually dimorphic forms, and definite stereoscopic visions,
with large, round, forward facing orbits.

Coelophysoidea -‐ Primitive Neotheropoda group including the two branches:
Coelophysidae and Dilophosauridae.

Coelurosauria -‐ Group of theropod dinosaurs more closely related to modern birds than
carnosaurs; gave rise to modern birds and share characteristics such as enlarged brain
size and contour feathers.

Columbea -‐ Clade within NEoaves where we can find pigeons, doves, sandgrouses,
mesites, flamingos, grebes, as well as the extinct, flightless Dodo..

Compsognathidae -‐ Early branch of coelurosaurs that emerged in the Late Jurassic and
disappeared in the Early Cretaceous. Included the small predators Compsognathus,
Sinosauropteryx and Sinocaliiopteryx

Confuciusornis -‐ Members of Confusciosornithidae that were highly sexually dimophic;
males had pair of long, thin tail-‐ feathers with broadened ovoid (egg-‐shaped) tips, and
females did not.

Confuciusornithidae -‐ Early group in Pygostalia of completely toothless birds known
only from the Early Cretaceous of eastern Asia.

Contour feathers -‐ Large, flight feathers in modern birds and some coelurosaurian
theropods.

coracoids -‐ Part of the pectoral girdle that contact the scapulae and attach to the furcula
in birds and theropod dinosaurs (where furcula is present). Their function in birds is to
brace the wings apart.

counter shading -‐ Colouring seen on animals, such as penguins, in which dorsal and
ventral sides are coloured differently to blend In with the visible surface e.g. penguins are
dark on top, to blend in with view of deep ocean from above, and light below, to blend in
with lighter surface above.

Coverts -‐ These feathers overlay the remiges and rectrices, shaping the wing and
providing extra insulation to the bird.

Crurotarsans -‐ Contemporaries of the primitive Triassic theropods; these were
crocodile-‐like animals that included the large apex predator Prestosuchus.

Cryolophosaurus -‐ The 'Frozen Crested Lizard; this large, Early Jurassic predator was the
first theropod discovered in Antarctica and has a transverse crest at the top of the skull.

Cursorial/ Ground Up theory -‐ Proposes that flight evolved in running bipeds through a
series of short jumps. In this model, the feathers and wings would have helped initially as
a speed aid, making it easier to capture prey, before eventually leading to powered flight.

Cursorimorphae -‐ Clade that includes where we can find cranes, rails and shorebirds, like
gulls.

Cypselomorphae -‐ Clade in Passerea that includes the swifts and hummingbirds
(Apodiformes).

Deinocheiridae -‐ A derived family of ornithomimosaurs known from the Cretaceous of
Asia. Includes the huge Deincheirus, a toothless theropod with a hadrosaur like snout, a
spinosaur like sail, enormous hands and claws.

Deinonychosauria -‐ Group of eumaniraptorans that combines the Troodontidae and
Dromaeosauridae, due to the shared feature of the enlarged, sickle shape foot claw.
Feathers also feature prominently in this group, as in Anchiornis, a very small
deinonychosaur known from the Late Jurassic of China that had asymmetrical flight
feathers.


Deinonychus -‐ Large Dromaeosaurid first discovered by John Ostrom, and known from the
Early Cretaceous of North America. It's skeletal similarity to birds catalysed the
reimergence of the theory that birds descended from a theropod lineage, first proposed by
Thomas Huxley in the 19th century. It's description as a swift, agile predator also helped
changed the public perception of dinosaurs as sluggish, cold-‐blooded lizards.

dentary -‐ Most anterior portion of the lower mandible. Entire lower jaw in mammals.

denticles -‐ Serrations on the anterior and/or posterior edge of some theropod teeth.

Dilophosauridae -‐ The second branch in the Coelophysoidea; this was the first major
radiation of large predators in the Early Jurassic, and included the crested Dilophosaurus.
Dilophosaurids have a promaxillary fenestra, a lacrimal fenestra, and a reduced number of
maxillary teeth compared to more primitive theropods.

Dinosaur Renaissance -‐ A period of time from about the late 1960s to the 1990's which
saw a paradigm shift in our understanding of dinosaurs; they moved from cold-‐blooded,
sluggish, unintelligent lizards to energetic, social, and complex ancestors of modern birds
due to a number of high profile discoveries, ideas and palaeontologists.

Dollo’s law -‐ Louis Dollo's 'law of irreversibility', which is no longer accepted, was an
evolutionary theory suggesting that lost structures of ancestors could not be regained by
decedents.

Dromaeosauridae -‐ The 'running lizards' (Middle Jurassic-‐Late Cretaceous) were a family
within the deinonychosaurs that shared a sickle shaped claw on their second digit of the
foot, a sternum which allowed them to cross their arms, serrated teeth, feathers, and rod
like extensions of the caudal vertebrae, to increase balance while running. Includes
Dromaeosaurus, Utahraptor and Deinonychus from North America and the feathered
glider Microraptor from the Early Cretaceous of Asia.

Dromornithidae -‐ Also called Mihirungs, these large, extinct, flightless birds lived in
Australia from the Oligocene until the Pleistocene, reached 3m in height and weighed up to
400 kg. Group within Anseriformes.

Ectotherms -‐ Their temperature relies on the temperature of the external environment.

elaphrosaurs -‐ Informal group comprised of the most primitive Ceratosaurs such as
Spinostropheus, Limusaurus, Elaphrosaurus, and Deltadromeus.

Enantiornithes -‐ Highly successful group within Ornithothoraces that could be as modern
sparrows and others were as large as eagles. All Enantiornithes still had teeth, and most
had reduced hand claws.

Endotherms -‐ They regulate their body temperature internally, meaning that they can
maintain a constant temperature regardless of environmental conditions.


Eumaniraptora -‐ Last group within the Maniraptora, including, Dromaeosauridae,
Troodontidae, and Avialae (modern birds). Among the features they share are a reversed
pubis, distally placed first metatarsal and retractable second digit, and pennaceous
feathers.

Euornithes -‐ The 'True birds' became widespread in the Early Cretaceous and had the tail
feathers all project from the pygostyle in a more organized fan-‐shape, which allowed the
tail to function better as a single unit to create lift and improve aerial maneuverability.
Euornithes also lost the majority of feathers covering the lower portions of their legs.
Included the South American chicken sized: Patagopteryx and the huge European bird
Gargantuavis

Falconidae -‐ Birds of prey that can reach tremendous speeds due to short, taper wings,
and bony projections in the caudal vertebrae and the a large pygostyle, both of which
increase the area for muscle attachment.

femur -‐ The upper leg bone in vertebrates.

fibula -‐ One of the two lower leg bones in vertebrate animals, typically smaller.

furcula -‐ The 'wishbone' formed by the fusion of the clavicles in birds and some non-‐avian
theropod dinosaurs; important to withstand the strains of flight.

Galliformes -‐ Group within Galloanserae that includes the game birds like pheasants and
grouse; typically poor flyers with colourful sexual dimorphism in the feathers.

Galloanserae -‐ Group of neoagnathans that include the waterfowl, like ducks, and game
birds, like pheasants.

Gastornithidae -‐ Large, flightless birds that lived from the Paleocene to the Eocene in
Asia, Europe and North America. Their large, curved beaks could bite through bone and
may have been used for carnivory or nut cracking.

Gerhard Heilmann -‐ Early twentieth century palaeontologist who, on the basis of Dollo's
Law, rejected theropods as the ancestors of birds in favour of thecodonts.

gigantism -‐ Macroevolutionarry phenomena in which some dinosaur groups, such as the
tyrannosaurids, evolved to reach huge sizes.

gigantothermy -‐ Ectotherms that can achieve high metabolic rates by being so big that
they lose heat very slowly.

Gliding -‐ Gravity assisted movement through the air using feathers or a skin membrane;
not true powered flight and seen in theropods such as: Microraptor and Yi.

hallux -‐ The first digit in the foot, usually points backwards in birds, and also in some
non-‐avian theropods.

Herrerasaurus -‐ One of the earliest known theropods, the medium sized predator
Herrerasaurus, is known from the Late Triassic of Argentina and had laterally compressed
and serrated teeth, an intramandibular joint, a promaxillary fenestra and grasping hands.

Hesperornitheans -‐ Cretaceous group of ornithurans that had reduced wings and long,
conical teeth to suit their aquatic lifestyle and piscivorous diet.

Heterotherms -‐ They have varying body temperatures.

Homeotherms -‐ They have constant internal body temperatures.

humerus -‐ The upper arm bone in vertebrates.

Intramandibular joint -‐ Flexible articulation in the lower mandible of theropods
(between dentary-‐surangular-‐angular).

Jeholornis -‐ Chicken sized, primitive Avialie member known from the Early Cretaceous of
China; showed form of true avian beak, with extremely reduced teeth, and seed eating diet.

John Ostrom -‐ Paradigm-‐shifting palaeontologist who first discovered and described
Deinonychus; he made anatomical and behavioural comparisons between theropods and
birds which gained large scale acceptance in the late 1960s/70's and catalyzed the
'Dinosaur Renaissance'.

jugal bar -‐ Slim bone of the upper jaw in birds created by the fusion of the jugal and
quadratojugal, which connects to the intermaxillary bones, allowing them to move their
upper mandible.

keel -‐ Structure on the sternum that provides a broad surface for the attachment of the
flight muscles; less pronounced in non-‐flying birds/theropods.

lacrimal -‐ Bones situated in front of both eyes that define the anterior rims of the orbits;
the extension of these bones towards the upper part of the skull may have helped to make
the skull stronger. In Dilophosaurus or Cryolophosaurus, the upper part of the lacrimal
bone forms horns and crests as part of the skull ornamentation.

Limusaurus -‐ Meaning 'beaked dinosaur', the Late Jurassic Limusaurus is the oldest
known non-‐carnivorous theropod dinosaur. A small dinosaur, with greatly reduced arms,
and elongated legs that are well adapted for running a beak

lobate -‐ The second, third and fourth toes are not united by webbing but surrounded
individually with lobes of skin. Grebes have this kind of webbing.

Mandibular fenestra -‐ Large opening in the lower jaw. This feature is characteristic of
archosaurs, but especially pronounced in some theropods.


Maniraptora -‐ Clade within Maniraptoriforms that includes therizinosaurs,
alvarezsaurids and pennaraptors, and share the following characteristics: semi-‐lunate
carpal, well developed sternum, large brain relative to skull size and elongated arms.

maxilla -‐ The upper mandible in vertebrates-‐ houses majority of teeth of the upper jaw in
carnivorous theropods.

Megalosauridae -‐ In Megalosauride we can find Middle Jurassic predators such as the
European Megalosaurus and the North African Afrovenator, as well as Torvosaurus from
the Late Jurassic of North America and Europe. They were robust and muscular, with
powerful legs, short and robust arms, hands with three fingers, and had blade-‐like teeth
with very large denticles.

Megalosauroidea -‐ Megalosauroids have elongated skulls and powerful forelimbs, and
significantly, protofeathers have been found in this clade. Includes two clades:
Megalosauridae and Spinosauridae.

Megaraptora – Large, probable member of Neoavenatoridae (although some recent
studies suggest it may be a basal tyrannosauroid), with enormous arms and hand claws.

metatarsus -‐ Group of bones between the tarsus (ankle) and phalanges (toe bones) in
vertebrates.

Metriacanthosauridae -‐ Clade of carnosaurs from the Middle and Late Jurassic that
includes Sinraptor of China and Lourinhanosaurus of Europe.

Microraptor -‐ Diminutive dromaeosaurid from the Early Cretaceous of China with
asymmetrical flight feathers on arms and legs, suggesting gliding and arboreal lifestyle-‐
gut contents include remains of fish.

Neoaves -‐ Enormous group within the neoagnathae that share a number of
characteristics, such as, the presence of a ventral keel on the palatine, the absence of a
basipterygoid processes and the lack of a phallus.

Neognathae -‐ Meaning 'new jaws', this group is characterized by the fusion of the
metacarpals, a long third finger, and 13 or fewer vertebrae. There are also changes in the
jaw, like the development of the palatine-‐pterygoid joint, the loss of the basipterygoid
articulation, and the reduction of the vomer.

Neornithes -‐ The group containing all modern birds. Radiated at some point in the
Cretaceous, and are characterised by the complete absence of teeth in their beak.

Neotheropoda -‐ Clade of theropods that appeared in the Late Triassic that includes all
theropods beyond the primitive forms like Herrerasaurus and Eoraptor. Characteristics
include: lacrimal bones extend to top of skull, furcula present, 5 or more sacral vertebrae,
four fingers or fewer in hands, and functionally tridactyl foot.


Neovenatoridae -‐ The second branch of carcharodontosauria includes primitive taxa such
as Neovenator from the Early Cretaceous of Europe, and Chilantaisaurus of early Late
Cretaceous China. More derived specimens of Neovenatoridae are grouped in the clade
Megaraptora, which typically have huge arms and claws.

Noasauridae -‐ Small, slender members of Abelisauroidea known from the Cretaceous.
Members include Masiakasaurus from Madagascar (although they appear in South
America, Europe and India too).

Notch -‐ Depression between the premaxilla and maxilla that acts as a connection between
the two bones giving dilophosaurids a crocodilian-‐like extension to the snout that may
have helped with piscivory.

Omnivoropterygidae -‐ An early branch of the bird lineage, with short tails and unusual
skulls with teeth in the upper jaws, but a toothless beak in the lower. Thought to have
been omnivorous, and includes Sapeornis from the Early Cretaceous of China.

Opisthocomidae -‐ A clade of birds that has only one extant genus: the Hoatzin, which
lives in the Amazon and the Orinoco delta. It is about the size of a pheasant and has a spiky
crest atop its the top of the small head.

Ornithischia -‐ Bird-‐hipped dinosaurs; have a backward facing orientation of the pubis in
the pelvis. Includes Thyreophora, Ornithopoda and Marginocephalia.

Ornithomimosauria -‐ Earliest branch of maniraptoriforms that typically have a small
head, long neck, and hooking, clamping hands known from the Cretaceous of Africa,
Europe, North America and Asia. Includes Deinochyrus, Gallimimus and Struthiomimus;
numerous ornithomimosaurs had feathers.

Ornithothoraces -‐ The members of the Pygostylia beyond Confusciosornitidae that
shared: a well developed sternal keel, an alulua, highly mobile shoulder joint, and a
reversed halllux.

Ornithurae -‐ Later group or Euornithes with short tails; they only had six or fewer free
caudal.

Palmate -‐ The second, third and fourth toes are united by a web. This kind of webbed foot
is typical of most aquatic birds e.g. ducks or swans.

Parapophyses -‐ Transverse processes that jut out laterally from the centra of vertebrae.

Passerea -‐ The second group of Neoaves, and is composed of the following groups:
Cypselomorphae, Otidimorphae, Opisthocomidae, Cursorimorphae, Aequornithes,
Phaethontimorphae and Telluraves.

Passeriformes -‐ The song birds and are without doubt the most successful modern avian
clade, comprising nearly 60% of all extant birds.

pectoral girdle -‐ The pectoral girdle is formed by the shoulder blades or scapulae, the
wishbone or furcula and the coracoids.

pennaceous -‐ Feathers found in maniraptorans that contain a central rachis, branching
vanes, and interconnecting barbs and barbules.

Phorusrhacidae -‐ Extinct group of 'terror birds'; apex predators during the Cenozoic in
South America.

Piciformes -‐ Group of Passerea that includes the woodpeckers; strong, chisel-‐like beak
for boring holes in bark to get at insects.

piscivorous -‐ Fish-‐eating.

pneumatization -‐ A process which creates hollow, lightweight bones in the skeleton; a
condition shared by both birds and non-‐avian theropod dinosaurs.

primaries -‐ Largest remiges, which are attached to the “hand” of the bird.

Promaxillary fenestra -‐ Small depression or opening at the anterior of the maxilla in
theropods; appeared with earliest theropods.

protofeathers – Un-‐branched, hollow cylinders thought to be an early stage of more
complex feathers.

Psittaciformes -‐ Group within Passerea that includes parrots, which have bright colours
and a large, thick beak for nut and fruit eating.

pygostile -‐ Where the tail feathers attach, formed by the fusion of the last caudal
vertebrae that form the tail.

Pygostylia -‐ All birds beyond the omnivoropterygidae. These birds possess long, rod-‐like
pygostyles and a high number of sacral vertebrae.

quadrate -‐ Bone that form the upper part of the jaw joint in theropod dinosaurs.

rachis -‐ The central 'stem' of a feather, from which barbs branch off.

radius -‐ One of the two lower arm bones; attaches laterally to the distal end of the
humerus.

Rectrices -‐ Tail feathers.

Remiges -‐ These are the flight feathers that are attached directly to the bone or through
ligaments.


ribcage -‐ Arrangement of thoracic bones in the vertebrate skeleton, formed by the
sternum, thoracic vertebrae and ribs. In birds, the ribs attach through the bone, unlike
those in mammals.

Richard Owen -‐ Coined the term 'dinosauria' in 1842, and was instrumental in the early
description, publication and display of the earliest dinosaur finds.

Robert T. Bakker -‐ Prominent palaeontologist of the 'Dinosaur Renaissance' who
proposed that dinosaurs had a high metabolic activity, due largely because of their large
sizes and comparisons between mesozoic and modern predator/prey ratios.

Saurischia -‐ Lizard-‐hipped dinosaurs; have a forward facing orientation of the pubis in
the pelvis. Includes Theropoda and Sauropodomorpha.

Sauropodomorpha -‐ Clade of saurischian dinosaurs that includes the long necked
sauropods and their basal relatives such as Plateosauria (formerly referred to as
Prosauropods). Characteristics include large nares, elongated necks, and spatulate teeth.

Scansoriopterygidae -‐ Family of coelurosaurs known from the Middle Jurassic-‐ Late
Cretaceous of Liaoning in China, that, with their elongated fingers and reversed first digit
on their feet, were well adapted to life as tree-‐climbing insectivores. One member, Yi, was
found with a membrane between the fingers and the styliform, probably used for gliding.

scapulae – Shoulder blades in vertebrate animals.

secondaries -‐ Remiges responsible for lift when the bird is flying, which are attached to
the forearm between the primaries and the body.

semi-‐lunate carpal -‐ Half-‐moon shaped wrist bone that unites the maniraptorans and
allows for the flexibility required for grasping and flight.

Semipalmate -‐ The webbing does not cover the entire space between digits, but only
unites the lower part of the second, third and fourth toes. Grouses and sandpipers show
this kind of arrangement.

Spinosauridae -‐ Spinosaurids were enormous predators with conical crocodile-‐like teeth
(without serrations), long snouts, sails on their back and large thumb claws. They appear
in sediments from the late Early to middle Late Cretaceous of Europe, Northern Africa and
Brazil. Some examples are Baryonyx, Suchomimus, and Spinosaurus.

stereoscopic vision -‐ Overlapping fields of sight from each eye that is essential to
predators, as it gives them depth perception and three dimensional recognition of prey.

sternum -‐ The breastbone of vertebrates-‐ a site for rib attachment that is particularly
large in flying birds/theropods as it is also the main attachment sight for flight muscles.


Strigiformes -‐ Large group of nocturnal, birds of prey, including all species of owls; have
broad heads. Large, round orbits, and typically zygotactyl foot posture.

synsacrum -‐ The fused structure comprised of the lower vertebrae and pelvic girdle in
birds that provides attachment for the muscles that the bird needs for walking.

Tachymetabolic -‐ These are animals that have high metabolic rates.

tarsal -‐ Cluster of bones that make up the ankle in vertebrates. In birds and some non-‐
avian theropods it is fused above to the tibia, creating the tibiotarsus, and below to the
metatarsus to create the 'tarsometatarsus'.

tarsometatarsus -‐ Fusion of the tarsus to the metatarsus in birds and some non-‐avian
theropods.

tertials -‐ They serve as a protective cover of the primaries and secondaries when they are
folded. Not true remiges because they are not attached to the humerus directly.

Tetanurae -‐ The 'stiff tail' dinosaurs include the Megalosauroidea and Avetheropoda.
They had teeth restricted to the front of the jaws, very large hands and interlocking tail
vertebrae in at least the distal half of the tail.

Therizinosauria -‐ Meaning 'scythe lizards', this clade of herbivorous maniraptorans
known from the Middle-‐Late Cretaceous of Asia and North America, are characterised by
short, stubby legs, stout bodies, long necks, beaks and enormous hand claws for
protection.

Theropoda -‐ Theropoda: meaning ‘beast feet’, theropods were a group of typically bipedal
saurischian dinosaurs originating in the Late Triassic period, that evolved a number of
bird-‐like features, such as pneumatic bones and a furcula. This clade includes extant birds.

Thomas Huxley -‐ ‘Darwin’s Bulldog; early champion of Darwin’s ideas on natural
selection. He became the first person to draw comparisons between carnivorous
dinosaurs and birds, by comparing a skeleton of Compsognathus with the skeleton of
Archaeopteryx.

tibia -‐ One of the two lower leg bones in vertebrate animals, typically the larger. Fused to
part of the ankle in birds to create a 'tibiotarsus'.

tibiotarsus -‐ Fusion of the distal part of the tibia to the tarsus in birds.

totipalmate -‐ All toes are united by webbing; pelicans are a good example of this kind of
foot.

tridactyl -‐ Three toed' foot structure.


Troodontidae -‐ The other group within Deinonychosauria (Late Cretaceous); shared the
enlarged sickle shaped second digit of the foot wit Dromaeosaurids. Extremely large brain
to skull ratio, hooked denticles in the teeth giving them a 'Christmas tree' appearance, and
large orbits relative to skull size; this last feature and their ubiquity in northern latitudes
has led some to speculate that they were nocturnal.

Tubercle -‐ Projection on the claw to which the tendon that flexed the claw inward was
attached.

Tyrannosauridae -‐ Branch of coelurosaurs within Tyrannosauroidea that share a more
recent common ancestor with Tyrannosaurus than with early tyrannosauroids such as
Dryptosaurus. Gigantism was the norm for this group of Cretaceous super predators, which
were unified by a number of features such as broad, thick teeth and forward facing orbits.

tyrannosauroids -‐ Branch of coelurosaurs that appeared in the Late Jurassic and
persisted until the K/T extinction; includes tyrannosaurids and smaller ancestors, such as
Guanlong. Defined by large, pneumatic skulls, fused nasals, u-‐shaped premaxillary teeth,
slender third metacarpal, and arctometatarsus amongst other features.

uncinated processes -‐ Additional bony projections that overlap the ribs to increase the
birds’ trunk rigidity.

wing-‐assisted incline running or WAIR -‐ Some modern birds are able to run up vertical
or steeply inclined surfaces with the help of their flapping wings. This flapping generates
enough traction against the surface to prevent them from falling; WAIR suggests that this
practice led to development of structures required for true flight.

zygapophyses -‐ Paired processes on vertebrae, that articulate with processes from
adjacent vertebrae.

zygodactyl -‐ The second and third toe are directed forward and the first and the fourth
are directed backwards. Useful arrangement for grasping prey (e.g. owls) or latching onto
the bark of trees (e.g. woodpeckers).


Theropod-Glossary

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Theropod-Glossary

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Palaeontology:

Theropod Dinosaurs and the Origin of

Palaeontology: Theropod Dinosaurs and the Origin of Birds 3

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